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Historical Geography of Ancient India c5.s5: Sixteen Great States (Mahājanapadas)

Historical Geography of Ancient India c5.s5

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Sixteen Great States (Mahājanapadas)

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An account of sixteen great states in Jambudīpa is one of the most important topics of the historical geography of Ancient India. Here an attempt has been made to give a succinct and systematic account of them.

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The *Aṅguttara Nikāya*⁵ of the Pali Sutta Piṭaka mentions sixteen *Mahājanapadas* in Jambudīpa. They are as follows:—Aṅga, Magadha, Kāsī, Kosala, Vajji, Malla, Ceti, Vaṃsa, Kuru, Pañcāla, Maccha, Sūrasena, Assaka, Avanti,⁶ Gandhāra and Kamboja, each named after the people who settled there or colonized it. As many as fourteen of these great states may be said to have been included in the Madhyadeśa, and the remaining two countries, Gandhāra and Kamboja, may be said to have been located in Uttarāpatha or Northern Division. The *Dīgha Nikāya*⁷ gives a list of twelve only, omitting the last four, while the *Cullaniddesa*⁸ adds Kaliṅga to the list and substitutes Yona for Gandhāra. The *Indriya-Jātaka*⁹ mentions the following *janapadas*: Suraṭṭha (Surat), Lambacūlaka, Avanti, Dakkhiṇāpatha, Daṇḍaka forest (Daṇḍakārañño), Kumbhavatinagara and the hill tract of Arañjara (Arañjaragiri) in the Majjhimapadesa.

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⁵ *Aṅguttara*, Vol. I, p. 213; Vol. IV, 252, 256, 260.

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⁶ Strictly speaking, Assaka at least, if not Avanti, as mentioned in early Buddhist texts, should be considered as situated in Dakkhiṇāpatha or the Deccan, for both the settlements found mentioned in Buddhist sources, lay outside the borders of the Majjhimadesa.

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⁷ *Dīgha*, II, pp. 202-203; *Aṅga-Magadha, Kāsī-Kosala, Vajji-Malla, Ceṭi-Vaṃsa, Kuru-Pañcāla and Maccha-Sūrasena*.

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⁸ *Niddesa*, P.T.S. ed., II, p. 37—*Aṅgā ca Magadhā ca Kaliṅgā ca Kāsī ca Kosalā ca Vajji ca Mallā ca Ceṭī ca Vaṃsā ca Kurū ca Pañcālā ca Macchā ca Sūrasenā ca Assakā ca Avantī ca Yonā ca Kambojā ca*.

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⁹ *Jātaka*, III, 463.

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It is interesting to note that according to the *Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa* (Ch. 57, 32-35) the countries in Madhyadeśa were Matsya, Kuśula, Kulya, Kuntala, Kāsī, Kosala, Arvuda, Pulinda, Samaka, Vṛka and Govardhanapura. Avanti is included in Aparānta.

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The Jaina *Bhagavatī Sūtra* (otherwise called *Vyākhyāprajñapti*) gives a slightly different list. They are as follows:—Aṅga, Baṅga (Vaṅga), Magaha (Magadha), Malaya, Mālava, Accha, Vaccha (Pali: Vamsa), Koccha, Pāḍha (?), Lāḍha (Rāḍha), Bajji (Pali: Vajji), Moli (Malla ?), Kāsī,¹⁰ Kosala, Avaha (Avāha ?) and Sambhuttara or Subhuttara (Sumhottara ?). The Jaina list seems to be later than the Buddhist list given in the *Aṅguttara Nikāya*.

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¹⁰ According to Weber's *Berlin Catalogue*, Vol. II, p. 439, No. 2, No. 13 will be Kosi.

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The *Mahāvastu* has the traditional record of the sixteen big states of Jambudvīpa, but there is no enumeration of the list (*Jambudvīpe soḍaśahi mahājanapadehi*).¹ A similar reference is also found in the *Lalitavistara* without the traditional list (*sarvasmin Jambudvipe soḍaśajānapadeṣu*—p. 22). A careful study of the *Mahāvastu* shows that in a different connection it enumerates a list of sixteen big states.² It is stated there that Gautama distributed knowledge among the people of Aṅga, Magadha, Vajjī, Malla, Kāsī, Kosala, Cedi, Vatsa, Matsya, Śūrasena, Kuru, Pañcāla, Sivi, Daśārṇa, Assaka and Avantī. This list differs from the Pali list inasmuch as it excludes Gandhāra and Kamboja but includes Sivi and Daśārṇa. The order of the enumeration is also somewhat different.

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¹ Vol. II, p. 2.

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² Vol. I, p. 34.

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An interesting account of the tribal characteristics of the peoples of different *janapadas* is given in the *Karṇaparva* of the *Mahābhārata*. There the following tribes are mentioned to have been inhabitants of their respective *janapadas* named after them: the Kauravas, the Pañcālas, the Śālvas, the Matsyas, the Naimiṣas, the Cedis, the Śūrasenas, the Magadhas, the Kosalas, the Aṅgas, the Gandharvas, and the Madrakas.

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Aṅga.—The kingdom of Aṅga had its capital named Campā, situated on the river of the same name³ (modern Chāndan) and the Ganges⁴ at a distance of 60 yojanas from the Videhan capital named Mithilā.⁵ The ancient name of Campā was Mālinī or Mālinā.⁶ It was built by Mahāgovinda.⁷ Its actual site is marked by the villages named Campānagara and Campāpurī which still exist near Bhagalpur. Campā gradually increased in wealth, and traders sailed from here to Suvarṇabhūmi (Lower Burma) for the purpose of trade. It was one of the six great cities of India. It was a big town and not a village, as it was mentioned as such by Ānanda while requesting the Master to obtain *parinirvāṇa* in one of the big cities.⁸ It had a watch-tower, walls and gates.⁹ The kingdom of Aṅga had 80,000 villages and Campā was one of them.¹⁰ Among the seven political divisions into which India was divided according to the *Dīgha-Nikāya* (II, 235), Aṅga was one of them having Campā as its capital. Campā was ruled by Aśoka’s son Mahinda, his sons and grandsons.¹¹ It was here the Master prescribed the use of slippers by monks.¹²

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³ *Jātaka*, No. 506.

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⁴ Watters, *On Yuan Chwang*, II, 181; *Daśakumāracarita*, II, 2.

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⁵ *Jātaka*, VII, 32.

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⁶ Mbh., XII, 5, 6-7; Matsya, 48, 97; Vāyu, 99, 105-6; Hariv., 32, 49.

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⁷ Dīgha, II, 235.

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⁸ Ibid., II, 146.

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⁹ *Jātaka*, No. 539.

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¹⁰ Vinaya Piṭaka, I, 179.

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¹¹ Dīpavamsa, 28.

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¹² Vinaya, I, 179ff.

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According to the *Mahābhārata* Aṅga may be supposed to have comprised the districts of Bhagalpur and Monghyr, and extended northwards up to the river Kosī. At one time the kingdom of Aṅga included Magadha and probably extended up to the sea. The *Mahābhārata*, however, further tells us that Aṅga was so called after its king Aṅga,¹³ who seems to be identical with Aṅga Vairocanī mentioned in the *Aitareya Brāhmaṇa* (VIII. 4, 22). According to the *Rāmāyaṇa* Aṅga or body of Kāmadeva (love god) was consumed here and the country was therefore called Aṅga. Āpaṇa is mentioned as a township in Aṅguttarāpa, a tract which lay north of the river Mahī, evidently a part of Aṅga on the other side of that river (*Paramatthajotikā*, II, 437; Malalasekera, *Dict. of Pali Proper Names*, p. 22). The way from Bhaddiya to Āpaṇa lay through Aṅguttarāpa (*Vinaya*, I, 243ff.; *Dhammapada Commy.*, III, 363).

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¹³ Ādiparva, CIV, 4179ff.

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Aṅga was a powerful kingdom before the time of the Buddha. Once Magadha came under the sway of Aṅga (*Jāt.*, VI, 272). There was a river between Aṅga and Magadha, inhabited by a Nāgarājā who helped the Magadhan king to bring Aṅga under his sway by defeating and killing the King of Aṅga. King Manoja of Brahmavaddhana (another name of Benaras) conquered Aṅga and Magadha. In Buddha's time Aṅga lost her political power for good. Aṅga and Magadha were constantly at war during this period (*Jāt.*, IV, 454-5). That Aṅga became subject to Śreṇiya Bimbisāra is proved by the fact that a certain brahmin named Soṇadaṇḍa lived at Campā on the grant made by king Bimbisāra and enjoyed the revenues of the town which was given to him by the king (*Dīgha Nikāya*, I, 111).

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Queen Gaggarā of Campā dug a tank called Gaggarāpokkharaṇī (*Sumaṅgalavilāsinī*, I, p. 279). The Buddha dwelt on its bank with a large company of monks while he was at Campā (*Dīgha*, I, 111ff.). His activities in Aṅga and Campā may be known from the *Vinaya Piṭaka* (I, 312-15). The Master while dwelling in the city of Assapura belonging to the kingdom of Aṅga, preached the Mahā and Culla Assapura *Suttantas* to the monks (*Majjhima*, I, 281ff.). In course of his journey from Rājagṛha to Kapilavastu the Master was followed by many sons of the householders of Aṅga and Magadha (*Jāt.*, I, 87). The Himalayan sages came to the city of Kāḷa-Campā in Aṅga to enjoy cooked food (*Jāt.*, VI, 256). Aggidatta, the chaplain of king Mahākosala, father of Pasenadi-Kosala, lived in Aṅga and Magadha after giving up his household life and he was given charities by the people of these two kingdoms (*Dhammapada Commy.*, III, 241ff.).

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Aṅga was a prosperous country inhabited by many merchants who used to go to trade with many caravans full of merchandise to Sindhu-Soviradesa (*Vimānavatthu Commy.*, 332, 337).

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According to the *Aśokavadāna* (R. L. Mitra, *Nepalese Buddhist Literature*, p. 8) a brahmin of Campāpurī presented king Bindusāra, while he was ruling at Pāṭaliputra, with a daughter named Subhadrāṅgī. The *Lalitavistara* (pp. 125-26) refers to a script or alphabet of the Aṅga country which the Bodhisattva is said to have mastered.

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Magadha.—Magadha roughly corresponds to the modern Patna and Gaya districts of Bihar. It is described as a beautiful city with all kinds of gems.¹ In Vedic, Brāhmaṇa and Sūtra periods Magadha was considered to have been outside the pale of Aryan and Brahmanical culture, and was therefore looked down upon by Brahmanical writers, but Magadha has always been included in the Madhyadeśa as the Buddhist holy land.

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¹ *Divyāvadāna*, 425.

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Girivraja or ancient Rājagṛha was the earliest capital. It was also known as Vasumatī,² Bārhadrathapura,³ Māgadhapura,⁴ Varāha, Vṛṣabha, Rṣigiri, Caityaka,⁵ Bimbisārapuri,⁶ and Kuśāgārapura.⁷ The Ṛgveda mentions a territory called Kikaṭa which has been alluded to as identical with Magadha in later works.⁸

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² *Rāmāyaṇa*, I, 32, 7.

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³ *Mahābhārata*, II, 24-44.

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⁴ *Mbh.*, II, 20, 30.

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⁵ *P.H.A.I.*, p. 70.

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⁶ B. C. Law, *The Life and Work of Buddhaghosa*, p. 87 n.

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⁷ Beal, *The Life of Yuan Chwang*, p. 113.

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⁸ *Bhāgavata Purāṇa*, I, 3, 24; Cf. *Abhidhānacintāmaṇi*, Kikaṭa-Magadhāḥ-vayāḥ.

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The Magadha country seems to have had a separate alphabet which the Bodhisattva is said to have mastered.⁹

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⁹ *Lalitavistara*, 125-126.

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Giribbaja (Skt. Girivraja) was encircled by five hills, namely, Isigili, Vepulla (Vaṅkaka and Supana),¹⁰ Vebhāra, Paṇḍava and Gijjhakūṭa.¹¹

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¹⁰ *Samyutta*, II, 191-92.

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¹¹ *Vimānavatthu Commy.*, p. 82.

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[Figure: THE MAHAJANAPADAS OF ANCIENT INDIA English Miles 0 50 100 200 300 400 500]

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The *fraternities* of the Middle Ages, which were so numerous and so varied in their objects, were not all of the same origin. Some were religious, some social, some charitable, and some industrial. The religious guilds, or *gilds*, as they were often called, were associations of laymen for the purpose of performing religious duties, such as the maintenance of a chaplain, the celebration of masses, or the support of a hospital. The social guilds were formed for the purpose of mutual aid and good fellowship, and often included in their objects the relief of the poor, the sick, and the aged. The charitable guilds were established for the purpose of supporting hospitals, almshouses, and other institutions of mercy. The industrial guilds, or *craft guilds*, were associations of men engaged in the same trade or industry, and were formed for the purpose of regulating the trade, protecting the interests of the members, and maintaining the quality of their work.

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The craft guilds, which became so powerful in the later Middle Ages, were the successors of the earlier *collegia* of the Roman Empire. The *collegia* were associations of artisans and tradesmen, which were recognized by the state and had a legal existence. When the Roman Empire fell, these associations were largely destroyed, but the idea of association for mutual protection and the regulation of trade survived. In the early Middle Ages, the *gilds* began to reappear, and by the twelfth century they were firmly established in many of the cities of Europe.

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The craft guilds were organized on a democratic basis, and every member had a voice in the management of the guild's affairs. The officers were elected by the members, and the rules and regulations were made by the guild as a whole. The guilds had the power to fix prices, to regulate the hours of labor, and to determine the conditions of apprenticeship. They also had the power to punish members who violated the rules, and to expel those who were guilty of serious offenses. The guilds were thus a powerful force in the economic life of the Middle Ages, and they played an important part in the development of the modern industrial system.

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The decline of the craft guilds began in the sixteenth century, when the rise of the factory system and the growth of international trade made it difficult for the small, local guilds to compete with the larger and more efficient industrial organizations. The guilds were also weakened by the growth of the power of the state, which began to regulate trade and industry directly, and by the rise of the capitalist class, which sought to break the power of the guilds and to establish a system of free competition. By the end of the eighteenth century, the craft guilds had largely disappeared, but their influence lived on in the trade unions and other labor organizations of the modern world.

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During the reign of king Bimbisāra Magadha contained 80,000 villages, and the river Tapodā flowed by this ancient city.¹ Senānigāma² which was a very nice village of Magadha, Ekanālā³ inhabited by brahmins including Bhāradvāja who was later converted by the Buddha, Nālakagāma⁴ where Sāriputta delivered a discourse to a wandering ascetic named Jambukhādaka, Khānumata⁵ which was also inhabited by brahmins, and Siddhattagāma⁶ were some of the villages of Magadha.

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¹ Vinaya Piṭaka, I, 29; IV, 116-17.

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² Majjhima, I, 166-67.

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³ Saṃyutta, I, 172-73.

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⁴ Ibid., IV, 251-260.

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⁵ Dīgha, I, 127ff.

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⁶ Rockhill, Life of the Buddha, 250.

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Magadha was an important centre of Buddhism. Here Sāriputta and Moggallāna were converted by the Buddha to his faith.⁷ Almost all the missionaries who were sent to different places to preach Aśoka’s Dhamma, belonged to Magadha.⁸ Bimbisāra was a staunch follower of the Buddha. The Buddha while he was at Rājagṛha told the king that he would pay a visit to Vaiśālī. The king then prepared a road for the Buddha and caused the ground from Rājagṛha to the Ganges to be made smooth.⁹

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⁷ Kathāvatthu, I, 89.

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⁸ Samantapāsādikā, I, 63.

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⁹ Dhammapada Commy., III, 439-440.

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Rājagṛha was burnt down by fire during the reign of Bimbisāra when another new capital city called the new Rājagṛha was built. Yuan Chwang points out that when Kuśāgārapura or Kuśāgrapura (probably named after the early Magadha king Kuśāgra),¹⁰ was afflicted by fires, the king went to the cemetery and built the new city of Rājagṛha. Fa-Hien, however, says that it was Ajātaśatru, and not Bimbisāra, who built the new city.

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¹⁰ Pargiter, A.I.H.T., p. 149.

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A Buddhist Council was held at Rājagṛha.¹¹ Rājagṛha had a gate which used to be closed in the evening, and nobody, not even the king, was allowed to enter it.¹² It had also a fort which was once repaired by Ajātaśatru’s minister Vassakāra. Really speaking Rājagṛha was provided with 64 gates.¹³

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¹¹ Cullavagga, 11th Khandhaka.

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¹² Vinaya Piṭaka, IV, 116-17.

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¹³ B. C. Law, Rājagṛha in Ancient Literature, 8ff.

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Veluvana and Kalandakanivāpa which belonged to Rājagaha have often been referred to as dwelling places of the Master. The Nāradagrāma,¹⁴ Kukkuṭārāmavihāra,¹⁵ Gṛdhrakūṭa hill, Yaṣṭivana,¹⁶ Uruvilvagrāma, Prabhāsavana,¹⁷ and Kolitagrāma—all these important localities in and around the city of Rājagṛha are intimately connected with the Buddha and Buddhism.

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¹⁴ R. L. Mitra, N.B.L., p. 45.

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¹⁵ Ibid., pp. 9-10.

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¹⁶ Mahāvastu, III, 441.

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¹⁷ R. L. Mitra, N.B.L., p. 166.

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In Aśoka’s time Pāṭaliputra was the Magadhan capital. He is said to have a daily income of four hundred thousand Kahāpaṇas from the four gates of this city.¹⁸

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¹⁸ Samantapāsādikā, I, 52.

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During the early Buddhist period Magadha was an important political and commercial centre, and the people from all parts of Northern India flocked to this city for trade and commerce. Many merchants passed through this city or dwelt in it for trade.

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Magadha can rightfully claim Jīvaka as its citizen, who became the court physician of king Bimbisāra,¹⁹ after qualifying himself as a physician from the university of Taxila.²⁰ He cured the jaundice of king Pradyota of Avanti being sent by king Bimbisāra of Magadha.

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¹⁹ Vinaya Piṭaka, II, 184-85.

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²⁰ Vinaya Texts, S.B.E., II, 174.

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The Ganges formed the boundary between the kingdom of Magadha and the republican country of the Licchavis. Both the Magadhas and the Licchavis had equal rights over this river.¹ The river Campā flowing between Aṅga and Magadha formed the boundary between the two kingdoms.²

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¹ *Divyāvadāna*, p. 55.

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² *Jātaka*, IV, 454.

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The two kingdoms of Aṅga and Magadha were engaged in battles from time to time.³ Once the king of Benaras conquered both Aṅga and Magadha.⁴ The Magadhan kingdom once came under the suzerainty of Aṅga.⁵ There was a war between Pasenadi of Kosala and Ajātasattu of Magadha with the result that Ajātasattu succeeded in extending his sway over the Magadhas with the help of the Licchavis.⁶ During the reign of Ajātasattu Magadha also came into conflict with Vesālī of the Vajjis. Under Bimbisāra and Ajātasattu Magadha rose to such eminence that centuries later till Aśoka’s Kaliṅga war the history of Northern India is practically the history of Magadha.

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³ *Ibid*., IV, 454-55.

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⁴ *Jātaka*, V, 315ff.

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⁵ *Jāt*., VI, 272; *Dīgha Nikāya*, I,—Sonadaṇḍa Suttanta.

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⁶ *Saṃyutta Nikāya*, I, 83-85.

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Magadha maintained friendly relations by marriage and other alliances not only with the northern neighbours but also with the *mahājanapada* of Gandhāra from whose king Pakkusāti she received an embassy and a letter.

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*Kāśī*.—Kāśī was one of the sixteen *mahājanapadas*. Bārāṇasī was the capital of the people of Kāśī. It was known by various other names, namely, Surundhana, Sudassana, Brahmavaḍḍhana, Pupphavatī, Ramma and Molinī.⁷ It was twelve yojanas in extent.⁸ Bārāṇasī is said to have been situated on the bank of the river Varaṇā.⁹ The city is described as prosperous, extensive and populous.¹⁰ It was not troubled by deceitful and quarrelsome people.¹¹

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⁷ *Jātaka*, IV, 119-20; IV, 15.

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⁸ *Ibid*., VI, 160.

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⁹ *Mahāvastu*, III, 402.

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¹⁰ *Divyāvadāna*, p. 73.

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¹¹ *Ibid*., p. 98.

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The earliest mention of the Kāśīs as a tribal people seems to be met with in the Paippalāda recension of the *Atharvaveda*. Patañjali in his *Mahābhāṣya* (Ed. Kielhorn, Vol. II, p. 413) mentions Kāśī cloth. The city of Kāśī is stated to have been situated on the Varaṇāvatī river.¹² According to the *Rāmāyaṇa* it was not a city, but a kingdom.¹³ According to the *Vāyu Purāṇa*, the kingdom of Kāśī seems to have been extended up to the river Gomatī. Before the Buddha’s time Kāśī was a great political power. It was the most powerful kingdom in the whole of Northern India.¹⁴ Sometimes Kāśī extended its suzerain power over Kosala, and sometimes Kosala conquered Kāśī, but in the Buddha’s time Kāśī lost its political power. It was incorporated into the Kosalan kingdom for some time and for sometime into the Magadhan kingdom. There were fights between Pasenadi of Kosala and Ajātasattu of Magadha for the possession of Kāśī. Kāśī was finally conquered and incorporated into the Magadhan kingdom. Ajātasattu became the most powerful king of Northern India after defeating the Kosalans.¹⁵

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¹² *C.H.I.*, p. 117.

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¹³ *Ādikāṇḍa*, XII, 20.

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¹⁴ *Jātaka*, III, 115ff.; *Vinaya Texts*, Pt. II, 30ff.; *Jāt*., I, 262ff.

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¹⁵ *Saṃyutta*, I, 82-85.

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The city of Benaras was hallowed by the feet of the Buddha who came here to preach his excellent doctrine. Here he gave his first discourse on the *Dhammacakka* or the Wheel of Law in the Deer Park near Benaras (*Majjhima*, I, 170ff.; *Saṃyutta*, V, 420ff.; *Kathāvatthu*, 97, 559; *Saundaranandakāvya*, III, vs. 10-11; *Buddhacaritak*., XV, v. 87; *Lalitavistara*, 412-13). The Buddha spent a great part of his life at Benaras, and here he delivered some of the most important discourses and converted many people (Aṅg., I, 110ff., 279-280; III, 320-322, 392, 399ff.; Saṃ., I, 105-106; Vin. Texts, I, 102-108, 110-112).

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Benaras was a great centre of trade and commerce. Rich merchants of the city used to cross high seas with ships, laden with merchandise (cf. Mahāvastu, III, 286). A wealthy merchant came to Benaras with the object of trade (Mahāvastu, II, 166-167). There existed trade relations between Benaras and Śrāvastī, and between Benaras and Taxila (Dhammapada Commy., III, 429; I, 123). The people of Benaras used to go to Taxila to learn arts and sciences (Jāt., II, 47).

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Kośala.—Kośala, during the time of early Buddhism, was an important kingdom. The ancient Kośala kingdom was divided into two divisions, the river Sarayū serving as the wedge between the two: that to the north was called the Uttarakośala and the one to the south was called Dakṣiṇa Kośala. (R. L. Mitra, N.B.L., p. 20.) The Buddha spent much of his time at Śrāvastī, the capital of Kośala. He delivered a series of sermons at Sālā, a brahmin village of Kośala, and the brahmin householders were converted to the new faith (Majjhima, I, 285ff.). The brahmins of Nagaravinda, another brahmin village of Kośala, were also converted by the Master (Majjhima, III, 290ff.). The brahmin householders of the brahmin village of Veṇāgapura also accepted the Master's creed (Aṅg., I, 180ff.). A famous Kosalan teacher named Bāvarī built a hermitage on the bank of the river Godāvarī in the kingdom of Assaka. He went to the Buddha who was then in Kośala with another brahmin to have his dispute settled by the Master (Suttanipāta, 190-192).

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Kośala had matrimonial alliances with the neighbouring powers. A Kosalan prince married a daughter of the king of Benaras (Jāt., III, 211-213). Mahākośala, father of Pasenadi, gave his daughter in marriage to Bimbisāra of Magadha (Jāt., II, 237; IV, 342ff.). A fierce fight took place between the sons of Mahākośala and Bimbisāra, Pasenadi and Ajātasattu respectively. But the two kings came into a sort of agreement. Ajātasattu married Vajirā, daughter of Pasenadi and got possession of Kāśī (Saṃ, I, 82-85; Jāt., IV, 342ff.). The Śākyas of Kapilavastu became the vassals of king Pasenadi of Kośala (Dialogues of the Buddha, Pt. III, p. 80).

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The capital cities of Kośala were Śrāvastī and Sāketa. According to the Epics and some Buddhist works Ayodhyā seems to have been the earliest capital, and Sāketa the next. In the Buddha's time Ayodhyā became an unimportant town (Buddhist India, p. 34), but Sāketa and Śrāvastī were two of the six great cities of India (Cf. Mahāparinibbāna Suttanta). Some think that Sāketa and Ayodhyā were identical but Rhys Davids points out that both the cities existed in the Buddha's time. Besides Sāketa and Śrāvastī there were other minor towns like Setavya and Ukkaṭṭha in Kośala proper. It was at Śrāvastī that the Buddha permitted the womenfolk to enter the Buddhist Saṃgha (Majjhima, III, 270ff.). The great banker named Anāthapiṇḍika and Visākhā-Migārāmātā, the most liberal-hearted lady, were inhabitants of Śrāvastī. Anāthapiṇḍika made a gift of his Jetavana grove to the Lord. The Master is said to have once taken up his residence there (Mahāvastu, III, 101).

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A good number of famous monks and nuns belonged to Śrāvastī (Dhammapada Commentary, II, 260ff., 270ff., Ibid., I, 115; Theragāthā, p. 2; Therīgāthā, p. 124).

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Vajjis.—The Vajjis were included into the eight confederate clans (aṭṭhakulakā) among whom the Videhans, the Licchavis and the Vajjis themselves became famous. The other confederate clans were probably the Jñātrikas, Ugras, Bhojas and Aikṣvākas. The eighth one is unknown. The Vajji (Vṛji) is referred to by Pāṇini in his Aṣṭādhyāyī (IV. 2. 131). Kauṭilya distinguishes the Vṛjikas from the Licchavikas. The Vṛjika was not only the name of the confederacy but also of one of the constituent clans. The Vajjis like the Licchavis are often associated with the city of Vaiśālī which was not only the capital of the Licchavis but also the metropolis of the entire confederacy. It was so called because of its extensiveness.¹ It had three districts. It may be identified with Besarh in the Muzaffarpur district of Bihar. In Buddha's time this city was encompassed by three walls at a distance of a gāvuta from one another and at three places there were gates with watch towers and buildings. The Buddha once visited it being invited by the Licchavis. This city was gay, opulent, prosperous and populous, charming and delightful. It had many buildings, pinnacled buildings, pleasure grounds and lotus ponds,² triumphal arches, covered courtyards, etc. The city really rivalled the domain of the immortals in beauty.³ It was well provided with food. Alms were easily obtainable, harvest was good, and one could earn his living by gleaning or through favour.⁴ The inhabitants of Vaiśālī made a rule that daughters of individuals should be enjoyed by gaṇas and should not therefore be married.⁵

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¹ Papañcasūdanī, II, p. 19.

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² Vinaya Texts, S.B.E., II, 171; Lalitavistara, Ed. Lefmann, Ch. III, p. 21.

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³ Mahāvastu, I, 253ff.

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⁴ Vinaya Texts, II, p. 117.

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⁵ Bodhisattvāvadāna-kalpalatā, 20 pallava, p. 38.

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A road lay from Vaiśālī to Rājagṛha, and another from Vaiśālī to Kapilavastu. Many Śākya ladies from Kapilavastu came to receive ordination from the Buddha who was then dwelling in the Mahāvana.⁶ The Buddhist Council held at Vaiśālī is important in the history of Buddhism.⁷

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⁶ Vinaya Texts, II, 210-11; III, 321ff.

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⁷ Ibid., III, 386ff.

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The Licchavis of Vaiśālī made a gift of many caityas or shrines to the Buddha and the Buddhist Church. Ambapālī, the famous courtezan of Vaiśālī, also presented her extensive mango-grove to the Buddhist congregation.⁸

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⁸ Law, Mahāvastu, p. 44.

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Buddha's activities were not only confined to Magadha and Kośala but also to Vaiśālī. Many of his discourses were delivered here either at the mango-grove of Ambapālī or at the Kūṭāgārasālā in the Mahāvana.

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The Vajjis formed the saṃgha or gaṇa. In other words, they were governed by organized corporation.⁹ There existed concord and amity among the Licchavis.¹⁰ The Buddha prophesied that as long as the Licchavis would remain strenuous, diligent, zealous and active, prosperity would be with them, and not adversity. He further foretold that if the Licchavis would be given to luxury and indolence, they were sure to be conquered by the Magadhan king Ajātaśattu.¹¹

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⁹ Majjhima, I, 231.

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¹⁰ Buddhist Suttas, S.B.E., Vol. XI, pp. 3-4.

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¹¹ Samyutta, II, pp. 267-68.

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The Political relation between Magadha and Vaiśālī was friendly. That Ajātaśattu is called Vaidehīputra goes to show that Bimbisāra established matrimonial alliance with the Licchavis by marrying a Licchavi girl.¹² The Licchavis were also on friendly terms with king Prasenajit of Kośala.¹³

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¹² Samyutta, II, 268; Sumaṅgalavilāsinī, I, 47; Papañcasūdanī, I, 125; Sāratthappakāsinī, II, 215; Divyāvadāna, p. 55.

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¹³ Majjhima, II, pp. 100-101.

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The Magadhan king Ajātaśattu made up his mind to destroy the Vajjian power. The immediate cause that led to the outbreak of the war between him and the Licchavis was that there existed a port near the Ganges, half of which belonged to Ajātasattu and half to the Licchavis. There was a mine of precious substance at the foot of the mountain standing not far from it. Ajātasattu found the Licchavis too powerful to crush. So he sent his ministers, Sunidha and Vassakāra, to sow the seed of dissension among them. Vassakāra was successful in bringing about disunion among the Licchavi princes. Thus the Licchavis were destroyed by Ajātasattu.¹

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¹ Dīgha Nikāya, II, 72ff.

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Malla.—The kingdom of the Mallas was divided into two parts which had Kusāvatī or Kusīnārā and Pāvā as their capital cities. Kusīnārā may be identified with Kasia on the smaller Gandak and in the east of the Gorakhpur district, and Pāvā with a village named Padaraona, twelve miles to the north-east of Kāsī. The Śāla grove of the Mallas where the Buddha died, was situated near Hiraṇyavatī, identified probably with Gandak.² When the Mallas had a monarchical constitution, their capital city was known as Kusāvatī, but in the Buddha’s time when the monarchy was replaced by a republican constitution, the name of the city was changed to Kusīnārā. The Mahāparinibbāna Suttanta refers to Kusīnārā as a small town, but the Blessed One selected it as the place of his passing away by narrating the former glories of Kusāvatī. He himself said that Kusīnārā was ancient Kusāvatī.³

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² Smith, E.H.I., 167 n.

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³ Dīgha, II, pp. 146-47.

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The Mallas had a *Saṃgharājya*. The political relation between the Mallas and the Licchavis was on the whole friendly, but there were occasional rivalries.⁴ Buddhism appears to have attracted many followers among the Mallas.⁵

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⁴ Cf. The story of Bandhula; Law, Some Kṣatriya Tribes of Ancient India, pp. 160-61.

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⁵ Vinaya Texts, III, 4ff.; II, 139; Psalms of the Brethren, 80, 90.

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Cedi.—The ancient Cedi country lay near the Jumna. It corresponds roughly to the modern Bundelkhand and the adjoining region. The capital of the Cedi country was Sotthivatinagara, probably identical with the city of Śuktimati of the *Mahābhārata*.⁶ Sahajāti and Tripuri were other important towns of the Cedi kingdom.⁷ The road from Kāsī to Cedi was unsafe.⁸ The Cetaraṣṭra was 30 yojanas distant from Jetuttaranagara, the birthplace of Vessantara.⁹ It was an important centre of Buddhism.¹⁰ Anuruddha while dwelling among the Cedis won Arahatship.¹¹ The Buddha went to the Cedis to preach his doctrine.¹²

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⁶ Mbh., III, 20, 50 and XIV, 83. 2.

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⁷ Aṅg., III, 355.

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⁸ Jāt., No. 48.

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⁹ Jāt., VI, 514-15.

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¹⁰ Aṅg., III, 355-56; V, 41ff.; 157-61.

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¹¹ Ibid., IV, 228ff.

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¹² Dīgha, II, 200, 201, 203.

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Vamsa.—The kingdom of the Vamsas or Vatsas had Kausāmbi as their capital, identical with modern Kosam near Allahabad. It had the Bharga state of Sumsumāragiri as its dependency.¹³ The city of Kausāmbi was built at the site of the hermitage of one Kusāmba.¹⁴ The origin of the Vatsa people is traced to a king of Kāsī.¹⁵ Kausāmbi is mentioned as one of the great cities where the Blessed One should attain the Mahāparinibbāna. The city of Kausāmbi was visited by the followers of Bāvari, a leader of the Jaṭilas.¹⁶ Piṇḍola Bhāradvāja dwelt at Ghositārāma at Kausāmbi. He was the son of the chaplain to king Udena of Kausāmbi.¹⁷

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¹³ Bhandarkar, Carmichael Lectures, 1918, p. 63; Jāt., No. 353.

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¹⁴ Law, Saundarananda-Kāvya, Tr. into Bengali, p. 9.

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¹⁵ Hariv., 29, 73; Mbh., XII, 49, 80.

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¹⁶ Suttani. Commy., II, 584.

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¹⁷ Psalms of the Brethren, pp. 110-11.

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A conversation on religious subjects took place between king Udena of Kosambī and Piṇḍola Bhāradvāja.¹ The Buddha while he was at Ghositārāma gave discourses on Dhamma, Vinaya, etc.²

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¹ Sam., IV, pp. 110-12.

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² Vinaya Texts, III, p. 233.

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Kuru.—There was a janapada named Kuru and its kings used to be called Kurus.³ The ancient literature refers to two Kuru countries, Uttarakuru and Dakṣiṇakuru. The Buddha delivered some profound discourses to the Kurus in one of the Kuru towns named Kammāsadhamma. The thera Raṭṭhapāla was a Kuru noble who is mentioned in the Majjhima Nikāya as holding a religious discussion with king Koravya.⁴ As to the origin of the Kurus a Cakkavattī king of Jambudīpa named Mandhātā conquered Pubba Videha, Aparagoyāna and Uttarakuru. While returning from Uttarakuru a large number of the inhabitants of that country followed Mandhātā to Jambudīpa, and the place in Jambudīpa where they settled became known as Kururaṭṭha.⁵ A large number of people in the Kuru country embraced Buddhism after listening to a number of religious discourses delivered by the Buddha.⁶

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³ Papañcasūdanī, I, 25.

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⁴ Majjhima, II, 65ff.

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⁵ Papañcasūdanī, I, 225-26.

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⁶ Aṅguttara, V, 29-32; Saṃyutta, II, 92-93, 107ff.; Majjhima, I, 55ff., 501ff.; II, 261ff.; Dīgha, II, 55ff.

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The ancient Kuru country may be said to have comprised Kurukṣetra or Thaneswar. The district included Sonapat, Amin, Karnal and Panipat, and was situated between the Sarasvati on the north and the Dṛṣadvati on the south. The Kuru country was 300 leagues in extent and the capital city of Indraprastha extended over 7 leagues.⁷

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⁷ Jātaka, No. 537.

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The Bodhisattvāvadāna-Kalpalatā⁸ definitely states that Hastināpura was the capital of Kuru kings. King Arjuna of Hastināpura was in the habit of killing those holy men who were unable to satisfy him by answers to the questions put by him.⁹ Sudhanu, son of Suvāhu, another king of Hastināpura, fell in love with a kinnarī in a distant country and came back with her to the capital where he had long been associated with his father in the government of the kingdom.¹⁰

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⁸ 3rd pallava, 116; 64th pallava, p. 9.

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⁹ Mahāvastu, III, 361.

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¹⁰ Mahāvastu, II, 94-95.

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Pañcāla.—The Pañcāla country was divided into two divisions, northern Pañcāla and southern Pañcāla, the Bhāgirathi forming the dividing line. The Vedic texts refer to the eastern (Prācya Pañcāla) and western divisions of the country.¹¹ The Pañcālas were known as Krivis in the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa. According to the Divyāvadāna (p. 435) the capital of Uttara Pañcāla was Hastināpura, but the Kumbhakāra Jātaka mentions Kāmpilyanagara (Kampillanagara) as its capital.¹² According to Mahābhārata (138, 73-74) northern Pañcāla had its capital at Ahicchatra, identical with modern Ramnagar in the Bareilly district, while southern Pañcāla had its capital at Kāmpilya, identical with modern Kampil in the Farukhabad district. Sometimes Uttara Pañcāla was included in the Kururaṭṭha,¹³ and had its capital at Hastināpura; at other times it formed a part of the Kāmpilyaraṭṭha.¹⁴ Sometimes kings of Kāmpilyaraṭṭha had court at Uttara Pañcālanagara; at other times kings of Uttara Pañcālaraṭṭha had court at Kāmpilya.¹⁵ Visākha who was the son of the daughter of the king of the Pañcālas, succeeded in his title on the death of his father.

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¹¹ Vedic Index, I, 469—Samhitopaniṣad Brāhmaṇa.

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¹² Cowell, Jātaka, III, 230.

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¹³ Jātaka, No. 505.

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¹⁴ Jātaka, Nos. 323, 513, 520.

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¹⁵ Ibid., No. 408; P.H.A.I., p. 85.

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He renounced the world after listening to the Buddha's discourse on *Dhamma*.¹

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¹ *Psalms of the Brethren*, pp. 152-53; cf. Thera-therīgāthā, (P.T.S.), p. 27.

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Pañcāla was originally the country north and west of Delhi from the foot of the Himalayas to the Chambal. It roughly corresponds to modern Budaun, Farukhabad and the adjoining districts.

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*Matsya.*—The Matsya country comprises the modern territory of Jaipur. It included the whole of the present territory of Alwar with a portion of Bharatpur. According to the *Rgveda*,² the country of the Matsyas lay to the south or south-west of Indraprastha and to the south of Śūrasena. Virāṭanagara or Vairāṭa was its capital, so-called because it was the capital of Virāṭa, king of the Matsyas.

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² VII, 18, 6; cf. Gopatha-Brāhmaṇa, 1, 2, 9. (*Bibliotheca Indica Series*, p. 30—R. L. Mitra's Ed.).

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*Śūrasena.*—The Śūrasenas had Mathurā as their capital on the Jumna. Mathurā is generally identified with Maholi, 5 miles to the south-west of the present town of Mathurā, which should be distinguished from Madhurā or Madurā, the second capital of the Pandyan kingdom on the river Vaigi in Madras. They witnessed a dice-play between Dhanañjaya Korabba and Puṇṇaka Yakkha.³ The ancient Greek writers refer to the Śūrasena country as Sourasenoi and its capital as Methora. Buddhism was predominant in Mathurā for several centuries. Mahākaccāyana delivered a discourse on caste in Mathurā.⁴ The Buddha while proceeding from Mathurā to Verañji halted under a tree and he was worshipped by many householders there.

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³ Cowell, *Jātaka*, VI, 137.

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⁴ *Majjhima Nikāya*, II, 83ff.

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Mathurā was built by Śatrughna, the brother of Rāma. A son of Śatrughna was Śūrasena after whom the country was so called.⁵ The Epic and Pauranic story of Kamsa's attempt to make himself a tyrant of Mathurā by overpowering the Yādavas and his death at the hands of Śrīkṛṣṇa is not only mentioned by Patañjali but also in the Ghata-Jātaka.⁶

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⁵ C.A.G.I., p. 706.

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⁶ *Jātaka*, No. 454.

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Mathurā must have formed a part of the Maurya empire when Megasthenes wrote about the Śūrasenas. It again became important as a centre of Buddhist religion and culture during the Kuṣāṇa supremacy. Many images of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas have been unearthed here.⁷

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⁷ Law, 'Mathurā in Ancient India,' *J.R.A.S.B.*, Letters, Vol. XIII, No. 1, 1947.

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*Assaka.*—Assaka was a *mahājanapada* of Jambudvīpa, which had Potana or Potali as its capital. Potana was the Paudanya of the *Mahābhārata* (I. 77, 47). There is a mention in the *Suttanipāta* (V. 977) of another Assaka country in the Dakṣiṇāpatha. The brahmin Bāvari lived on the banks of the Godāvarī in the Assaka territory in close proximity to Aḷaka or Muḷaka. King Kāliṅga of Dantapura and king Assaka of Potana were not on friendly terms, but they later lived amicably.⁸ A king of the Assaka territory was ordained by Mahākaccāyana.⁹ In the Hāthigumphā Inscription of king Khāravela we find that king Khāravela caused a large army to move towards the west and strike terror into Asaka or Asika-nagara. The Assaka of the Cullakāliṅga Jātaka and the Asikanagara of the Hāthigumphā Inscription are probably identical with the Assaka of the *Suttanipāta*, which is located on the Godāvarī. Assaka represents the Sanskrit Aśmaka or Aśvaka which is mentioned by Asaṅga in his *Sūtrālaṅkāra* as a country in the basin of the Indus.

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⁸ *Jātaka*, III, 3-5.

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⁹ *Vimānavatthu Commy.*, 259ff.

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Asaṅga's Aśmaka seems therefore to be identical with the kingdom Assakenus of the Greek writers, which lay to the east of the Sarasvatī at a distance of about 25 miles from the sea on the Swat Valley. The Aśmakas are placed in the north-west by the authors of the Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa and Bṛhat Saṃhitā. In early Pali texts Assaka has always been associated with Avanti. Bhaṭṭasvāmī, the commentator of the Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra, identifies Aśmaka with Mahārāṣṭra. Really speaking the Assaka country of the Buddhists, whether it be identical with Mahārāṣṭra or located on the Godāvarī, lay outside the pale of the Madhyadeśa.

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Avanti.—The capital of Avanti which was one of the sixteen great janapadas, was Ujjayinī which was built by Accutagāmī.¹ Avanti roughly corresponds to modern Mālwā, Nimār and adjoining parts of the Central Provinces. D. R. Bhandarkar rightly points out that ancient Avanti was divided into two parts: the northern part had its capital at Ujjayinī and the southern part called Avanti-Dakṣiṇāpatha had its capital at Māhiṣmatī.² According to the Mahāgovinda Suttanta of the Dīgha Nikāya Māhissati was the capital of Avanti with Vessabhu as its king. This apparently refers to the Avanti country in the Dakṣiṇāpatha. In the Mahābhārata (II, 31, 10) Avanti and Māhiṣmatī are stated to be two different countries.

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¹ Dīpavamsa, 57.

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² Carmichael Lectures, 1918, p. 54.

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Avanti was an important centre of Buddhism. Many leading theras (elders) and therīs (female elders) were either born or lived there.³ Mahākaccāyana was born at Ujjayinī in the family of the Chaplain of king Caṇḍapajjota. He converted the king to the Buddhist faith. Isidatta was one of the converts of Mahākaccāyana.⁴ He belonged to Avanti. Soṇa Kuṭikaṇṇa was also ordained by him.⁵ In the Buddha’s time India was divided into small independent kingdoms. Of these kingdoms Magadha under Bimbisāra and Ajātasattu, Kosala under Pasenadi, Avanti under Pajjota, and Kosambī under Udena, played important rôles in the political drama of India in the sixth and fifth centuries B.C. There was rivalry among these powers, each trying to extend his supremacy at the cost of another. Pajjota tried to extend his supremacy over Udena, but he could not achieve his object. He gave his daughter Vāsabhadattā in marriage to Udena. This matrimonial alliance saved Kosambī from being conquered by Pajjota. Udena also established a matrimonial alliance with the king of Magadha. These two royal marriages were necessary for the maintenance of the political independence of Kauśāmbi which served as a buffer state between Avanti and Magadha.

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³ Theragāthā Commentary, 39; Therīgāthā Commy., 261-264; Theragāthā, 120; Udāna, V. 6; Sam., III, 9; IV. 117; Aṅg., I, 23; V, 46; Majjhima, III, 194, 223; Vinaya Texts, Pt. II, p. 32; Theragāthā, 369.

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⁴ Psalms of the Brethren, p. 107.

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⁵ Dhammapada Commentary, IV, 101.

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Gandhāra.—It is included in the list of sixteen great countries. The Gandhāras were an ancient people whose capital was Takkasilā. Moggali-putta Tissa sent the thera Majjhantika to Kasmīra-Gandhāra for propagating Buddhism.⁶ Gandhāra comprises the districts of Peshwar and Rawalpindi in the north Punjab.

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⁶ Mahāvamsa, Ch. XII, V, 3.

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Trade relationship existed between Kasmīra-Gandhāra and Videha.⁷ Pukkusāti, the king of Gandhāra, was a contemporary of king Bimbisāra of Magadha. He is said to have sent an embassy and a letter to his Magadhan contemporary as a mark of friendship. He waged war against king Pradyota of Avanti who was defeated.

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⁷ Jātaka, III, pp. 363-69.

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The Behistun inscription of Darius (cir. 516 B.C.) refers to Gadara or Gandhāra which was one of the kingdoms subject to the Persian Empire. In the latter half of the 6th century B.C., the Gandhāra kingdom was conquered by the Achæmenid kings. In Aśoka's time Gandhāra formed a part of his empire. The Gandhāras are mentioned in Aśoka's Rock Edict V.

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Kamboja.—It was one of the sixteen mahājanapadas. It was noted for good horses.¹ The Kambojas occupied roughly the province round about Rajaori or ancient Rājapura including the Hazara district of the North-Western Frontier Province. The Thera Mahārakkhita established the Buddha's religion at Kamboja and other places.²

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¹ *Sumangalavilāsinī*, I, 124.

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² *Sāsanavamsa*, 49.

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Dvārakā occurs along with Kamboja. It is not expressly stated if it was the capital of the Kamboja country. In early or later Pali texts there is no mention of the capital city of the Kambojas. It is certain that Kamboja must be located in north-west India, not far from Gandhāra. The Kambojas had a city called Nandipura mentioned in Luders' inscriptions Nos. 176 and 472.

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The Kambojas were supposed to have lost their original Aryan customs and to have become barbarous.³ From the Bhuridatta Jātaka,⁴ we learn that many Kambojas who were not Aryans told that people were purified by killing insects, flies, snakes, bees, frogs, etc. The Jātaka tradition is corroborated by Yāska's Nirukta and Yuan Chwang's account of Rājapura and the adjoining countries of the north-western India.⁵

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