Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c4.s2: General Introduction

Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c4.s2

Language: English

General Introduction

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India and China are both ancient civilisations and as close neighbours there has been friendly intercourses and cultural exchange between their people for more than 2,000 years. During this period, cultural exchanges between India and China have been carried out at various levels through different channels and with a rich content. There were political, diplomatic and people-to-people contacts, intercourse by land as well as by sea and material as well as spiritual exchange. It is a unique example in the history of cultural exchanges in the world and the story of this shared cultural journey must be spread far and wide.

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While the history of India-China cultural contacts has been extensively written about, most of the literature on it has been due to the efforts of individual scholars or groups of scholars who from time-to-time have been motivated by their academic and cultural legacy to embark upon these projects. Documentation of the ancient period has been more comprehensive on the Chinese side while there have been some very interesting and untold narratives of the colonial and modern period unearthed by some Indian scholars.

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The present project has tried to draw upon all that has been already done by Indian, Chinese and other scholars, while striving to fill some of the gaps that remain. This encyclopedia aims to highlight the depth and diversity of interactions between India and China through the ages. It will not only bring the history of many centuries of India-China cultural contacts into the public domain, making it easily accessible to people of both the countries, but it will also provide a much-needed boost to the effort to build popular consciousness about our shared cultural experience.

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By way of introduction, this essay gives a chronological survey of the development of cultural interactions between India and China from the most ancient times through to the present.

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Before the Christian Era: Early Contacts

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It is difficult to determine when cultural exchange between India and China actually began. However, it is accepted that ancient Indians had known China since no later than the 4ᵗʰ century BCE. Some Indian books such as *Mahabharata*, *Ramayana* and *Arthashastra*, had mentioned Cina (ie China) more than once. In the *Arthashastra*, which was composed in about 4ᵗʰ century BCE, Chinese silk was documented, indicating that silk trade between India and China already existed.

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In ancient times, Indians and Chinese both divided the sky into 28 constellations in the same order, demonstrating mutual exchanges in the field of astronomy.

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In the centuries before Christ, cultural exchange between India and China is characterised by a combination of trade and efforts to establish contacts with each other.

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According to *Shi Ji* (Record of History), Zhang Qian (unknown～114 BCE) started for the Western Regions in 135 BCE on a diplomatic mission and came back 13 years later. In Bactria (now Iran and Afghanistan), he found cloth produced in Sichuan and rods made of Qionglai bamboo. Local people said such articles were from merchants who came from Sichuan and were doing business in India. When the Emperor Wu of Han (Liu Che, 156 BCE～87 BCE) learned of this, he sent envoys time and again to southwestern China to look for the passage to India, but was obstructed by local people. They all returned without accomplishing anything.

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The passage through which Zhang Qian went to the Western Regions was called the ‘Western Region Road’ that is the ‘Silk Road’. With this road being opened, an increasing number of envoys were sent from China to India. According to *Da Yuan Biographies* of *Shi Ji* when Zhang Qian was on his second trip to the Western Regions, he sent his deputy envoy to India. After Zhang Qian, in the 1ˢᵗ century BCE, China on an average sent seven or eight missions to the Western Regions every year, with each mission consisting of more than 100 persons and taking eight or nine years to accomplish a round trip. Frequent contacts enabled Chinese to have a better knowledge of India. In the section on “Biographies of Western Regions” in *Shi Ji*, the geographical setting, products, traditions etc., of some Indian places and their relationship with the Han Dynasty, etc., were recorded.

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In southwestern China, the "Dian-Mian Road" (Yunnan-Burma) had existed for long as a route to India through which private trade activities had been carried out. Moreover, in the 2^nd century BCE, there was also a sea route between China and India, which was referred to as "South Sea Road". In the section on *Geography* in *Han Shu* (*Book of Han Dynasty*), a clear sea route from Guangdong to Kanci (now Kanchipuram in south India) as well as a specific shipping schedule was recorded. At that time, goods shipped to India mainly included gold and silk fabrics and those brought from India mainly consisted of gem, crystal and glassware.

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The 1^st ～ 6^th centuries CE: Extensive Interactions Driven by Buddhism

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This phase in history is characterised by a combination of material and spiritual exchanges and the entry of Buddhism into China.

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In the 1^st and 2^nd centuries CE, the Western Region route had been interrupted from time to time but the southern sea route was available. In 1^st - 2^nd centuries CE, the King of Kanci sent people to bring a rhinoceros to China, in the year 59, the King of Gandhara sent a white elephant to China, and in the year 87, the Kushan King offered lions.

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Around the beginning of the present era, Buddhism was introduced into China. This is the most significant event in the history of India-China cultural exchange. Initially, Buddhism won imperial recognition and was accepted by a few noblemen, who took Buddha as a god and worshipped him together with Lao Zi. Later on, the followers of Buddha began to increase. According to the 6^th century CE work *Eminent Monks*, the first Indian monks to come to China were Kasyapamatanga, Dharmaratna and then Anshigao (from Arsaces) and Lokaksema (from the Yuezhi). Other Indian monks then came to China and were engaged mainly in translating Buddhist sutras. In the 1^st century CE, China built its first Buddhist temple, i.e. White Horse Temple and the first sutras were translated into Chinese. In the 2^nd century CE, a man named Zhai Rong became a legendary figure in the Buddhist history of China. He was in charge of land and water transportation in Guangling (now Yangzhou of Jiangsu Province) and Danyang and spent a large amount of money and material to build copper Buddha statues and pagodas and temples. Within his jurisdiction, those listening to and studying Buddhist scriptures would be exempted from compulsory labour service and more than 5,000 families were converted into Buddhists. On the occasion of Buddha's Birth Festival, he would provide a grand feast along the road attracting nearly 10,000 people to dine and watch.

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Buddhist Intercourse

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From 220 to 580 CE, cultural exchange had greatly developed with increasing movement of people and trade between India and China. Both sides now had a better knowledge of each other. However, the most prominent feature of this period was the large-scale eastward movement of Buddhism which was associated with a great number of Indian monks coming to China to preach. According to *Eminent Monks*, there were as many as 30 or 40 such monks. They translated sutras, preached Buddhist teachings, and brought into China the knowledge and techniques related to Indian astronomy, calendar, medicine, architecture, painting, sculpture and so on.

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In the 3^rd century CE, Chinese began to go westward to seek the dharma. Zhu Shixing set out in 260 and crossed the Gobi Desert to arrive at Khotan which was near India and had many Indian residents. There Zhu Shixing found a sutra in Sanskrit and asked someone to bring it back to China, while he remained in Khotan. About 20 years later, Dharmaraksa went to the Western Regions for Buddhist sutras and there he visited various kingdoms and collected many sutras. He was said to have learnt as many as 36 languages. A number of years later, he took 165 Sanskrit sutras back to China and translated them and preached Buddhist doctrines in Dunhuang, Chang'an and other places.

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In the 4^th century CE, Kumarajiva was a representative of such pilgrims. At the age of nine, he went from Kucha with his mother to study dharma in India and began the return journey at the age of 12. In 385 CE, he arrived in Liangzhou (now Wuwei of Gansu Province). In 401 CE, Yao Xing, the Emperor of Later Qin (366～416 CE), invited him to Chang'an and gave him the status of Teacher of the State. Thereafter, Kumarajiva settled in Chang'an, translating sutras and setting up a translation workshop. He translated more than 300 volumes of sutras, accepted disciples and preached Buddhist texts, with 3,000 followers.

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Faxian went to India with nine other fellow students to seek the Buddhist Vinaya. Some of them returned midway, some fell sick and died in India and some settled in India. Faxian visited holy places in India, studied dharma and gathered and transcribed sutras. In 414 CE, he passed by Sri Lanka, Java and other places and came back to China by sea. Later, he wrote a memoir i.e. *A Record of Buddhist Kingdoms* (also called *Biography of Faxian*) and translated many *sutras*. This memoir which included what Faxian had experienced, seen and heard along the way to India as well as the state of Buddhism and local customs then prevailing in India has a significant value for studying the Indian history of that age.

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Political Contacts

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From the 3ʳᵈ to 6ᵗʰ century CE, more frequent contacts were made between Chinese and Indian states. In 428 CE, the Emperor Wen of Song (Liu Yilong, reign from 424 to 453 CE) received a letter of credence from Candrapria, the King of Kapilavastu (now in the valley of the Kaveri River in south India). In 502 CE, the Emperor Wu of Liang received an official letter from the Gupta King which was recorded in Chinese official documents. The southern dynasties in China mainly maintained contacts with kingdoms in the south of India via the southern or maritime route. According to *Wei Shu* (the Book of the Wei Dynasty), from 451 to 521 CE, envoys (including some merchants) from across India came to the Northern Wei, at least, 27 times and the Northern Wei also sent envoys to India time and again, mainly to the kingdoms in the north of India through the Western Region route.

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During this period, Indian envoys brought to China many rare objects and animals while the Chinese exported to India mainly silk and silk products.

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Technologies

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Along with the translation of a large number of sutras and the arrival of several Indian monks, Indian astronomy, calendar and medicine were also brought into China. *Sui Shu* (Book of Sui Dynasty) mentions a number of books on astronomy and the calendar, such as *Longshu Pusa Yaofang* (*Nagarjuna Prescriptions*) as well as books on medicine and fitness regimen, for example, *Longshu Pusa Yangxingfang* (*Nagarjuna Mind Cultivation*). These books were circulated in China and had an impact on Chinese astronomy, calendar and medicine.

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According to *Eminent Monks* (Volume IV), Yu Fakai "was a follower of Jivaka and a master of medical skill" and also good at acupuncture. He was the earliest one to combine traditional Chinese medicine with Indian medicine. Tao Hongjing also introduced Indian theories in his works on medicine.

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Translations

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Translation was necessary for Buddhism to be introduced into China. During this period, Chinese as well as monks from India were involved in sutra translation. From the 1ˢᵗ to 3ʳᵈ centuries CE among such translators were Dharmakala, Vighna, Zhu Luyan, Zhi Qian, Kang Senghui, Baiyan, Samghavarman, Tan Di, Dharmaraksa, Nie Chengyuan, Zhi Qian and others. Among them, Dharmaraksa was the most important translator. From the 4ᵗʰ to 6ᵗʰ centuries CE, there were Dao'an, Boyuan, Srimitra, Samghabhuti, Buddhabhadra, Dharmanandi, Samghadeva, Samgharaksa, Zhu Fonian, Dharmayasa, Kumarajiva, Punyatara, Dharmaruci, Vimalaksa, Buddhayawa, Buddhabhadr, Dharmaksema, Faxian, Gunavarman, Xie Lingyun, Zhimeng, Sanga Gendun, Gunabhadra, Paramartha, Bodhiruci and Narendrayasas. Among them, the most important were Dao'an and Kumarajiva who not only translated many classic volumes but also proposed their own translation theories.

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Architecture

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Between the 3ʳᵈ and 6ᵗʰ centuries CE, China built many temples. In 247 CE, during the reign of Sun Quan (182〜252 CE), the Jianchu Temple was built in Nanjing. Buddhist temples were built in Guangdong, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Hunan, Hubei and Sichuan while in the north, according to *Luoyang Jialan Ji* (Temples in Luoyang), in Luoyang alone, there were 42 temples in the 3ʳᵈ century CE. In the Northern Wei Dynasty, this figure rose to as many as 1367. Buddhist temples in China formed a unique school of architecture by combining the traditional Chinese style and artistic characteristics of Indian buildings. The pagoda was a form learned from India and later on, in China there were constructed various forms of pagoda. Cave temples originated in India and spread to the Xinjiang region in China in about the 3ʳᵈ century CE and then were introduced into the heartland of China, reaching the peak of development in the period from the 4ᵗʰ to 9ᵗʰ centuries CE. For instance, the Kizil Grottoes in Xinjiang, Dunhuang Grottoes and Majishan Grottoes in Gansu, Yungang Grottoes in Shanxi and Longmen Grottoes in Henan were all accomplished during this period. These grottoes were influenced by Indian architecture, sculpture, painting and so on.

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Temples then were a place for cultural activities as well as a seat of learning and practice by followers. Whenever there was a Buddhist event, a grand celebration would be held and there would be acrobatics, dancing and singing as well as a procession of Buddha figures. Such practices were learnt from India.

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Literature

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Between the 3ʳᵈ and 6ᵗʰ centuries CE, following the introduction of Buddhism into China, there appeared a quantity of "Zhi Guai", i.e. ghost stories, which were called "supplemental textbooks for Buddhism” by the famous modern Chinese writer Lu Xun. These stories not only introduced to Chinese people the Buddhist outlook on world, life and morality and a way of thinking but also testified to the rich imagination and literary creation of ancient Indians.

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Drawing and Painting

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Buddhism introduced new subjects and skills to Chinese painting. From the 3ʳᵈ to 6ᵗʰ centuries CE, there were a number of painters who were good at painting Buddhist pictures. For instance, Cao Buxing (3ʳᵈ century CE), a native of Wuxing (now Huzhou of Zhejiang Province), under the influence of Indian sculpture, drew vivid folds on the clothes of human figures, that came to be known as ‘coming alive’. Dai Kui (326～396 CE), a native of Suxian of Anhui, drew many figures of Buddha and carved a 60 feet tall wooden Amitabha. Gu Kaizhi (about 345～406 CE), a native of Wuxi, caused a great sensation by his painting of Vimalakirti on the wall of Waguan Temple in Nanjing. Zhang Sengyao (about mid-5ᵗʰ century CE～mid-6ᵗʰ century CE), a native of Suzhou, was good at painting Buddhist figures. He often went to temples to paint murals. He once produced a painting on the door of a temple, which, from the distance, appeared to be in relief, while from nearby it appeared smooth and even. This skill was introduced from India.

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Music and Dance

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During this period, Buddhist music emerged in China, largely due to Cao Zhi (192～232 CE), a man of letters during the Three Kingdoms. In 230 CE, he adapted and composed the Prince Ode and other pieces of music. In the 6ᵗʰ century CE, the Emperor Wu of Liang (02 to 549 CE) reformed the court music, added much Buddhist content and ordered the musician Shen Yue (441～513 CE) to compose Buddhist music and play it at the royal court.

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The 6ᵗʰ～10ᵗʰ centuries CE: Heightened Political, Cultural and Commercial Contacts

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In 618 CE, the Tang Dynasty was founded and a powerful and prosperous era was ushered into China. This dynasty adopted a policy of opening to the outside world. Many Indians came to China to trade, live or serve in an official capacity. This period was characterised by enthusiasm for both Buddhist and political contacts.

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Buddhism

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After Faxian, an increasing number of pilgrims went to India. This reached a peak during the Tang Dynasty. According to the *Buddhist Monk’s Pilgrimage of the Tang Dynasty* by Yi Jing, from 641 to 691 CE, more than 40 Chinese monks travelled to India. This did not include others such as the famous Xuanzang, Hui Ri, Han Guang, Wu Kong and Zhi Xuan.

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The rising passion for Buddhism in the Tang Dynasty promoted cultural exchange between China and India and quickened the fusion of the Chinese culture with the Indian culture. Chinese Buddhism became more mature and different sects arose e.g. *Three Sastras*, *Tiantai*, *Hosso Shu* (*Dharmalaksana*), *Avatamsaka*, *Vinaya*, *Dhyana*, *Pure Land* and *Esoteric Buddhism*. In particular, the emergence of Dhyana signalled that the sinicisation of Indian Buddhism had been basically accomplished.

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During this period, Buddhism was also introduced into Tibet. In the first half of the 7ᵗʰ century CE, Songtsan Gampo (617～650 CE) unified the greater part of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and founded the Tubo Kingdom with Lhasa at the centre. He successively married the Princess Bhrukuti of Nepal and the Princess Wencheng of the Tang Dynasty and built Buddhist temples for them. In 755 CE, the young Trisong Detsen (742～797 CE) succeeded to the throne. When he grew up, he began to believe in Buddhism, inviting Santaraksita and Padmasambhava from India and building temples. To propagate Buddhism in Tibet, Trisong Detsen invited masters from India including, among others, Vimalamitra and Dharmakirti, to teach Buddhism and 12 Indian monks to preside over the Tibetans’ monastic ceremony. Trisong Detsen also twice sent monks to study in India. However, since the Tibetan Bon faith was still powerful, in 836 CE, some of its more powerful adherents began to eradicate Buddhism which consequently nearly became extinct in Tibet. This period was called the “first propagation” of Tibetan Buddhism.

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Around the 7ᵗʰ century CE, Theravada Buddhism expanded from Burma into southern Yunnan but soon disappeared due to wars and ensuing chaos. After the 8ᵗʰ century CE, Buddhism began to spread in the Nanzhao area of Yunnan and developed quickly.

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Political Contacts

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*Sui Shu* (Book of Sui Dynasty), in the section on Western Regions, mentioned that the Emperor Yangdi of the Sui Dynasty (569～618 CE) sent Wei Jie, Du Xingman and others to visit kingdoms in the Western Region and there they obtained besides *sutras*, agate cups and other things.

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According to *Tang Shu* (Book of Tang Dynasty), *Tong Dian* and *Cefu Yuangui*, the Tang dynasty had many contacts with Indian states while the Indian rulers also sent many envoys to China. According to *Jiu Tang Shu* (Old Book of Tang), Siladitya sent envoys to China in 641 CE and the Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty wrote him a letter along with an imperial jade seal. The Tang empire also sent a number of envoys to India, and among them, Wang Xuance was the most reputed. Wang Xuance went to India three or four times. Back in China, he wrote *Zhongtian Zhuguo Xingji* (also titled *Wang Xuance Xiguo Xingzhuan*), consisting of 10 volumes, with three volumes of maps and charts and covering religion, geography, politics, law, arts and customs. Regrettably, this book was lost and is not available any longer.

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Drawing and Painting

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In the Tang Dynasty, Chinese painting was enriched and diversified. There were great masters with new schools constantly emerging, distinctive styles being established and exotic skills being assimilated.

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Yuchi Yiseng (during the 7ᵗʰ century CE) was a native of Khotan. In his youth, he was recommended to visit Chang’an by the King of Khotan and was highly appreciated by the imperial court. At that time, his murals could be seen in the big temples of Chang’an and Luoyang. He was adept at painting the Buddha and Bodhisattvas, and had a style characteristic of the Western Region. Wu Daozi (8ᵗʰ century CE) was a native of Yuxian of Henan and his legendary life was recorded in many documents. About 100 years after his death, he was called the “Sage of Painting”. He often did paintings at temples and his famous painting, “Birth of Gautama Buddha”, portraying Suddhodana and Mayadevi carrying the newly born Siddhartha to the Mahesvara can still be seen. In this painting, the figures all have a Chinese image. There were many other skilled artists as well.

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Music and Dance

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*Sui Shu* (Book of the Sui Dynasty), in its “Music” section, recorded that in 581 CE the royal court of the Sui Dynasty put in place seven ensembles, with Indian music as one of them and that 30 years later, there were nine ensembles with Indian music still being included.

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In the Tang Dynasty, Buddhist music became very popular and many forms of music could be traced to India. Some musical instruments were also introduced from India. According to the fifth volume of the *Life of Xuanzang*, when meeting with Xuanzang Indian ruler Siladitya asked about the musical composition Qinwang Pozhen Yue (Prince Qin Breaking through the Enemy Array) indicating that Chinese music was well recognised in India as well.

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Drama

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Cultural exchange between India and China resulted in the birth of Chinese drama and its enrichment. Around the 9ᵗʰ century CE, temples became places for cultural events and entertainment. Some big temples such as the Ci’en Temple had their own theatre for music, dance and acrobatic performance. Acrobatics, dance and music although not drama in the real sense, nevertheless provided the seeds for the birth of drama.

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Literature

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In the Tang Dynasty, some great poets such as Li Bai, Du Fu, Bai Juyi, Liu Yuxi and Han Yu had close contacts with monks from India and also wrote poems to Indian friends.

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There were also “Tang Chuan Qi” short novels in which traces of Indian influence could be discerned. For instance, *Liu Yi Zhuan* (Legend of Liu Yi) was a story about Liu Yi and his marriage with the daughter of a dragon. The creation of the image of a dragon daughter had something to do with Buddhist texts. Another example, in the *Nanke Taishou Zhuan* (Legend of Nanke Prefecture Chief), tells the story of a man who came across a kingdom of ants, where he eventually became an official, married and had his children. This was not just an example of fantasy but also broke through the boundary between humans and animals, something very reflective of the creative imagination of ancient Indians.

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Under the influence of Buddhism, the Tang period saw a new genre of literature called ‘Bianwen’. It was believed that reciting ‘Bianwen’ on the Buddhist stories of gods and ghosts such as Xiangmo Bianwen and Mulian Jiumu Bianwen disseminated the concepts of *karma* and *samsara*. It has had a profound influence on literary production in later generations of Chinese writers.

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Astronomy and Mathematics

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Some Buddhist texts had subject matter related to astronomy and calendar. These included, for example, *Abhidharmakosa Sastra* translated by Xuanzang, *Fo Shuo Da Kong Que Zhou Wang Jing* translated by Yijing, *Fo Mu Da Kong Que Ming Wang Jing*, *Su Yao Jing* translated by Bukong (Amoghavajra), *Bei Dou Qi Xing Nian Song Yi Gui* translated by Vajrabodhi, and *Zhu Xing Mu Tuo Luo Ni Jing* translated by Facheng (Dharma-Siddhi). *Su Yao Jing* consisted of two volumes and offered a detailed introduction of the Indian knowledge system on constellations, stars, the zodiac and astrology. It is an important reference work for the study of ancient Indian and Chinese astronomy and calendar.

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According to Calendar I of *Jiu Tang Shu*, Volume 32, during the reign of the Empress Wu Zetian, Gautama Luo created the Guang Zhai Calendar, and during the reign of the Emperor Xuanzong, Yi Xing produced the *Da Yan Calendar*; all of which were influenced by ancient Indian astronomy and calendar.

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Yi Xing was a reputed scientist and a learned monk in the Tang Dynasty. His 52-volume *Kai Yuan Da Yan Li* was incorporated into the “Calendar” section of *Tang Shu* and his *Su Yao Yi Gui*, *Qi Yao Xing Cheng Bie Xing Fa* and *Bei Dou Qi Xing Hu Mo Fa*, each with one volume, were included in the Tantras.

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In the 8^th^ century CE, three families from India served as court astronomers. They were Kasyapa, Kumara and Gautama. According to written records and archaeological information, Gautama family members lived in China for five generations in the sequence of Gautama Yi, Gautama Luo, Gautama Siddha, Gautama Zhuan and Gautama Yan while Gautama Yi had come to China from India in the early Tang Dynasty, four subsequent generations all served as royal astrologers in the Tang Dynasty.

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Of these five generations, Gautama Siddha (about mid-7^th^ ~ early 8^th^ centuries CE) was the most famous. He compiled the 120-volume *Treatise on Astrology of the Kaiyuan Era*, introducing various astrological theories and schools in ancient China and recording Chinese observation of heavenly bodies and their knowledge about the universe. Such information is very valuable for the history of science. *Navagraha Calendar*, translated by him in 718 CE, is also of great research value. With the translation of the *Navagraha Calendar*, Chinese began to know of Indian arithmetic. It showed how to write Indian numerals and listed 10 numbers from zero to nine ie the predecessors of the current numerals 0 to 9. This proves that the so-called Arabic numbers originally were invented by Indians.

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Medicine

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Ancient India was also known for ophthalmology. In the Tang Dynasty, oculist-monks from India used the so-called “Gold Grate Method” to cure cataract and Bai Juyi and Liu Yuxi both wrote poems to praise this.

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A medical doctor Sun Simiao (about 581~682 CE) wrote *Qian Jin Yao Fang* and *Qian Jin Yi Fang* the former included recipes compiled by him on the basis of historical documents and private prescriptions in the year 652 CE, and the latter was composed 30 years later on the basis of his medical practice. In the preface of *Qian Jin Yao Fang*, Sun cited medical theories in Buddhist texts, thinking that people would not fall ill if four elements inside their bodies i.e. earth, water, fire and wind were coordinated while lack of coordination would lead to illness. The *Qian Jin Yi Fan* had a number of Indian prescriptions, some of which used Indian medicinal herbs. Wang Tao (mid-7^th^ century CE) was another medical doctor who adopted the “four elements” theory and included many Indian prescriptions.

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Technologies

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Indians had known how to make cane sugar for long. According to some sutras translated around the 5^th^ century CE, India’s technology of making cane sugar had already been introduced into China at that time.

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According to the *Biography of Xuan Zang* (volume IV) in the *Sequel of Eminent Monks*, the Taizong Emperor sent Wang Xuance to India to study how to boil sugar. The Mahabodhi Temple sent two craftsmen and eight monks to visit to China with Wang Xuance and help China with sugar manufacturing.

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The invention of paper-making may have had links with India. In the mid-2^nd^ century CE, paper was already in use in Khotan in the region of present-day Xinjiang. It is very close to India and so it is possible that Indians might have known paper at that time. In the 7^th^ century CE, Yi Jing went to India and found that paper was used there. Some scholars tend to think that paper making was brought into Tibet in the mid-7^th^ century CE and later from there it was introduced into India.

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Chinese silk and silk fabrics were introduced into India before our era but in the neighbourhood of China, Khotan was the first place to practice mulberry planting, sericulture and silk reeling. Tibet and Yunnan had known how to feed silkworms and reel silk. It is possible that Indians learned to make silk from these places but it is uncertain when.

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Linguistics

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Indians had paid attention to the study of phonetics for long, and before our era, there were already grammar books and a highly scientific alphabet system. Buddhist culture from India, to some extent, promoted linguistics in China and had a significant impact, especially in respect of phonology, syntax and lexicography.

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The term “Zimu” (letter) first appeared in *sutras* translated in the early 5^th^ century CE and was also recorded in *Xitan Ziji* by the monk Zhiguang in the Tang Dynasty. This proved that “Zimu” was directly related to the spread of Sanskrit. Two Tang dynasty documents discovered in Dunhuang, *Gui Sanshi Zimu Li* and *Shouwen Yunxue Caijuan*, both list 30 phonemes for Chinese. A monk named Shouzhen (mid-9^th^~mid-10^th^ centuries CE) further divided 30 phonemes into five categories, i.e. Chun, She, Ya, Chi and Hou while “She” sound was subdivided into “She Tou” and “She Shang”, “Chi” into “Chi Tou” and “Zheng Chi”, “Hou” into “voiced” and “voiceless”. It is on the basis of this that China developed its pinyin phonetic system many generations later.

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Lexicography

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To facilitate the understanding of *sutras*, Chinese monks compiled some dictionaries among which *Yiqiejing Yinyi* (also abbreviated as *Xuanying Yinyi*), consisting of 25 volumes, was compiled by Xuan Ying (7^th century CE) around the year 648 CE. This book explained terms chosen from 450 Buddhist Hinayana texts with many quotations from ancient Chinese books. Huilin (737～820 CE) in his 100-volume *Yiqiejing Yinyi* (abbreviated as *Huilin Yinyi*) selected terms from 1,300 Buddhist texts to annotate them with a great number of quotations from ancient Chinese books. Till date this book is widely quoted for academic purposes.

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To facilitate *sutra* translation, Chinese-Sanskrit dictionaries were compiled. For instance, Yijing compiled the *Fanyu Qianziwen* using Sanskrit to explain 1,000 Chinese characters. Similar to this were *Tangfan Wenzi* by Quanzhen, a monk in the Tang Dynasty and *Fanyu Zaming* by Liyan. Indian monks were also involved in compiling Chinese-Sanskrit dictionaries. The one-volume Tangfan Shuangyu Duidui Ji was compiled by Antatàbodha and Pragunamishash. These two Indian monks had been translating *sutras* in China for long but information about them was not recorded in any works of history.

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Translations

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From the late 6^th to early 7^th centuries CE, Yan Cong and Dharmagupta were the main translators. Yan Cong, in addition to presiding over the translation workshops in the Sui Dynasty and compiling *Zhong Jing Mu Lu*, also translated 23 *sutras*. By imperial order, he translated *She Li Rui Tu Jing* and *Guo Jia Xiang Rui Lu* into Sanskrit, in a total of 10 volumes and asked *bhikshus* from Rajagriha to bring them back to India.

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In the early Tang Dynasty, Prabhakaramitra of Nalanda came to China. In 629 CE, the Emperor Taizong decreed *sutras* to be translated at Da Xing Shan Temple, with Prabhakaramitra as the chief translator. Prabhakaramitra died in 633 CE. Twelve years later, Xuanzang returned from India and presided over *sutra* translation. From this period on, Buddhist translation was of a very high order. At Xuanzang’s workshop, division of work was meticulous, the staff was disciplined and work efficiently carried out. From 646 to 664 CE, under Xuanzang, 73 sutras, in a total of 1,330 volumes, were translated. Xuanzang also put forth his own theory, requiring translation to be “truthful and easy to understand” as well as the “Five No” principle in translation.

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Around the time of Xuanzang, translators mainly included Punaudaya, Zhitong, Wujigao, Janabhardra, Rizhao, Buddhapalita, Devaprajn, Huizhi, Mitrasanta, Bao Siwei, Siksananda and Bodhiruci. After Xuanzang, translators mainly consisted of Yijing, Zhiyan, Pramiti, Subhakarasimha, Vajrabodhi and Bukong (Amoghavajra) with Amoghavajra being the most famous, having translated 110 *tantras* (a total of 143 volume). After Amoghavajra, prominent *sutra* translators included Zhihui, Lianhua Jingjin, Wukong, Fajie, Prajna, Manyue and dharmasiddhi (Facheng).

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10^th ～17^th centuries CE: Frequent contacts across the sea

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During this period, cultural exchange between India and China continued to deepen. Though cultural activities driven by Buddhism weakened and the practice of Chinese seeking to find the dharma in India was about to come to an end, sea-borne traffic and booming trade were not comparable to any era in the past.

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Buddhism

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According to *Fo Zu Tong Ji* (*A General History of Chinese Buddhism*), from 972 to 1053 CE, some Indian monks came to China to translate and preach *sutras*, but no more came thereafter. Meanwhile, the saga of Chinese monks’ westward pilgrimage was nearing an end. As recorded in the Volume 43 of *Fo Zu Tong Ji*, in 966 CE, Emperor Taizu of the Song Dynasty arranged for 157 pilgrims to be sent to India. This was the last officially sponsored pilgrimage. A century later, Fan Chengda (1126～1193) wrote *Wu Chuan Ji* on the basis of available information and recorded the journey of one of these pilgrims, Jiye. Jiye returned to China in 976, but even later, other pilgrims came back from or went to India, indicating that travel then was quite convenient. However, in the 11^th century CE, with the Muslim invasion of India, Buddhism there declined and during the reign of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (1023 - 1063), pilgrimages from China to India, that had lasted six centuries, virtually ceased. In Tibet, however, these activities still continued.

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From the late 10^th to late 15^th century CE, Tibetan Buddhism had its “second propagation”. During this time, its leading sects such as Nyingma, Ganden, Sakya, Kagyu and Gelug, had been formed. Smritijnanakirti, an Indian scholar came to Tibet in the latter half of the 10^th century CE adept at panca-vidya and esoteric Buddhism, he disseminated Buddhism in Tibet, translated many tantric texts and wrote *Yu Yan Men Lun*, a Tibetan grammar book. Rinchen Zangpo (958～1055 CE) was one of the most important figures in the revival of Tibetan Buddhism. He had been to India three times and successively studied under 75 scholars there. Back in Tibet, he translated 50 sutrayanas and 108 tantrayanas. In 1043, Atisa, once a Theravada preacher at Vikramasila, was invited to expound Buddhism in Tibet; he had many followers, and his *Pu Ti Dao Deng Lun* (*A Lamp for the Enlightenment Path*) had a great influence in Tibet. Between the 10ᵗʰ to 13ʳᵈ centuries CE, many youth went to study in Tibet and there were more than 160 translators, while over 60-70 Indian monks were doing translation in Tibet. From 10ᵗʰ to 17ᵗʰ centuries CE, Indian medicine, astrology, hetuvidya, phonology, literature, arts, language and writing, all had a significant impact on Tibet.

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In the same period, esoteric Buddhism in the Dali Kingdom (Yunnan) and Theravada in south Yunnan also developed rapidly.

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After the mid-10ᵗʰ century CE, Neo-Confucianism gained prominence, evolving and absorbing Buddhist thinking in its course. In daily life, popular beliefs, customs, festivals, marriage and funeral rites and other aspects were all impacted by Buddhism. In the field of literature, Zhi Guai and Chuanqi novels (Song Dynasty), Zaju Opera (Yuan Dynasty) and vernacular novels (Ming Dynasty) assimilated Buddhist ethics and recalled and retold the golden days of Buddhist pilgrimage. In arts, cave temples continued to be built and paintings still preserved many Buddhist themes.

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Political Contacts

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Political and diplomatic contacts between Indian states and China were by and large maintained through the sea route. For instance, according to a section on "Foreign Countries" in Volume five of the *Song Shi* (*History of the Song Dynasty*) and Volume 44 of *Fo Zu Tong Ji*, in 1015, the Chola ruler sent envoys to China, bringing Sanskrit *sutras* and a letter from King Rajaraja. The letter indicated that south Indians learned of the Song Dynasty through merchants coming by sea.

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*Song Shi* recorded that south Indian and north Indian states sent envoys to China many times and they usually brought gifts, such as pearl, ivory, medicine, spice and so on.

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Yuan Dynasty, though surviving for no more than 100 years, left several records concerning maritime contacts. During the reign of Kublai Khan (1271-1294), the Emperor Shizu of the Yuan Dynasty, diplomatic contacts between India and China were most prolific. According to Yuan Shi (*History of the Yuan Dynasty*), from 1272 to 1294, Yuan Dynasty sent envoys to India 11 times while various Indian kingdoms sent envoys to China 13 times.

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In early 15ᵗʰ century CE, China further extended its maritime navigation and Zheng He's (1371～1433) seven expeditions to the Western Ocean served to expand India-China interaction. Zheng He visited a number of places in India. Fei Xin, Ma Huan and Gong Zhen, who had accompanied Zheng He in these voyages, wrote *Xing Cha Sheng Lan* (*The Description of the Starry Raft*), *Ying Ya Sheng Lan* (*The General Survey of the Ocean Shores*) and *Xi Yang Fan Guo Zhi* (*The Annals of Foreign Nations in the Western Ocean*), respectively. These are important documents for the study of India-China relations during that period. Around the same time, Hou Xian had been to India on a diplomatic mission many times. According to *Xing Cha Sheng Lan*, *Ying Ya Sheng Lan* and *Ming Shi* (*History of the Ming Dynasty*), Ming Dynasty had contact with the following Indian kingdoms or places: Delhi, Jaunpur, Bengal, Vijayanagar, Cochin, Kollam, Cail (on the east coast of south India), Comorin, Chola (on the southwest coast of India), Calicut and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

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Commodity Trade

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As sea travel became more convenient, bulk commodity exchange began between China and India. According to Zhu Fan Zhi (*The Barbarian Countries*) by Zhao Rukuo of the Song Dynasty, in the port of Quanzhou there were many foreign merchants, including those from India and Indian monks preaching Buddhism. Evidently, Quanzhou then was a centre of commerce as well as religious activities. According to *Ling Wai Dai Da* (volume II) by Zhou Qufei of the Song Dynasty, at that time, Gulin (now Kollam) at the southern end of the west coast of India also had close connections through sea traffic with China.

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In Yuan Dynasty, Wang Dayuan (14ᵗʰ century CE) went by ship twice to investigate the seas south and west of China, first setting out in 1330 and returning four years later. The second time starting in 1337 and returning two years later. He went to many places in India and after returning to China, in 1349, he completed *Dao Yi Zhi Lue*; this book offers a detailed introduction to various Indian places and is of great help to understand maritime cultural exchange between Yuan Dynasty and India. Wherever he went, he would pay attention to the geography, soil, produce, trade, race and customs. At that time, India was known for gems, pearls, cotton cloth, linen, medicine, spice and the like while China was mainly known for silk, coloured silk satin, cloves, cardamom, blue-and-white porcelain, white porcelain, etc.

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Ma Huan's *Yingya Shenglan* provided even more detailed information. For instance, about Cochin, he recorded information about its people’s dress, houses, social structure and professions of five classes of the population, the king’s beliefs, religion, climate, weights and measures, currency, marriage and funeral ceremonies, farm and livestock produce, as well as on its trade with China. He mentioned that Zheng He had erected a monument in Calicut in 1407 and provided the text of the inscription.

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Medicine

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Sea-borne traffic facilitated the bulk movement of medicines and related materials in this period. *Yuan Shi* recorded details of medicine sent as tribute by Indian states. Volume 326 of *Ming Shi* gave a list of tribute items from Bengal including frankincense, pine resin, Wu Xiang, Ma Teng Xiang, Wu Die Ni, Teng Jie and Cu Huang. *Xing Cha Sheng Lan* and *Xi Yang Fan Guo Zhi* mentioned that Indians then were very fond of musk from China and that Chinese traded musk with locals.

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The *Compendium of Materia Medica* compiled by Li Shizhen (1518～1593) in the Ming Dynasty contains valuable information about medical exchanges between India and China. The book introduced and verified many medicines from India and by using many quotations from Buddhist texts, provided their Sanskrit names. Its citation is so extensive that it cannot be compared to any similar book from the past. It also included some Indian prescriptions, explained the preparation of medicines and evaluated their efficacy, indicating that these prescriptions then were in actual use. Some prescriptions required Indian medicinal materials and this could be taken as evidence that a number of Indian recipes had been assimilated into traditional Chinese medicine.

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18ᵗʰ century CE to 1949: Forging New Connections in Modern Times

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The modern phase of interactions between India and China is a complex and rich one. Old ties based on trade continued although under new conditions, while altogether new relations such as those based on nationalism and anti-imperialism also developed simultaneously. Technological and other changes worked to bring India and China closer in some respects, while political developments in some cases led to new strains. Colonialism and imperialist expansion in this part of the world impacted the age-old relationship between the two countries and civilisations in many ways. At the same time, this was also a period in which intellectuals, political activists, writers and artists in both India and China sought to rediscover each other in modern conditions.

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Trade

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Overland trade between India and China continued from the earlier times into this period. There was the trans-Karakoram trade between Punjab, Ladakh and Kashmir on one hand and the oasis towns such as Kashgar and Yarkand in Xinjiang on the other. There was also the trade between Kashmir and other parts of northern and northeastern India with Tibet. The overland trade was not large in volume as it was carried out in physically very difficult conditions. Traders loaded their cargo on mules and ponies and crossed back and forth over the high mountain passes. The trade was also vulnerable to changing political conditions in this region. Nevertheless, it persisted right until the middle of the 20ᵗʰ century CE.

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There was a revival of maritime trade between India and China based on the spectacular growth of the tea trade between China and Europe. Both before and after the arrival of European traders in the eastern waters from the 16ᵗʰ century CE, there was a flourishing intra-Asian maritime trade. The commercial connection between India and China was maintained through the larger intra-Asian trade. However, from the last quarter of the 18ᵗʰ century CE, there was a huge increase in the direct trade between the emerging port of Bombay on the west coast of India and Guangzhou (Canton) based on the export of raw cotton and later, opium from India to China. These exports were carried both by the British East India Company as well as by private Indian and Western traders.

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Yet another major export from India to China in this period, starting from the later 19ᵗʰ century CE, was of manufactured cotton yarn. Indian cotton yarn displaced British yarn from the China market, and from about 1880 to 1905 almost completely monopolised the market for imported cotton yarn in China. The export of cotton yarn to China played a major role in stabilising the growth of the emerging modern textile industry in India. However, during and after World War I, it was the Chinese cotton yarn industry that developed rapidly and by 1929, China was exporting yarn to India.

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The Indian and Chinese diasporas

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The development of the overland and maritime trade led to the arrival of groups of Indians and Chinese who settled in the other country. Most traders from Punjab in Xinjiang stayed only for the duration of the trading season and went back and forth. However, a number of Kashmiris migrated to Xinjiang and settled down there, eventually losing their contacts with their native places and even language and becoming a part of local society. A small number of financiers and moneylenders from Shikarpur in Sindh (in present-day Pakistan) were also to be found in the main towns of southern Xinjiang.

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The revival of the maritime trade with China led to groups of merchants from India arriving on the China coast. In the early stages, they came mainly from the Parsi community and also the Baghdadi Jewish community based in Bombay and some Muslim Bohra and Ismaili traders. With the opening of treaty ports after the First Opium War and the growth of Hong Kong as a port, many of them took up more or less permanent residence in China. From the import-export trade, their interests diversified to include other lines of business in eastern China’s port cities, including banking, real estate, manufacturing and share brokerage. The 20^th century CE saw increasing numbers of people from the Marwari and Sindhi communities arriving in Hong Kong and China’s port cities.

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Yet another group of Indians who arrived in China and stayed on were policemen and watchmen, especially from Punjab. The policemen were mainly based in Hong Kong and in the foreign concessions at Shanghai, Guangzhou, Tianjin, Hankou and so on while the Indian watchmen were more widely dispersed among smaller towns as well. At one time, they accounted for approximately half of the Indians in eastern China. This group, along with the merchants in western China and in the Chinese ports, were mostly repatriated to India during the 1930s and 1940s.

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The commercial connection between India and China also led to the arrival of Chinese in India. Chinese were to be found mainly in and around Calcutta (Kolkata) and Bombay (Mumbai) but it was only in Calcutta that their numbers grew large enough to form a Chinese settlement in India. The first Chinese known to have settled in India in this period was Yang Dazhao (Atchew) who received a grant of land from the British authorities in Bengal to set up a sugar mill at the end of the 18^th century CE. Thereafter, more Chinese continued to arrive in India throughout the 19^th century CE. They settled mainly in the Bowbazar and Tangra areas of Calcutta. They tended to specialise in carpentry and shipbuilding and later in the tannery business as well. Chinese were also brought to India’s northeastern province of Assam to work on the tea plantations that the British established. Their skills in tea cultivation and processing were used to develop an extensive tea industry in India.

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From the early 20^th century CE, the turbulent conditions in China led to the arrival of larger numbers of Chinese in India including women and children. The community was well settled, but after the border war between India and China of 1962 and the difficulties they faced in India because of that, large numbers emigrated abroad and their numbers in India dwindled.

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Export art from China to India

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A little appreciated by-product of the 19^th century CE trade between India and China was the transmission of some artistic and cultural influences, although compared to the pre-modern period, this was on a small scale. Traders from Bombay imported from China silk cloth with the fine silk embroidery which was a specialty of the Guangzhou region. This greatly influenced the style of particularly women’s and children’s clothing among the Parsis. The characteristic *gara* sarees worn by Parsi women, with their distinctly Chinese style embroidery, were a product of this fusion of Chinese and Indian styles. The *tanchoi* type of silk brocade weaving in India was also learned and adapted from Chinese weavers. Chinese porcelain and furniture were also greatly appreciated and adorned the homes of the elite particularly in Bombay. Portrait painting and the art of reverse glass painting were also popularised in India by Chinese masters and subsequently, the art was learned and imitated by Indian artists.

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Hong Kong, Shanghai and Bombay

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These three major port cities of Asia were to a large extent a product of the India-China connection in this era. Indian merchants played a significant role in the early growth of Hong Kong. Among the well known individuals, families and firms from India who can be considered among the builders of Hong Kong were the Sassoons, the Ruttonjees, the Kadoories, Paul Chater, H. N. Mody, Abdoolally Ebrahim & Co and so on. Many of them not only became business tycoons, but also played a role in the development of the infrastructure, education and in the governance of Hong Kong. The Sassoons, the most well-known Bombay Jewish family in China, were a prominent part of the Shanghai business community and owned several landmark buildings on the Shanghai waterfront.

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Bombay’s growth as India’s leading commercial, shipping, industrial and financial centre was greatly linked to the trade with China. Many of its most prominent citizens in the 19^th century CE, including the well known merchant Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, were either directly connected with the China trade, or else came from families that were involved in it. The accumulation of capital through the China trade played a significant role in the early development of modern industry in India and in the development of Bombay’s urban infrastructure in the 19^th century CE.

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Early visitors

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The first official mission from China to India in modern times came about when China sent a six-person delegation to visit India from March to September 1879. A member of this delegation, Huang Maocai, wrote several works about his experiences in India, including *Yin Du Zha Ji*, *You Li Zou Yan* and *Xi Jiao Shui Dao*. In July 1881, the Qing Dynasty sent Ma Jianzhong and Wu Guangpei to India to negotiate with the British Indian Government about matters related to opium. Back in China, Ma wrote an account of his visit, *Nan Xing Ji* and Wu wrote his own account entitled *Nan Xing Ri Ji*. Later, Chinese envoys Xue Fucheng and Huang Zunxian visited India enroute to Europe and wrote about it.

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Linked texts (3)

Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra — Kauṭilya, Sanskrit
Mahābhārata — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Vālmīkirāmāyaṇa — Vālmīki, Sanskrit