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Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c7.s4.t2: Western Region Personalities

Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c7.s4.t2

Language
English

Western Region Personalities

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An Shigao

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An Shigao (2ⁿᵈ century CE), also known as An Qing, was a great translator of Buddhist scriptures. He moved to China towards the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. According to Gao seng zhuan [*Biographies of Eminent Monks*], An Shigao was originally a prince from Parthia. Praised for his filial conduct in childhood, he was a wise and intelligent student with comprehensive knowledge of foreign books, astronomy, calendar, medicines and prescriptions, even sounds of birds and animals. Deeply influenced by Buddhist concepts of suffering and emptiness, he detested and rejected materialism and sought relief in spiritualism. After the death of his father, he inherited the throne. But soon after the mourning, he passed the throne to his uncle and became a monk. Because he was of royal blood, he continued to be popularly known by his honourific title, An Hou [Marquis of Parthia]. He had broad and extensive knowledge of *Abhidharma Pitaka* and was an expert in meditation. Travelling and teaching, he set his footprints in the countries throughout the Western Regions. In the early Jianhe period of the reign of Emperor Huan of Han (about 148 CE), he came to Luoyang and soon learned Chinese and began to translate and publicise Buddhist sutras, successively with the translated works of *An ban shou yi jing* [*Sutra on the Maintenance of Thought by the Practice of Ānāpanāsati*], *Yin chi ru jing* [*Sutra on Skandha, Dhātu and Āyatana or On Entrance to Truth by Covert Maintenance*], Ren ben yu sheng jing [*Sutra on Moha, Chanda, and Jāti, or the Origin of the Life of Man in Desires*], *Dao De jing* [*Classic on Dao*] etc.

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An Shigao

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According to *Chu san zang ji ji* [*Compilation of Notes on the Translation of the Tripitaka*], An Shigao translated a total of 34 books (ie 40 volumes) of *sutras* but some of which were later lost and presently only 22 books (ie 26 volumes) are available. Later generations appraised his translation as done “with clear reasoning and appropriate wording, giving intellectual argument without rhetoric, embodying good quality without wildness”. It is easy for readers to understand, and often triggers their tireless learning enthusiasm. The translation project was stopped in late Jianning period of Emperor Ling of Han (168-171 CE) due to chaos around Guanzhong (present-day west of Lingbao, He’nan and the Shaanxi Guanzhong Plain area) and Luoyang. An Shigao then travelled to Jiangnan area to teach. There are some amazing stories about his stay in Yuzhang (present-day Nanchang, Jiangxi), Xunyang, Kuaiji (present-day Shaoxing, Zhejiang), Guangzhou and other places. According to legend, he finally passed away when he was accidentally attacked by fighters on the streets of Kuaiji. His activities in China spanned about 30 years in total. His doctrines belonged to the sthaviravāda school of Sectarian Buddhism and his interpretation primarily focussed on the two aspects ie *samadhi* [calmness] and *prajñā* [wisdom]. As *Gao seng zhuan* [*Memoirs of Eminent Monks*] does not verify the earlier arrival of Indian monks, Kāśyapamātanga and Dharamarakùa (or Dharamaratna), it can be safely presumed that An Shigao was the earliest translator of Chinese Buddhist *sutras*.

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(*Ge Weijun*)

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Lokaksema

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Lokakṣema (around 2ⁿᵈ century CE) was a sutra translator who came to China towards the end of Eastern Han Dynasty.

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According to *Biographies of Eminent Monks*, Lokakṣema was a monk of Yuezhi origin. He was a pure and kind-hearted person with high morals and hard-working nature. He read and chanted classics, and was dedicated to the mission of propagating doctrines (fa). In the later phase of the reign of Emperor Huan of Han (around 167 CE), he came to Luoyang and learned Chinese. During the Guanghe and Zhongping years of the reign of Emperor Ling (178-189 AD), he translated 13 Buddhist scriptures from Sanskrit version. When Dao’An, an eminent monk of Jin Dynasty (314-385 CE) compiled the *Comprehensive Catalog of Scriptures*, he personally went through the three scriptures, the years of which can be checked from the *Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra* (2^nd Guanghe year ie 179 CE), *Pratyutpanna Sutra* (*Pratyutpanna-buddha-sammukhàvasthita-samàdhi-såtra*, ditto), and *øåraïgamasåtra* (2^nd Zhongping year ie 185 CE), of which *Øåraïgamasåtra* was lost. There were also *Ādūshì Wáng Jīng*, *Mahàratnakåñasåtra*, *Manjusri-pariprcha-bodhisattva-sutra*, *Dousha Sutra* and so on which seemed to have been translated by Lokakṣema from the original language. Apart from the translation work by himself, he also often worked with Zhu-shuo-fo (also known as Zhufoshuo). For example, the two original classics

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Lokaksema

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of *Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra* and *Pratyutpanna Sutra* were introduced by Zhu-shuo-fo, and they were interpreted by Lokaksema and put down in writing by other Han scholars. His translation was straight with little rhetoric so that the essential meaning of the Sutra could be easily communicated and understood. But, in order to retain the basic features of the classics, he added lots of transliteration. Much of his translation belonged to *Mahayana* which can be regarded as the beginning of the translation of Mahayana sutra in the land of Han China. He has trained disciples like Zhi Liang, who has also trained other disciples like Zhi Qian.

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(*Ge Weijun*)

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Kang Senghui

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Kang Senghui (unknown-280 CE) was a translator of Buddhist scriptures who came to China during the Three Kingdoms period and a Buddhist preacher who firstly contributed to the spread of Buddhism to south China.

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According to the records in *Record Set of Tripitaka* and *Biographies of Eminent Monks*, Kang Senghui's ancestral home was in Kangju (an ancient country of the Western Regions, located between Balkhash Lake of Central Asia and Aral Sea in Han Dynasty,

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Kang Senghui

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then crossing Syr Darya and entering Uzbekistan area). He lived in India and joined his father's business and migrated to Jiaozhi (centre and north of present-day Vietnam). His parents were both dead when he was 10. After the mourning period, he became a monk and cultivated himself according to religious doctrines. He was a self-disciplined, magnanimous person with an outstanding ability and insight. He was studious and deep thinker, proficient in Buddhist Tripitaka, extensively studied astronomy and books of prophecy, ingenious in debate and good at writing. There is no record about when he arrived at the territory of Han. When Sun Quan unified the area on the south of Yangtze River beyond Wuhu and Nanjing, Buddhism was unpopular there. Then, Kang Senghui went there and proceeded to educate. He reached Jianye (present-day Nanjing of Jiangsu Province) in 10^th year of Chiwu (247 CE), built thatched cottages, set up Buddha statues and advocated Buddhist views. With special appearance and strange behaviour, he was soon called in by Sun Quan. It was said that after 21 days of fast, he had obtained a Buddhist relic and showed its spirituality and power in the presence of Sun Quan. Sun Quan admired deeply and set up a tower and temple so the area around it was called Buddha Temple. It is the first Buddhist temple built in the southern regions of Yangtze River and so it was also called Firstly-built (Jianchu) Temple. Kang Senghui preached and translated Buddhist scriptures there so that Buddha dharma flourished. It was said that after Sun Hao had succeeded the throne, he had invited Kang Senghui to preach in order to cure his chronic disease, then endured five disciplines and converted to Buddhism after recovery. In April of fourth year of Tianji (280 CE), Sun Hao surrendered to Jin. In September the same year, Kang Senghui suffered from a disease and died. His age is unclear. His honourific title is “Super Preach Chan Master”.

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Kang Senghui translated many sets of Buddhist scriptures in Jianye but now only *Collective Scripture of Six Paramitas* (eight volumes) and *Old and Miscellaneous Buddhist Parables* (two volumes) exist. The rest have been lost, such as *Purity Scripture of Bodhisattva*, *Obedience Scriptures* and 250 *Buddha Dharma of Bodhisattva*. Later generations evaluated that his translations were “excellent in scripture essence and righteous in article”. He wrote *Anapanasati Sutta*, *Buddha Dharma* and *Linden Scripture*, but only *Anapanasati Sutta* and *Buddha Dharma* foreword are remaining now. Kang Senghui learned from Han Lin, Pi Ye and Chen Hui, and was a disciple of An Shigao. But he was also influenced by Zhi Qian Mahayana’s ideas and Chinese traditional Confucianism and Daoism. So on one hand, he had sympathy for others, was determined to save the world and advocated saving society by saving human souls. On the other, he suggested the then emperor to implement benevolent policies to improve the real life of common people. These thoughts are fully demonstrated in *Collective Scripture of Six Paramitas*. The scripture is actually compiled into six chapters according to the “six paramitas” of Mahayana namely alms giving, keeping disciplines, enduring contempt, concentration, keeping still with deep meditation and wisdom. It contains 91 pieces of Buddhist scriptures and 82 stories of Buddha itself and the contents mostly contain advice. He hoped to simultaneously carry out five disciplines and 10 good deeds of Buddhism and principles of feudal moral conduct about Chinese traditional ethics among people to make them generally abide by monks and laymen. As to people with power, he advocated “determining laws with Buddha dharma and managing state affairs with a righteous heart”. As to common people, he encouraged them to be “a livestock with moral principles rather than a civilian without moral principles”. His great contribution to mastering Buddha dharma and Confucianism not only formed a unique and kind ethics of Buddhism, but also effectively promoted sinicisation of Buddhism.

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Zhiqian

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Zhi Qian (about 3^rd^ century CE) was a Buddhist scripture translator in the Three Kingdoms. His other name was Zhi Yue and the courtesy name was Gongming. Dates of birth and death are unknown but he was born in Dayuezhi. His grandfather, Fadu, led hundreds of his countrymen to migrate in China in Emperor Ling of Han (168~189 CE), and Zhi Qian also came together. He learnt from Zhi Liang, a disciple of Lokaksema (also see that article). He read a lot of Buddhist scriptures very carefully and learnt many folk skills. He read lots of foreign books and could speak six languages. They three were learned, and there was a saying that “no knowledge in the world was beyond the three Zhi”. In the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, he ran away from social upheaval in Wu with tens of fellow villagers. People called him “brain truster” since he was smarter than anyone else. Sun Quan, the Emperor of Wu (222~252 CE) heard of his wisdom and called him and asked him to coach the prince Sun Liang. Buddhist scriptures were mostly in Sanskrit and were not translated completely. From the first year of Huangwu of Sun Quan (222 CE) to the 2^nd^ year of Jianxing of Sun Liang (253 CE), he translated 27 Buddhist sutras such as *Vimalakirti Sutra*, *Nirvana Sutra*, *The Dhammapada*, *Daming Sutras*, *Amitabha Sutras*, *Buddhist on Nine-colour Deer* (according to *The Records of Tripitaka*), and another monk Zhu Jiangyan from Wuchang also participated. He also created the three files of *Buddhist Chants of Eulogy on Bodhisattva*, and annotated for Life and Death Sutras, which were all prevailing at that time. After Sun Liang ascended the throne, Zhi Qian retreated in Qiong’ai Mountain, stayed away from social affairs and made friends with Sramana. Later, he died in the mountains at the age of 60. Emperor Sun Liang of Wu wrote to the monks and praised that “Zhi Qian was simple and indifferent from wealth and fame, and should be spoken highly of from beginning to end.” The translations by Zhi Qian focus on “the real prajna is that the nature of all things in the world is empty and virtual, the words were elegant. He was a master of Buddhist scripture translation after An Shigao and Lokaksema and later Kumarajiva re-translated on the basis of this. All the translation work promoted the spread of Buddhism in China and Zhi Qian also played an important role in the understanding of Buddhism by Chinese people.

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(*Tan Jie*)

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Srimitra

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Śrīmitra [Bo Shilimiduoluo, 3^rd^~4^th^ century CE] paraphrased as Good Friend, was also briefly called Shimili. People of the time called him “Bema”. He was a monk and translator of Buddhist scriptures who lived between the 3^rd^ and 4^th^ centuries and came to China during Jin Dynasty.

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According to the record in *Biographies of Eminent Monks*, Śrīmitra was born in Western Regions and was once the prince of a country. Later, he resigned his sovereign authority in favour of his younger brother and became a monk. Śrīmitra’s look and gestures were handsome, bright and remarkable. During Yongjia period (307-313 CE) of Western Jin Dynasty, he came to the Central Plains in China for preaching. It was a time of war, he had to go to the south crossing Yangtze River and arrived in Jiankang (present-day Nanjing, Jiangsu), and lived in the Jianchu temple. Prime Minister Wang Dao admired his grace and immediately accepted him as a friend with the same inclination. Śrīmitra’s reputation was thus well-known. After that, all those who came for metaphysical discussions were contemporary celebrities. His disposition was, however, haughty and he did not learn Chinese. Communication depended on interpreters, but due to his excellent comprehension skills, he could always fully understand all hints, and communication was never hindered. He was also good at charms and it was said his charms were extraordinarily efficacious. Śrīmitra died at the age of 80 plus during Chengkang period (335-342 CE) in Eastern Jin Dynasty, and was buried in the east of gravel hills. Emperor Cheng of Jin Dynasty admired his charming appearance and behaviour, ordered to set up a temple beside his grave. Later Śramanas who came here established another temple called Bema Temple. When Śrīmitra was alive, there was no spells for Jiangdong, so the 12 volumes of *Buddha Incantation to Seventy-two Thousand Devaraja* for religious protection, one volume of *Incantation for Mahamayuri Devaraja* and one volume of *Incantation for Various Mahamayuri Devarajas etc* should be translated. In addition, he also had loud Buddhist chants handed down to following generations. He was also considered as the earliest representative for spreading Esoteric Buddhism.

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Srimitra

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(*Ge Weijun*)

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Kumarajiva

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Kumārajīva (343-413 CE) was one of the greatest Buddhist sutra translators in ancient China. His name meant “child longevity”.

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**Life of Kumārajīva** - According to volume 2 of *Biographies of Eminent Monks* and volume 14 of *Collected Records Concerning the Tripitaka*, Kumārajīva was an Indian by origin born in Qiuci (now Kuqa, Xinjiang). His ancestors were from a Brahmin family and his family took the minister position for generations. His grandfather was of uninhibited personality, outstandingly charming and well-known all around. His father, Kumārāyana, was honest and clever, not admiring vanity, and a highly valued reputation and disguised official’s position. When it came to his inheritance, he unexpectedly abandoned the family and travelled far to the east, climbing over Cong Ridge (now the Pamirs) and reaching Qiuci. King of Qiuci had long heard of his name, personally went out of the city-wall to meet him and then worshipped him as the royal priest. The king’s sister Jīvaka was extremely intelligent who could recite after hearing once. Although many princes and dukes proposed marriage to her, she firmly refused them. After Kumārāyana came, she fell in love with him at first sight and wished to marry him. The king also made every effort to facilitate the marriage. After Jīvaka and Kumārāyana got married, Kumārajīva was born. Not long after that Jīvaka joined the nunnery. At that time, Qiuci was one of the Buddhism in the east of Cong Ridge, and *Mahayana* and *Theravada* believes coexisted, but with *Theravada* taking the predominant position. Kumārajīva followed his mother and became a monk at the age of seven, and followed a teacher to learn sutra. He exhibited extraordinary talent in his study. He could not only recite a 1,000 verses, but had fast and in-depth understanding and mastering of the doctrines.

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Kumārajīva

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At the age of nine, Jīvaka brought him south to cross the Indus and reached Kophen (present day Kashmir), an important town of the Sarvāstivāda Buddhism, in order to make him accept the best Buddhist scholastic education. There he met Bandhudatta, the master with smart talent and broad knowledge who was one-of-a-kind at that time. He followed him to study the Kṣudraka, Dīrgha Āgama and Madhyama Āgama, all together four million words. The master often called him exceptionally divine and handsome. News reached the imperial court of Kophen and the king invited him to the palace to debate with many *vadins* (debaters) of other religions. The *vadins* of other religions bullied him since he was young and spoke arrogantly towards him but were attacked by him through the loopholes they left and they quit hastily in shame. After that, the king respected and treated him as a distinguished foreign guest, especially dispatching five monks and 10 novices in the temple for cleaning like the disciples. At the age of 12, Kumārajīva returned to Qiuci with his mother. The countries along the road wished to hire him with large sums of money but he refused except that he stayed in Kashgar for a year and learned the *Abhidharma Piṭaka* and *Sarvastivada-vinaya* under the Kashmiri monk, Buddhayaśas, and finally got profound understanding of the meanings. Under the suggestion of Śramaṇa Xijian, the King of Kashgar convened a meeting and asked Kumārajīva to rise on the high seat and to teach *Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta*. The move was not only helpful in motivating the sanghas in the country to study Buddhism, but it helped improve the relations between the two countries by paying tribute to Qiuci. Kumārajīva, besides teaching, actively searched for Hindu classics and books of other religions, read the four *vedas*, *panca-vidya* and other doctrines, and explored the knowledge of astronomy, calendar, divination, and astrology and later he could even fulfil all his predictions. In daily life, however, Kumārajīva was more willful and neglected minor points of conduct. And although censured by yogis, he did not mind about it. In Kashgar he fortunately came across Suryasoma who especially taught Mahayana Buddhism. He respected and followed him to study *Mādhyamikaśāstra*, *øata÷àstra*, *Dvàda÷amukha÷àstra* etc. And thus, he gave up Theravada to embrace Mahayana. Later, he returned to Wen Su, north of Qiuci, and encountered a heretic. The heretic, eloquent and renowned across the countries, beat the drum with his hands and said, “For anyone can win me, I’d be beheaded for him as an honorarium.”

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Kumārajīva accepted the challenge and won shortly after. So he was “famous across the left side of Cong Ridge and beyond the river” and the heretic also bowed to convert. The king of Qiuci went to Wen Su personally and welcomed him home. After the return, he, at the invitation of the princess A-Kie-ye-mo-ti, taught the essence of *mahasanni-pata-sutra* and illustrated the doctrines of “everything is empty” and “pseudonym is not real”, causing many Theravada believers to convert to Mahayana. At the age of 20, Kumārajīva was ordained at the King’s palace. Soon after, his mother went to Tianzhu and before she went, she told Kumārajīva to go to the eastern land to expand Mahayana. Kumārajīva committed that he would do it against all odds and even sacrifice himself. Two years later, Bandhudatta knew that Kumārajīva had extraordinary enlightenment and came from Kophen to visit him. Kumārajīva was extremely happy and repeatedly explained the essentials of *Mahayana* for more than a month and finally made him feel convinced and worshipped Kumārajīva as the teacher. Bandhudatta said, “I am your teacher in Theravada, and you are my teacher in Mahayana.” Since then, people from various countries in the Western Regions were convinced of his divinity, and sincerely admired him and even whenever there was a lecture in the

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*The relic stūpa of Kumārajīva located at the Caotang monastery, Hu County in Shaanxi Province, China.*

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ascended seat, there was a king kneeling beside for a long time for him to step on.

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Kumārajīva’s reputation spread to the central plains. At that time, an eminent monk, Dao An, was in Chang’an and wanted to meet Kumārajīva and interpret Buddhism doctrines with him. So every time he discussed with Fu Jian, the monarch of Former Qin, he would urge him to send an envoy to invite him. In February of the 17th Jianyuan year of Former Qin (381 CE), the kings of Shanshan and Qianbu came to ask Fu Jian to send troops to conquer west. In September the following year, Fu Jian sent Valiant Cavalry General Lu Guang and others to lead 70,000 soldiers to fight Qiuci, Yanqi and other countries in the west and instructed him to promptly send Kumārajīva into the border after conquering Qiuci. In the 20th Jianyuan year (384 CE), Lu Guang conquered Qiuci and seized Kumārajīva, but did not know of his honoured status, and bullied him and teased him as a mortal since he was young. He even forced Kumārajīva to marry the princess of Qiuci. Kumārajīva though firmly refused, was repeatedly asked and forced to drink and be shut in a secret chamber with the princess, eventually suffering the loss of integrity. Kumārajīva bore all these sorts of indignities calmly. The former Qin fell apart after the Battle of Feishui (383 CE). Two years later, Fu Jian was killed by Yao Chang. After Lu Guang returned with the troops to Liangzhou and knew about it, he established a regime by himself with the army and reigned in the corner. He didn’t follow Buddhism and just treated Kumārajīva as a necromancer who was good at predicting disasters and abnormalities and foretelling lucks and misfortunes. Although Kumārajīva was able to come in and out of the imperial court, he served only as an advisor. Though he was not able to expand Buddhism, Kumārajīva managed to learn Chinese in Liangzhou and attentively read the Chinese ancient classics and history books, paving the way for future work of translating sutras.

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Yao Chang of Later Qin also admired the name of Kumārajīva and repeatedly invited him modestly. But Lu Guang and his successors, Lu Zuan and Lu Long were jealous of his wisdom and capability and feared that he would be used by Yao Chang and did not want to let him travel to the east. Later, Yao Chang died and his son, Yao Xing, succeeded the throne. In May of the third Hongshi year of Later Qin (401 CE), Yao Xing sent Duke Longxi Yao Shuode to conquer Lv Long in the west. Kumārajīva was not invited at the border until Lu Long surrendered in September. He reached Chang’an on December 20. Yao Xing treated him with the etiquettes of a state master and offered preferential respect. At this point, Kumārajīva was detained outside the border for nearly 20 years and he himself was already 58-years-old. Yao Xing “worshipped *Triratna* since young age” and after the succession to the throne, he made great efforts to foster Buddhism. After Kumārajīva came, he talked with him all day long without pause. Under the urge of Yao Xing, Kumārajīva did not mind his old age and soon was devoted to teaching in the central plains. In over a decade’s time, he was diligent in translating a large number of classics. As he was kind in nature, modest and a good teacher, he was very popular among the believers. His handsome and elegant appearance and the clear and proud experience won the warm worship of the Buddhists and laymen. Yao Xing often said to him, “You, the master, are intelligent and with genius which is unmatched in the world. After your life, the Buddhism blood will have no heir. How could that be?” So he chose 10 prostitutes and forced him to accept. Kumārajīva had no way out but to leave the monk room and live in the official’s house, enjoying rich offerings and high rank. Breaking the sexual precept twice, Kumārajīva could not avoid being criticised by the people. The holy man image of Kumārajīva was also damaged. Later generations had sympathy for his vicissitude. Another legend even appeared in the Book of Jin, saying that at that time, some Buddhist disciples saw him living with a wife and in another house and wanted to follow his example. He summoned them together and put an entire pot of steel needles in front of them and said, “Those can imitate me can marry and live in another place.” And then he swallowed the needles as usual. All the monks were ashamed and refrained from these delusions. Such legends tried to persuade people that he had exceptional gifts which could not be measured with the common senses to speak for Kumārajīva. Later, Dao Xuan (596-667 CE) in his Dao Xuan Master Rapport Records, even said that Kumārajīva’s sutra translation was “unique and highly unmatched”. He was not an ordinary monk so he could conveniently do what he wanted. All the gossip in the streets about the corrupted commandment were nothing but average men’s prejudices which were simply “not worth commenting on”. Kumārajīva was not unaware of his violation against the commandment. So every time he taught, he would make confessions first, and hoped the listeners would see him as the lotus in the smelly mud as he taught, and just pick the lotus without the mud.

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**His Sutra Translation Career** Buddhism, since introduced in China at the time of Emperor Ming of Han period (58-75 CE), had been more than 200 years. And its classics, through the continuous efforts of the translation masters of An Shigao, Lokakṣema, Dharmaraksa, et al, had been translated into Chinese. However, translated Buddhist scriptures exhibited not only language differences but cultural barriers as well. So during early practice, it was extremely difficult to carry forward. The translated classics often had a sluggish style of writing which made it labourious for the believers to read and understand. Because of this, the priority of Kumārajīva was to re-translate the important classics. And for those that had not been introduced yet, he was cautious to translate and introduce. Kumārajīva read through the old classics, and did find that there were “many absurd interpretations that were mistranslated and not corresponding to the original text.” In the fourth Hongshi year of Later Qin (402 CE), Kumārajīva was invited to translate the sutras in Ximing Garden and Xiaoyao Garden. He either recited complete classics by virtue of memory or translated based on the existing Sanskrit versions. Those who listened and assisted in the translation included Sengrui, Sengzhao, Daorong, Daosheng, Tanying, Faqin etc, who were the best selected for the work of that time. According to the descriptions of several monk biographies, when Pa¤caviü ÷ ati-sāhasrikā-praj¤āpàramità was translated, Kumārajīva held the Sanskrit version by hand and Yao Xing read the old sutra aloud to match and compare. All the new translations made by Kumārajīva, which were different from the old sutra, were fluent in diction, accommodating in argumentation, which made the congregation on the translation spot convinced in admiration.

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During his 12-year stay in China, the classics translated by Kumārajīva, according to Kaiyuan Shijiao Lu, 74 books, or 384 volumes or according to conservative estimates, at least 35 books, or 294 volumes (according to the *Collected Records Concerning the Tripitaka*). The primary translated sutras include *Vajracchedikāprajñāpāramitā-sūtra*, *Amitābha-sūtra*, *Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra*, *Vimalakīrti-nirdeśa-sūtra*, *Prajñāpāramitā-hṛdaya-sūtra*, *Śūraṅgama-samādhi-sūtra*, *Daśabhūmika-sūtra*, *Dhyāna-niṣṭhita-samādhi-dharmaparyāya-sūtra*, the *Sūtra of Maitreya Bodhisattva’s Attainment of Buddhahood*, *Madhyamika-śāstra*, *Śata-śāstra*, *Dvādaśamukha-śāstra*, *Mahāprajñāpāramita-śastra* etc. There were also three volumes of Kumārajīva Master Doctrines, which was a collection of letters on the questions and answers between him and Master Huiyuan.

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Translation Style and Later Evaluation As a prominent scholar studying both *Mahayana* and *Theravada*, Kumārajīva went east to Chang’an and “carried forward the ultimate doctrines, and publishing excellent classics”, in order to clarify the ambiguous border of *Mahayana* and *Theravada* in China and actively expand *Mahayana* Buddhism he believed as his own duty. His translation was extremely serious. Sengzhao’s preface to a 100 Treatises called him “brief and concise, dedicated to keep the essential points”. Sengrui’s preface to the *Treatise on the Perfection of Wisdom* called him “vulgar and dedicated, repeating a sentence three times, striving to be perfect, dedicated to keep the essential points”. His arduous work was conceivable from these descriptions. In his late years when translating *Daśabhūmika-sūtra*, as there were some difficulties unsolved, though he had the original text in hand, he delayed for more than a month until his teacher, Buddhayaśas, came to Chang’an from Kophen. He didn’t start to write until consulting his teacher. His serious attitude towards translation could be seen from this example. As for his translation style, it is generally believed that he tended to paraphrase, focussing on meaning rather than form. *Collection of Translation Records* said that he “was unique and highly unmatched, so his translation emphasised comprehension first to convey the Buddhism meaning”. It’s obvious that his primary purpose was to deeply transfer the thoughts of the original canon. Though he prioritised on conveying the meaning as opposed to precise literal rendering, as he knew well about Sanskrit and Chinese, *Theravada* and *Mahayana*, he was fully capable of modifying, adding or deleting his translation for convenience. In fact, he did realise “adaptation to local dialect, fun without distorting the original text” and “although the article is variant, it does not go against the central meaning”.

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As for Chinese language level of Kumārajīva, there were different valuations. Some said he “can convert to Chinese with fluent transliteration”, “expert in the central land and good at local dialect”. Some said, he “knew the grand structure of the Qin language (Chinese)... and had special preference for local dialect. It is like it is still segmented and not integrated”. As for this, the later generation noticed that staying long in Liangzhou was helpful in his getting familiar with Chinese, so he could, when translating sutras later, “held the source text in hand and orally read it in the Qin language, explaining it with two different dialects, and cross-clarifying the central meanings”, which showed his style as a great translator. What is critical, however, was that Kumārajīva attracted a group of very talented Chinese monks around him, the most outstanding of whom were Daosheng, Daorong, Daorui, Daozhao etc. They had domestic and foreign learning with profound rhetoric. They understood deeply Kumārajīva’s recitation and translation of the sutras and could convey and write it in proper and elegant Chinese. They were quite supportive in the translation endeavour. Therefore, it’s difficult to exactly estimate Kumārajīva’s Chinese level, but the collective level of his sutra translation group is beyond doubt.

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Kumārajīva had a clear understanding of classic translation itself. He never thought that translation could fully convey the original canon, so he said, “translating Sanskrit into Chinese would lose its exquisite diction. Though the essential meaning is conveyed, the language style is different. It is like to chew food and give it to others; not only the flavour is lost, but it makes people throw up.” As for his work, he was very modest and proclaimed, “I incorrectly serve as the translator with my equivocal interpretation”. But for transferring the essence of the classics, he was confident. Before his death, Kumārajīva once swore before the crowd, “If my transferring is infallible, my tongue will not be burned after the burning of my body.” His body was incinerated the Indian way outside Xiaoyao Garden. It is said that as was expected “the fire went out and the body vanished. Only the tongue was not turned into ashes”. Not long later, a foreign śramana came to China, and said Kumārajīva’s translation was not as much as one-tenth of the classics he had a firm grasp on. It was a matter of regret that could not be made up for.

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*Da Zhilun translated by Kumārajīva*

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A horizontal inscribed board at Kumārajīva Memorial Hall at Caotang monastery

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Zan Ning in his *Biography of the Eminent Monks in Song Dynasty* said Kumārajīva’s translation “has some fun of language of the natural Western Regions” which showed his exquisite translation. His translation works went far beyond his predecessors and were beneficial for later generations. *The Collected Records Concerning the Tripitaka* called them “grand in expression, clear in sutra essence; sublime words in Mahayana were so splendid”. Although those were compliments, it was real that they had always been highly regarded. Some translation works, though translated by later great translators in the pursuit of better meaning, could not be replaced. The widely circulated are still Kumārajīva’s translations such as the Diamond Sutra, Lotus Sutra and so on.

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(Ge Weijun)

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She Gong

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She Gong (unknown～380 CE) was the monk who came to China in Eastern Jin Dynasty. He was good at conjuration magic and was also known as Sengshe.

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According to the 10ᵗʰ volume of *Biographies of Eminent Monks*, 95ᵗʰ volume of *Book of Jin* and 63ʳᵈ volume of *Fa Yuan Zhu Lin*, She Gong was a person from the Western Regions while his family name was not known. She Gong had been śramana since he was young. He was good at the skillful method of deep breathing and could walk 250 km within one day without eating any grains. She Gong could predict the events in the future what he had said would be bound to become true. He could also beg the magic dragon for rainfall with mantra. She Gong arrived in Chang’an in Jianyuan 20ᵗʰ year (376 CE) of former Qin Dynasty and was regarded highly by Emperor Fu Jian. It was said Fu Jian worshipped him as the god of his country, whenever there was drought usually Fu Jian would invite She Gong to call the dragon down to the alms bowl. After that there would be heavy rain. The gentries and civilians all admired his magic. She Gong died in Jianyuan 16ᵗʰ year without any illness. It was said his coffin was opened seven days later for inspection, but his corpse had disappeared.

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(Ge Weijun)

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Kalayasas

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Kālayaśas [Jiangliangyeshe] (about 390-450 CE) was an Indian monk and sutra translator who came to China in the Southern and Northern dynasties. His name was translated as Shicheng in Chinese.

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According to the records of *Biographies of Eminent Monks* and *Kaiyuan Catalogue of Buddhist Scriptures* etc, Kālayaśas from the Western Regions was straightforward and had a pure heart and fewer desires. He adopted a monastic life when he was a teenager. He was proficient in *Abhidharma*, read scriptures and sutras extensively, and had a good knowledge of Chan School. In the first year of Yuanjia of Song of the Southern Dynasty (424 CE), he crossed Liusha and arrived in the capital, Jiankang (present-day Nanjing, Jiangsu). Emperor Wen of Song respected him very much and arranged for him to live in Zhongshan Daolin Vihara. Being invited by Śramana Seng Han, he translated one volume of *Bhaishajyaraja Bhaishajya-samudgata Sutra* and *The Sutra on Visualisation of the Buddha of Infinite Life* respectively which were written by Seng Han in person. Kālayaśas left Jianye shortly and went to other places to disseminate the way of Chan. He came to Jiangling first, then arrived in Sichuan in the 19ᵗʰ year of Yuanjia and then he returned to Jiangling and died there at the age of 60.

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(Ge Weijun)

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Dharmanandi

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Dharmanandi [Tanmonanti] (c. 4ᵗʰ century CE) was a monk who came to China in Eastern Jin Dynasty for dissemination, education and translation of Buddhist Scriptures. His name paraphrased in Chinese meant joy with the understanding the *Buddha Dharma*.

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According to volume I of *Biographies of Eminent Monks*, volume IX of *Compilation of Notes on the Translation of the Tripitaka* and other data, Tanmonanti was from the country of Tukhara (northern Afghanistan). He was away from the worldly life since childhood, intelligent and mature in mind at an early age. He had read all classics of Tripitaka and was specially good at chanting and interpreting *Ekottara Agama*. All the fellow countrymen praised and admired his erudition. Tanmonanti's ambition was to develop and expand Buddha *Dharma* so he travelled from the distance through deserts and arrived in Chang'an in the middle of Jianyuan's reign of former Qin Dynasty (365～384 CE) (in volume VIII of *Three Treasures of Previous Dynasties*, it was said in the beginning of Jianyuan's reign while in Daoan's preface of *Ekottaragama* it was said in Jianyuan 20ᵗʰ year). He was heartedly welcomed with courteous reception by Emperor Fu Jian. On the request of Zhao Zheng, the prefecture chief of Wuwei and also the great officer of former Qin Dynasty, Tanmonanti cooperated with Dao An, Zhu Fonian and other famous monks on the translation project of 59 volumes of *Madhyamāgama* and 41 volumes of *Ekottarikāgama*, totally 100 volumes, (it was also said 92 volumes). These two Buddhist *sutras* were corrected by Samghadeva later to make it contemporaneous. Besides, according to volume VIII of *Three Treasures of Previous Dynasties*, Tanmonanti had also translated two volumes of *Tri-dharmika-śāstra* and two volumes of *Samgha-varti*. Later Fu Jian was killed by Yao Chang. Tanmonanti again translated one volume of *Sutta of Asoka's Abandoning of Evilness* for the minister Yao Min in Jianchu sixth year (the year of 391 CE, it was also said in Jianchu second year) of Later Qin Dynasty. However in volume I of *Biographies of Eminent Monks*, it was said when the invader Yao Chang exerted pressure on the areas inside Shanhaiguan pass, Tanmonanti had already taken leave for Western Regions. It was not known where he arrived which was not the same as the above sayings. It is difficult to mention how much sutras he had translated in volume VIII of *Three Treasures of Previous Dynasties* it was said five books and 114 volumes, while in volume I of *Biographies of Eminent Monks* it was said 106 volumes.

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*A horizontal inscribed book at Kumārajīva Memorial Hall at Caotang monastery*

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Dharmaruci

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Dharmaruci [Tanmoliuzhi] (also known as Fale and Faxi in free translation) (c. 4ᵗʰ – 5ᵗʰ century CE) is a Buddhist monk and famous translator who came to China in Southern and Northern dynasties (420 -589 CE).

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*Dharmaruci*

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According to *Biographies of Eminent Monks*, Dharmaruci was from Western Regions. After he abandoned his family and became a monk, he was famous for mastering *vinaya*. Puõyatàra once recited Sanskrit *Da ÷ a-bhàõavàra-vinaya* in Chang'an Central Temple and Kumārajīva translated it into Chinese. However when he translated two-third of the *vinaya*, Puņytārā died due to an illness. The eminent monk, Hui Yuan, living in Mt Lu knew that Dharmaruci mastered *vinaya*, so he quickly sent a letter to him and hoped that he could bring the book to Chang'an and continue to finish the translation. Dharmaruci received the letter and earnest invitation of Yao Xing, the emperor of later Qin Dynasty, and then he came to China in the autumn of seventh year of Hong Shi (405 CE) and finished the translation with Kumārajīva. However before the *vinaya* was revised and finalised, Kumārajīva died. So Dharmaruci went to other places with *vinaya*. It was said that after he had travelled to many places, he finally died in Liangzhou (present-day Wuwei, Guzang with district government on the west of Yellow River within Gansu). *Da ÷ a-bhàõavàra-vinaya* was finally supplemented and finished by Vimalàkùa.

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(*Ge Weijun*)

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Buddhavarman

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Buddhavarman [Futuobamo] (Futuobamo in paraphrase means conscious armour) was an Indian monk and translator who came to China in the Southern and Northern dynasties.

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According to Buddhist texts such as *Biographies of Eminent Monks*, Buddhavarman was exceptionally gifted from childhood in ancient India. He disciplined himself rigorously and learned *Tripitaka* extensively. The monk especially understood *Abhidharma-mahavibhāśā-śāstra* thoroughly and took it as the core of all *sutras*. During Yuanjia Period (424-453 CE) of Southern Dynasty, the eminent monk arrived in Liangzhou (present-day Wuwei where Guzang served as the capital, west of Yellow River valley in Gansu). In the very beginning, Śramana Daotai had obtained the original *Abhidharma-mahavibhāśā-śāstra* containing verses totalling more than 100,000 characters from nearby Congling (present-day Pamirs) and brought it back to Guzang. He modestly waited for a really qualified translator. Buddhavarman was invited to translate the sutra as soon as Daotai learned about his arrival. From the lunar fourth month of 14ᵗʰ Year (437 CE) of Yuanjia

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*Abhidharma Vibhāṣa*

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Period, Buddhavarman started the translation work at Xianyugong in the city of Liangzhou with the help of Daotai (who paraphrased the sutra according to Buddhavarman's verbal translation) as well as Huisong, Daolang and over 300 other erudite monks (who researched into the bilingual texts). Their 100-volume monumental work had not been finished until the lunar seventh month of 16ᵗʰ year of Yuanjia Period. Soon afterwards, Liangzhou was in chaos as Northern Wei attacked Guzang. As a result, many valuable objects including the above translations were tragically burnt down. Almost nothing was left. Fortunately, 60 volumes were copied upon the imperial edict from Northern Liang's king and then transferred to Southern Dynasty where they were preserved well. Later, another monk, Daoting, wrote an introduction to the great work which still exists. But Buddhavarman fled westward and vanished without a trace.

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(*Ge Weijun*)

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Dharmayasas

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Dharmayasas [Tanyao] (birth and death are unknown) was a monk and translator who came to China in the period of Northern Wei Dynasty and contributed to the revival of Buddhism here.

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The native place of Tan Yao is unknown. He was possibly from Western Regions. According to records of *Continued Biographies of Eminent Monks* and *Book of Wei: Annuals of Buddhism and Taoism* etc, he became a monk when he was a teenager. He followed Buddhism firmly, cultivated himself and learned scriptures in Liangzhou (present-day Wuwei, Gansu) and was famous for being proficient in Chan. He came to Pingcheng (present-day northeast of Datong, Shanxi), the capital of the northern Wei, and was respected by the crown prince Tuoba Huang, whose father Emperor Taiwu took the advice of Situ Cuihao to observe New Tian Shi Sect advocated by Daoist Kou Qianzhi, demolished Buddhism in the seventh year of Taiping Zhenjun (Perfect Ruler of Great Peace) of the Northern Wei Dynasty (446 CE) burnt temples and towers and forced monks to resume secular life. Tan Yao believed in Buddhism firmly and promised to defend it to death. The crown prince persuaded him repeatedly but he still hid monk clothes and instruments secretly and lived in mountains as a hermit. Cuihao was killed four years later. The crown prince, Huang, died next year. Emperor Taiwu was killed a year later and Emperor Wencheng succeeded the throne when he was 12. Under the influence of his father Tuoba Huang, he sent out the imperial decree to resume Buddhism with the support of ministers and assigned the monk, Shi Xian, to be Buddhist ruler a year later. Shi Xian died in the first year of Heping of Northern Wei Dynasty (about 460 CE). Tan Yao replaced him and the title was changed into Śramana ruler. He governed Buddhist monks and nuns. Emperor Wencheng respected him as his teacher and he became famous gradually. Monks and laymen respected him greatly. After becoming the Śramana ruler, Tan Yao was invited by Emperor Wencheng and he chiseled five rock caves and carved Buddha images on the northern cliff of Wuzhoushan Valley in the west of Pingcheng. The images were about 60 or 70 chi (1 chi = 1/3 m) high which were carved grandly, and they ranked No. 1 at that time. He built a temple named Lingyan Temple. The establishment of Datong Yungang Grottoes started from this. Hereafter, Emperor Xianwen and Emperor Xiaowen visited the grottoes several times. In the third year of Heping (462 CE), Tan Yao lived in Tongle Temple of Yungang Grottoes and convened eminent monks to translate four volumes of *Great Luck and Righteousness Sutra* and one volume of *Sutra of Pure Salvation*, and he translated six volumes of *Handing Down of Buddha's Teachings* and 10 volumes of *Sutra of Miscellaneous Treasures* (*Saṁyukta-ratna-piñaka-sâtra*) with Kekaya, the Śramana from Western Regions. In the second year of Huangxing of the Northern Wei Dynasty (468 CE), Emperor Xianwen conquered two prefectures Qin and Qi of Song of Southern Dynasty. He moved hundreds of local households to Pingcheng which were called Pingqi households. Tan Yao submitted a written statement to the Emperor and asked Pingqi households and those from other places which can provide 60 hu (1 hu = 100 kg) of grains to be monastic households, and their grains were called monastic grains. Meanwhile, severe criminals and official slave shall be Buddha households and engage in cleaning temples, growing crops and transporting grains. His statement was approved and laid economic foundation for revival of Buddhism. The measure had great influences on the development of future Buddhism.

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Samgha

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Samgha [Sengjia] (628~710 CE) was a monk who came to China from the east of Uzbekistan. He adopted monastic life when he was a teenager. A wandering monk, he intended to go south India previously but changed his mind and went to China. He went to Xiliang (present-day Wuwei, Gansu) at first and then towards east to Jianghuai in the first year of Longshuo of Emperor Gaozong of the Tang (661 CE) and lived in Longxing Temple in Shanyang (present-day Huaian). Hereafter, he built temple on the foundation of ancient Xiangji Temple in Linhuai (present-day Xuyi). There were more and more mysterious legends and he won his reputation largely. Li Xian, Emperor Zhongzong of the Tang Dynasty (705-710 CE) wrote *Universal Light King Temple* for the inscribed board of the temple and approved him to take three disciples. All of them made great achievements. In the second year of Jinglong (708 CE), he was invited to internal bodhimanda and was honoured as the national master. He died in a sitting posture two years later and was buried in Universal Light King Temple. The eminent monk, Wan Hui, honoured him as 'the incarnation of Avalokitesvara' at that time. The great poet, Li Bai, had a good relationship with him and wrote a *Song of Samgha* (volume 166 of *Complete Poems of the Tang Dynasty*) praised him as “real monk” and described his morality, appearance and manner. Li Yong wrote *Stele of Universal Light King Temple in Linhuai County, Sizhou Prefecture of the Great Tang* (volume 263 of *Complete Prose Works of the Tang*). From Li Bai’s poem, *Master Samgha* in volume 96 of *Extensive records of the Taiping Era* and volume 18 of *Song Dynasty Collection of Biographies of Eminent Monks*, it can be seen that Samgha propagated Mahayana doctrines and was proficient in *tantric mantras*. This reflected propagation conditions of Mahayana and Tantra in Central Asia and China. Samgha was very influential and there were many supernatural legends after his death. He was honoured as “Wise Master” by Emperor Yizong of the Tang after 100 years of his death. In the late Tang Dynasty, temples were built widely where his images were established and he was known as “the Great Wise Monk Samgha”. In the period of Emperor Taizong of the Northern Dynasty, Zhao Jiong (976-997 CE) ordered to rebuild his pagoda. He was known as “Great Saint in Sizhou”. Jiangsu joint archaeological team found Samgha’s bodily relics of Wukong Temple in Qingyang, Jiangyin in November 2003 in the underground palace. Moreover, volume 27 of *Records of the Transmission of the Lamp*, volume 15 of *Buddhist Records*, volume 2 of Su Shi’s *Collected Works of Su Dongpo* and volume 9 of Luo Mi’s *Grand History* had relevant records of Samgha.

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(*Xue Keqiao*)

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Siksananda

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Siksananda [Shichanatuo] (652-710 CE) was an Indian Buddhist monk and famous translator who came to China during Tang Dynasty. His name is also translated as Shiqichanantuo and in free translation is Xuexi.

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According to volume II of *Buddhist Biography in Song Dynasty*, volume IX of *The Kai-yuan Record of Buddhist Books*, Siksananda was from Northern Khotan (present-day Hotan in Sinkiang). He was intelligent and generous, had remarkable charms and great learning. He not only mastered Mahayana and Theravada but was also proficient in other areas of knowledge. During Wuzhou period, people advocated Buddha dharma, especially Mahayana. At that time *Buddhavatamsaka-Mahavaipulya-Sutra* had no complete Chinese translation. When Empress Wu Zetian heard that there was a complete scripture in Khotan, she despatched an envoy to search for it and invite translators for it. Therefore, Siksananda came to China with the *Buddhavatamsaka-Mahavaipulya-Sutra* in Sanskrit. He reached Luoyang in the first year of Zhengsheng (695 CE), lived in the Dabiankong Temple in the imperial palace and began the translation of the scriptures in March with Śramaṇa Bodhiruci from southern India and Śramaṇa Yijing reading out, Śramaṇa Hongjing, Yuance and Fazang writing and checking the meaning, and Śramaṇa Fuli reviewing. Empress Wu Zetian often came to the translation workshop in person, wrote the preface and first named it. The translation was finished in October of the second year of Shengli (699 CE) in Foshouji Temple, with 80 volumes in 39 categories. In the first year of Jiushi (700 CE), Empress Wu Zetian came to Sanyang Palace in Yingchuan, ordered Siksananda to translate seven volumes of *Lankāvatara-sutra* and wrote a preface for it. Later, Siksananda finished the translation of *Manjuśri Vyākarana Sutra* in Qingchan Temple in Chang’an and Foshouji Temple in Luoyang, with Śramana Bolun and Xuangui writing, Śramana Fabao and Hengjing checking the meaning, Śramana Fuli arranging the sentence patterns and official Taizi Zhongshe, Jia Yingfu monitoring. In the fourth year of Chang’an (704 CE), Siksananda made the request to return with the reason that he wanted to serve the aged mother and finally received the approval under repeat requests. Empress Wu Zetian ordered the censor Huo Siguang to escorted him to Khotan. After Emperor Zhongzong of Tang regained the throne, Siksananda was called up to Chang’an in the second year of Jinglong (708 CE). He was sent a beautifully decorated elephant to come riding, Emperor Zhongzong of Tang in person greeted him outside Kaiyuanmen and all the monks awaited him holding their own banners. Siksananda lived in Dajianfu Temple but fell ill before beginning the translation. On October 12 of the first year of Jingyun of Emperor Ruizong of Tang (710 CE), he died at the age of 59, lying on the right side with feet together. A month later, he was cremated at Gurandeng Platform outside Kaiyuanmen. It was said that his tongue remained after firewood burned up. Ten days later, his bone ash and tongue were returned to Khotan under the escort of disciple Beizhi and official Geshu Daoyuan. A tower was built specially for the storage. In Chang’an, a pagoda with seven floors was also built at the place he was cremated for commemoration. It was named Huayan Sanzang Pagoda by local people. In addition to the above scriptures, Siksananda also translated two volumes of *Dizang Bodhisattva Invocation Sutra*, and one volume each of *Sutra Spoken by Great Samantabhadra*, *Tathagatas Grahaka-citta-abhava State Sutra*, *Tathagatas Wisdom Grahaka-citta-abhava Sutra*, *The Discourse on the Ten Wholesome Ways of Action*, *Sutra of the Benefit of Walking Around Pagoda Clockwise*, *Four Sutra of Mahayana*, *Avalokiteshvara Secret Buddhadharma Nyo-i-rin Dharani Mantra Sutra*, *Ambrosia Dharani Sutra*, *Sutra of the Dharani for Miaobi Seals and Banners* and *The Dharani Sutra of 100,000 Seals*, with each having one volume. According to the record in *The Kai-yuan Record of Buddhist Books*, his translated works belonged to 19 categories and were in total 107 volumes.

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Cites (39)