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Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v2: Volume 2

Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v2

Language
English

Contents

Volume 2

Front matter

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Volume II

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An initiative by

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The Public Diplomacy Division Ministry of External Affairs Room No. 255, 'A' Wing, Shastri Bhawan, New Delhi-110001, INDIA T: +91- 11-23383316 F: +91-11-23384663 Website: www.indiandiplomacy.in

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Published in 2014 by

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Maxposure Media Group (I) Pvt. Ltd. Unit No. F2B, 2nd floor Mira Corporate Suites, Plot No. 1&2 Ishwar Nagar, Mathura Road New Delhi - 110065, INDIA T: +91-11-43011111 F: +91-11-43011199 Email:info@maxposure.in Website: www.maxposure.in CIN Number: U22229DL2006PTC152087

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All rights reserved. No part of this encyclopedia may be reproduced or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, except as may be expressly permitted in writing by the public diplomacy division, Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India.

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CONTENTS

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VOLUME I

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| PREFACE | xiii |
| CREDITS | xiv |
| **SECTION I** | |
| **INDIA-CHINA CULTURAL EXCHANGES** | **1** |
| Timeline of Chinese Dynasties and Other | |
| Key Events | 2 |
| General Introduction | 3 |
| **SECTION II** | |
| **COMMERCIAL INTERACTIONS BETWEEN** | |
| **INDIA & CHINA** | **19** |
| Overview | 22 |
| **A. Products** | **30** |
| Bodhi Tree | 30 |
| Sala Tree | 31 |
| Asoka Tree | 32 |
| Clover | 32 |
| Cucumber | 33 |
| Pepper | 34 |
| Bhallataka | 35 |
| Cotton | 36 |
| Saffron | 38 |
| Zebu | 39 |
| Porcelain | 40 |
| Silk | 40 |
| Embroidery | 41 |
| Cat’s Eye | 42 |
| Fine Cloth | 43 |
| **B. Early Modern Era** | **43** |
| Opium Trade | 43 |
| India-China Cotton Yarn Trade | 45 |
| Abdoolally Ebrahim & Co. | 46 |
| E D Sassoon & Co | 46 |
| Parsis | 47 |
| Shikarpuri Financiers | 48 |
| Ismaili Traders | 48 |
| The Tatas | 49 |
| The Harilelas | 50 |
| Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy | 50 |
| K R Cama | 51 |
| H N Mody | 51 |
| Paul Chater | 52 |
| Ellis and Elly Kadoorie | 52 |
| **SECTION III** | |
| **SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY** | **55** |
| Overview | 58 |
| **A. Mathematics and Astronomy** | **71** |
| Ancient Indian Mathematics and Astronomy | 71 |
| *Terms, Items* | *75* |
| Zero | 75 |
| Portraits of Constellation Gods | 75 |
| *Personalities* | *76* |
| Zhen Luan | 76 |
| Yixing | 77 |
| Dharmacandra | 78 |
| Kasyapa | 79 |
| Gautama Siddhartha | 80 |
| Kumara | 80 |
| *Works* | *80* |
| Kai Yuan Zhan Jing | 80 |
| Jiuzhi Calendar | 81 |
| Sardulakarnavadana | 82 |
| Sardulakarnavadana, Pictures of Constellations | 83 |
| Prince Shetoujian’s Twenty-Eight Constellations Scripture | 84 |
| Constellation Scripture | 84 |
| Brahman Siddhanta | 87 |
| **B. Medical Sciences** | **88** |
| Cikitsāvidyā | 88 |
| Indian Medical Science and its Transmission to China | 89 |
| *Personalities* | *93* |
| Ge Hong | 93 |
| Tao Hongjing | 93 |
| Sun Simiao | 94 |
| Wang Tao | 96 |
| Li Shizhen | 96 |
| George Hatem | 97 |
| Tang Youzhi | 98 |
| Nagarjuna - the Physician | 99 |
| Buddhacinga | 99 |
| Jīva | 100 |
| Buddhasena | 101 |
| Jīva Jivaka | 101 |
| *Works* | *102* |
| Valuable Prescriptions for Emergency | 102 |
| Supplement to Valuable Prescriptions | 103 |
| Arcane Essentials from the Imperial Library | 104 |
| Bodhisattva Nagarjuna’s Treatise on Ophthalmology | 105 |
| Sutra of Buddhist Medicine | 106 |
| Bower Manuscript | 107 |
| Siddhasàra | 108 |
| Jivaka Pustaka | 109 |
| Essentials of Prescriptions by Various Medical Scientists | 110 |
| **C. Technological Exchanges** | **111** |
| Qi Min Yao Shu | 111 |
| Sugar Making | 111 |
| Tea Cultivation | 112 |
| Zhu Kezhen | 113 |
| **SECTION IV** | |
| **EXCHANGES BASED ON BUDDHISM** | **115** |
| Overview | 118 |
| **A. Sects** | **132** |
| Chinese Buddhism | 132 |
| Tiantai School | 136 |
| Faxiang School | 139 |

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Tibetan Buddhism . . . . . 141 rnying ma pa Sect . . . . . 142 sa skya pa Sect . . . . . 143 bkav brgyud pa Sect . . . . . 144 dge lugs pa Sect . . . . . 146 jo nang pa Sect . . . . . 147 thi byed Sect . . . . . 148 Theravada Buddhism in Yunnan . . . . . 149 Acharya Buddhism . . . . . 151

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B. Buddhist Sacred Places . . . . . 151

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Lumbini . . . . . 151 Kapilvastu . . . . . 152 Bodhgaya . . . . . 153 Vajrasana . . . . . 154 Gaya . . . . . 155 Mrigdava . . . . . 156 Sarnath . . . . . 156 Shravasti . . . . . 157 Rajgriha . . . . . 158 Griddhkuta Hill . . . . . 159 Vaishali . . . . . 160 Kushinagar . . . . . 161 Mahabodhi Vihar . . . . . 162 Nalanda . . . . . 164 Vikramasila Mahavihar . . . . . 165

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C. Monasteries . . . . . 166

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Mount Wutai . . . . . 166 Mount Putuo . . . . . 169 Mount E'mei . . . . . 171 Mount Jiuhua . . . . . 172 White Horse Temple . . . . . 173 Famen Temple . . . . . 174 Jianchu Temple . . . . . 175 Daxingshan Temple . . . . . 175 Asoka Temple . . . . . 176 Tanzhe Temple . . . . . 176 Lingyin Temple . . . . . 177 Caotang Temple . . . . . 178 Shaolin Temple . . . . . 178 Yongning Temple . . . . . 179 Jiming Temple . . . . . 180 Xiangguo Temple . . . . . 180 Fayuan Temple . . . . . 181 Dacien Temple . . . . . 181 Xingjiao Temple . . . . . 182 Kaiyuan Temple . . . . . 182 gtsug lag khang . . . . . 183 Potala Palace . . . . . 184 bsam yas dgon . . . . . 189 mtho ldings dgon . . . . . 189 Miaoying Temple . . . . . 190 bya khyung dgon . . . . . 191 Dabaoen Temple . . . . . 192 vbras spungs dgon . . . . . 193 se ra theg dgon . . . . . 193 bkra shis lhun po dgon . . . . . 194 sku vbum dgon . . . . . 195 dgon lung dgon . . . . . 196 chu bzang dgon . . . . . 196 gsar khog dgon . . . . . 197 dpal yul dgon . . . . . 197 Yonghegong Temple . . . . . 198 Eight Temples of Chengde . . . . . 198

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D. Personalities . . . . . 200

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Indian Personalities* . . . . . 200

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Sakyamuni . . . . . 200 Mahamaudgalyayana . . . . . 204 Asoka . . . . . 204 Asokan Inscriptions . . . . . 206 Kasyapamatanga . . . . . 207 Dharamaratna . . . . . 207 Nagarjuna . . . . . 208 Deva . . . . . 211 Dharmakala . . . . . 212 Dharmamitra . . . . . 213 Buddhabhadra . . . . . 214 Gunavarman . . . . . 215 Dharmaraksa . . . . . 216 Gunabhadra . . . . . 217 Punyatara . . . . . 218 Sanghadeva . . . . . 219 Dharmayasas . . . . . 220 Vimalaksa . . . . . 220 Buddhayasas . . . . . 221 Sanghavarman . . . . . 222 Asanga . . . . . 222 Vasubandhu . . . . . 224 Buddhajiiva . . . . . 225 Gunavriddhi . . . . . 225 Bhavaviveka . . . . . 226 Narendrayasas . . . . . 227 Paramartha . . . . . 228 Buddhabhadra . . . . . 229 Dignaga . . . . . 230 Ratnamati . . . . . 231 Bodhiruci . . . . . 231 Gautamaruci . . . . . 233 Bodhidharma . . . . . 233 Jnanagupta . . . . . 234 Prabhakarmitra . . . . . 236 Silabhadra . . . . . 237 Gunaprabha . . . . . 237 Dharmagupta . . . . . 238 Dharmakirti . . . . . 239 Candrakirti . . . . . 239 Divakara . . . . . 239 Cunda . . . . . 240 Subhakarasimha . . . . . 240 Atigupta . . . . . 242 Jnanaprabha . . . . . 242 Prajnanadeva . . . . . 243 Bhagavaddharma . . . . . 243 Nati . . . . . 243 Buddhatrata . . . . . 244 Vajrabodhi . . . . . 244 Buddhaphala . . . . . 245 Jnanacandra . . . . . 246 Simharashmi . . . . . 246 Manicinta . . . . . 247 Pramiti . . . . . 247 Amoghavajra . . . . . 248 Santiraksita . . . . . 249 Prajna . . . . . 251 Bodhiruci . . . . . 252 Kamalasila . . . . . 252 Sarivarma . . . . . 253 Padma . . . . . 253 Padmasambhava . . . . . 254

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Vimalamitra . . . . . 255 Munisri . . . . . 256 Candragupta . . . . . 256 Dharmapala . . . . . 256 Danagupta . . . . . 257 Devasanti . . . . . 258 Manjusri . . . . . 259 Atisha . . . . . 259 Tilopa . . . . . 262 Naropa . . . . . 262 Dharmadeva . . . . . 263 pha damba sangje . . . . . 263 Maitrabhadra . . . . . 265 Niguma . . . . . 265 Sukha Siddhi . . . . . 265 Omkarasri . . . . . 265 kha che pan chen shaky shi . . . . . 265 Sudhasri . . . . . 265 Buddhasri . . . . . 266 Sunyadisya . . . . . 266 Sahajasri . . . . . 267 Devadasa . . . . . 267 Samghapala . . . . . 267 Sakyayasas . . . . . 268 Virupa (bir wa ba) . . . . . 268 **Western Region Personalities** . . . . . **269** An Shigao . . . . . 269 Lokaksema . . . . . 269 Kang Senghui . . . . . 270 Zhiqian . . . . . 271 Srimitra . . . . . 271 Kumarajiva . . . . . 272 She Gong . . . . . 276 Kalayasas . . . . . 276 Dharmanandi . . . . . 276 Dharmaruci . . . . . 277 Buddhavarman . . . . . 277 Dharmayasas . . . . . 278 Samgha . . . . . 279 Siksananda . . . . . 279 Jnanabhadra . . . . . 280 Li She . . . . . 281 Siladharma . . . . . 281 Wutitichanyu . . . . . 282 Purnacandra . . . . . 282 **Chinese Personalities** . . . . . **282** Liu Ying . . . . . 282 Zuo Rong . . . . . 283 Zhu Shixing . . . . . 283 Dharmaraksha . . . . . 284 Daoan . . . . . 285 Zhidun . . . . . 286 Fahe . . . . . 287 Faxian . . . . . 288 Huirui . . . . . 291 Baoyun . . . . . 292 Zhimeng . . . . . 292 Kang Falang . . . . . 293 Huisheng . . . . . 293 Fali . . . . . 294 Sengmeng . . . . . 295 Tanlang . . . . . 295 Zhiyan . . . . . 295 Daorong . . . . . 296 Xuanzang . . . . . 296 Yijing . . . . . 304 Fazang . . . . . 309 Huiri . . . . . 310 Shenhui . . . . . 310 Wukong . . . . . 311 yeshe tshogyal . . . . . 312 Virocana . . . . . 313 Li Chengmei . . . . . 314 lo chen rin chen bzang po . . . . . 314 Daoyuan . . . . . 315 Xingqin . . . . . 315 Cihuan . . . . . 315 Jiye . . . . . 315 Guangyuan . . . . . 316 Fayu . . . . . 316 Jiansheng . . . . . 316 Jicong . . . . . 316 Chongda . . . . . 317 Weijing . . . . . 317 vbrog mi shakya ye shes . . . . . 317 Huaiwen . . . . . 318 Jiquan . . . . . 318 Daoyuan . . . . . 319 vbrom ston pa rgyal bavi vbyung gnas . . . . . 319 nag tsho tshul khrims rgyal ba . . . . . 320 mar pa chos kyi blo gros . . . . . 320 Macig Labdron . . . . . 321 rngog blo ldan shes rab . . . . . 323 rngog legs pvishes rab . . . . . 323 rgya brtson vgrus seng ge . . . . . 324 cha pa chos kyi seng ge . . . . . 324 kun dgav rgyal mtshan . . . . . 324 Yuanyi . . . . . 325 klong chen rab vbyams pa . . . . . 326 red mdav ba gzhon nu blo gros . . . . . 326 tsong kha pa . . . . . 326 Zhiguang . . . . . 328 dge vdun rgya mtsho . . . . . 329 bson nams rgya mtsho . . . . . 329 pan chen blo bzang chos kyi rgyal mtshan ... 330 ta ra na tha . . . . . 330 yon ldan rgya mtsho . . . . . 332 grags pa vod zer . . . . . 332 ngag dbang rgya mtsho . . . . . 332 blo bzang bstan pvi rgyal mtshan . . . . . 333 lcang skya ngag dbang blo bzang chos ldan . . . . . 333 si tu chos kyi vbyung gnas . . . . . 334 lcang skya rol pvi rdo rje . . . . . 335 vju mi pham vjam dbyangs rhamgyal rgya mtsho . . . . . 335

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E. Scriptures . . . . . 336

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Tripitaka . . . . . 336 Buddhist Canon in Chinese . . . . . 337 bod yig gyi bkav bstan vgyur . . . . . 338 Buddhist Canon in Mongolian . . . . . 339 Buddhist Canon in Manchu Language . . . . . 340 Buddhist Canon in Tangut Language . . . . . 341 Buddhist Canon in Dai Language . . . . . 341 Ullambana Sutra . . . . . 342 A Biography of Tripitaka Master . . . . . 342 Biographies of Eminent Monks of the Great Tang Seeking Scriptures in the Western Regions . . . . . 343

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A Record of the Buddhist Religion as Practised in India and the Malay Archipelago . . . . . 346 Bodhimargadipasastra . . . . . 349 Moksalankarasastra . . . . . 350 bu ston chos vbyung . . . . . 351 rgya gar chos vbyung . . . . . 352 chos vbyung dpag bsam ljon bsang . . . . . 352 thuvu bkwan grub mthav . . . . . 353 gu bkrvi chos vbyung . . . . . 353

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**F. Doctrines** . . . . . **354** grub mthav smra ba . . . . . 354 gzhung bkav pod lnga . . . . . 355 gzhan stong gi lta ba . . . . . 356 rgyud . . . . . 357 Way of Great Perfection . . . . . 360 lam vbras . . . . . 361 phyag rgya chen po . . . . . 361 sbor drug . . . . . 362 naro chosdrug . . . . . 362 smon lam chen mo in Tibetan . . . . . 362

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SECTION V

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PHILOSOPHY . . . . . 365

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Overview . . . . . 368

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**A. Theory** . . . . . **375** Pancavidya . . . . . 375 Hetuvidya . . . . . 376 Hetuvidya of Tibetan Buddhism . . . . . 383 Collected Topics of Tibetan Buddhism .......... 383 Adhyàtma Vidyà . . . . . 384 Metaphysics of the Wei and Jin Dynasties ... 384 Neo Confucianism of Song and Ming Dynasties . . . . . 389 Jainism . . . . . 393 Six Orthodox Schools . . . . . 399 Samkhya . . . . . 402 Yoga . . . . . 407 Vaisheshika . . . . . 413 Nyaya . . . . . 418 Mimamsa . . . . . 424 Vedanta . . . . . 425 Six Stramana Masters . . . . . 432 Lokayata . . . . . 435 Ajivaka . . . . . 438

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**B. Concepts** . . . . . **440** Brahmatmaikya . . . . . 440 Samsara . . . . . 441 Vimukti . . . . . 444

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**C. Personalities** . . . . . **446** Laozi . . . . . 446 Confucius . . . . . 450 Ma Dexin . . . . . 455 Kang Youwei . . . . . 456 Sun Yat-sen (Sun Zhongshan) . . . . . 457 Zhang Binglin (Zhang Taiyan) . . . . . 460 Liang Qichao . . . . . 461 Swami Vivekananda . . . . . 462 Aurobindo . . . . . 466 Surendranath Dasgupta . . . . . 471 Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan . . . . . 471 Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya . . . . . 473

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**D. Works** . . . . . **474** Lao Zi . . . . . 474 Analects . . . . . 476 Vedas . . . . . 477 Rig Veda . . . . . 481 Brahmanas . . . . . 482 Upanishad . . . . . 483 Yogasutra . . . . . 488 Vaisheshika Sutra . . . . . 491 Nyaya Sutra . . . . . 496 Brahma Sutra . . . . . 497 Bhagavadgita . . . . . 500 Hiran yasaptati . . . . . 501 Dasapadarthasastra . . . . . 502

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**E. Events** . . . . . **504** Debate between Buddhism and Daoism ........ 504

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SECTION VI

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LINGUISTICS . . . . . 509

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Overview . . . . . 512 Ancient Chinese Translation . . . . . 515

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**A. Terms - Concepts** . . . . . **517** Shabdavidya . . . . . 517 Siksa . . . . . 518 Nirukta . . . . . 519 Vyakarana . . . . . 519 Brahmi Script . . . . . 520 Kharosthi Script . . . . . 521

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**B. Personalities** . . . . . **522** Xuanying . . . . . 522 Huilin . . . . . 523 Zhiguang . . . . . 524 Shouwen . . . . . 524 Panini . . . . . 525 Patanjali . . . . . 526

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**C. Dictionaries** . . . . . **526** Sanskrit-Tibetan Dictionary . . . . . 526 Nighantu . . . . . 527 Siddharastu . . . . . 527 Shabdavidya Sastra . . . . . 528

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VOLUME II

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SECTION VII

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LITERATURE . . . . . 531

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Overview . . . . . 534

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**A. Literary Genre** . . . . . **547** Fictional Narratives of the Supernatural World . . . . . 547 The Legend of the Tang Dynasty . . . . . 548 Transformational Texts . . . . . 548 Stories of Gods and Demons . . . . . 549 Maudgalyayana Opera . . . . . 549 Indian Mythology . . . . . 550 Buddhist Literature in India . . . . . 555 Indian Folk Literature . . . . . 556

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**B. Personalities** . . . . . **557** Chen Duxiu . . . . . 557 Lu Xun . . . . . 559 Su Manshu . . . . . 561 Guo Moruo . . . . . 564 Xu Dishan . . . . . 565

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Mao Dun . . . . . 568 Xu Zhimo . . . . . 569 Zheng Zhenduo . . . . . 570 Bing Xin . . . . . 571 Ba Jin . . . . . 573 Ai Qing . . . . . 575 Yang Shuo . . . . . 576 Wu Xiaoling . . . . . 576 Shi Zhen . . . . . 577 Mu Dan . . . . . 578 Asvaghosa . . . . . 579 Kalidasa . . . . . 581 Bana . . . . . 586 Rabindranath Tagore . . . . . 589 Thakur Gadadhar Singh . . . . . 596 Mahendulal Garg . . . . . 597 S C Chatterjee . . . . . 597 Muhammad Iqbal . . . . . 598 Amar Singh . . . . . 599 Munshi Premchand . . . . . 599 Jaishankar Prasad . . . . . 601 Yashpal . . . . . 601 Jainendra Kumar . . . . . 602 Mulk Raj Anand . . . . . 602 R K Narayan . . . . . 603 Agyeya . . . . . 604 K A Abbas . . . . . 605 Krishan Chander . . . . . 605 Maitreyi Devi . . . . . 606 V Akilan . . . . . 607

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C. Works . . . . . 607

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The Tale of the Procurement of Scriptures by the Tripitaka Master of the Great Tang . . . . . 607 The Investiture of the Gods . . . . . 608 The Drama of Journey to the West . . . . . 609 Journey to the West . . . . . 609 Expedition to the Western Oceans . . . . . 611 Mahabharata . . . . . 612 Ramayana . . . . . 615 Jatakamala . . . . . 620 Harsacarita . . . . . 620 Nagananda . . . . . 621 Pancatantra . . . . . 622 Puranas . . . . . 623 Padmavat . . . . . 627 Ramacaritamanas . . . . . 627 Sursagar . . . . . 628 Kabirgranthavali . . . . . 629

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SECTION VIII VISUAL AND PERFORMING ARTS . . . . . 631

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Overview . . . . . 634

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A. Music • Dance • Drama . . . . . 650

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Kucha Music . . . . . 650 Buddhist Music . . . . . 651 Indian Music . . . . . 652 Saptaswaras . . . . . 656 Tianzhu Music . . . . . 657 Indian Dance . . . . . 657 Bharatanatyam . . . . . 663 Indian Drama . . . . . 666

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B. Personalities . . . . . 668

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Wan Baochang . . . . . 668 Cao Miaoda . . . . . 668 Sujiva . . . . . 668 Cui Lingqin . . . . . 669 Nan Zhuo . . . . . 670 Duan Anjie . . . . . 671 Mei Lanfang . . . . . 671 Zhang Jun . . . . . 674 Uday Shankar . . . . . 676 Ravi Shankar . . . . . 677 Kamala Lakshman . . . . . 680

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C. Types of Songs and Dances . . . . . 680

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Lion Dance . . . . . 680 Triumphant March of Prince of Qin . . . . . 681 Nishangyuyi Melody . . . . . 683 Brahman Sangeet . . . . . 684 Natyashastra . . . . . 685

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D. Painting • Sculpture . . . . . 686

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Concepts and Schools* . . . . . 686

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Chinese Painting . . . . . 686 Cao Zhongda Technique . . . . . 688 Iron Line Drawing . . . . . 688 Ancient Indian painting Technique . . . . . 689 Gandhara Art . . . . . 690 Gupta Art . . . . . 691 Nimnonnata . . . . . 694

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Architecture* . . . . . 695

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Dunhuang Caves . . . . . 695 Binglingsi Caves . . . . . 696 Yungang Caves . . . . . 697 Qizil Caves . . . . . 699 Dayan Stupa . . . . . 699 Ajanta Caves . . . . . 700 Great Stupa of Kanishka . . . . . 701 Sanchi Stupa . . . . . 702

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Personalities* . . . . . 702

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Gu Kaizhi . . . . . 702 Dai Kui . . . . . 703 Zhang Sengyou . . . . . 704 Cao Zhongda . . . . . 704 Wu Daozi . . . . . 705 Yuchi Yiseng . . . . . 706 Yang Huizhi . . . . . 706 Zhang Yanyuan . . . . . 706 Qi Baishi . . . . . 707 Xu Beihong . . . . . 707 Zhang Daqian . . . . . 709 Ye Qianyu . . . . . 709 M F Hussain . . . . . 710 Abanindranath Tagore . . . . . 711 Nandalal Bose . . . . . 712

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E. Films . . . . . 712

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Chinese Films in India . . . . . 712 Indian Films in China . . . . . 713

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Personalities . . . . . 717

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Bruce Lee . . . . . 717 Zhang Yimou . . . . . 718 Jackie Chan . . . . . 718 Sachindranath Sengupta . . . . . 719 Satyajit Ray . . . . . 719 Raj Kapoor . . . . . 720

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Works . . . . . 721

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Awara . . . . . 721 Do Bigha Zamin . . . . . 721

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Jhansi Ki Rani . . . . . 722 Karwan . . . . . 723 3 Idiots . . . . . 723

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SECTION IX

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FOLK CUSTOMS, HEALTH & FITNESS ........... 725

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Overview: Folk Customs . . . . . 728

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Buddhism and Chinese Popular Beliefs ......... 733 Buddhism and Chinese Popular Festivals ...... 737 sa ga zla ba Festival . . . . . 742 zho ston Festival . . . . . 742 bcu bavi Inga mchod Festival . . . . . 742

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Overview: Health & Fitness . . . . . 743

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Concept & Terms . . . . . 749 Qigong . . . . . 749 Wushu . . . . . 750 Indian-style Massage . . . . . 751 Yoga . . . . . 751 Kalaripayattu . . . . . 757

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Works . . . . . 758

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Tendon-strengthening Sutra . . . . . 758

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SECTION X

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COMMUNICATIONS LINKS AND SITES OF INTERACTION . . . . . 761

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Overview . . . . . 764 Silk Road . . . . . 771 India-China Transport and Communication Lines During World War II . . . . . 775

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A. Names of Places . . . . . 776

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China . . . . . 776 Chang’an . . . . . 776 Luoyang . . . . . 777 Kashgar . . . . . 778 Yarkand . . . . . 779 Turfan . . . . . 779 Shanghai . . . . . 780 Hong kong . . . . . 781 India . . . . . 782 Magadha . . . . . 783 Takshasila . . . . . 783 Pataliputra . . . . . 784 Kalinga . . . . . 784 Gandhara . . . . . 785 Kashmir . . . . . 786 Chola . . . . . 786 Tamralipta (now Tamluk) . . . . . 787 Uddiyana . . . . . 788 Kamarupa . . . . . 788 Kanchipuram . . . . . 789 Purushapura (now Peshawar) . . . . . 789 Kollam (Quilon) . . . . . 790 Bengala . . . . . 791 Kochi . . . . . 792 Varanasi . . . . . 792 Madras (now Chennai) . . . . . 794 Ladakh . . . . . 795 Bombay (now Mumbai) . . . . . 796 Calcutta (now Kolkata) . . . . . 797 Assam . . . . . 798

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B. Personalities and People . . . . . 799

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Zhang Qian . . . . . 799 Wang Dayuan . . . . . 800 Yang Dazhao (Atchew) . . . . . 801 Chinese Community in India . . . . . 801

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C. Works . . . . . 803

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Records of the Western Regions of the Great Tang . . . . . 803

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SECTION XI

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DIPLOMATIC EXCHANGES . . . . . 807

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Overview . . . . . 810

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A. Concepts . . . . . 817

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Panchsheel (Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence) . . . . . 817 Hindi Chini Bhai Bhai . . . . . 817

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B. Events . . . . . 818

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Visit of Chiang Kai-shek and his wife to India . . . . . 818 Chinese Army in India 1942-1945 . . . . . 819 Establishment of India-China Diplomatic Relations . . . . . 819 Visit of Indian Leaders to China Since the Establishment of Diplomatic Relations .......... 820 Visit of Chinese Leaders to India Since the Establishment of India-China Diplomatic relations . . . . . 822 Rajiv Gandhi’s Visit to China in 1988 . . . . . 825 Chinese Cultural Delegation’s Visit to India in 1954 . . . . . 825

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C. Organisations, Institutions, Delegations . . . . . 826

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China-India Friendship Association . . . . . 826 India-China Goodwill Mission . . . . . 827 Indian Residents Association, Tianjin . . . . . 827 The Ghadar Party . . . . . 828 Indian National Association of China . . . . . 828 Indian Youth League . . . . . 829 Indian Independence League . . . . . 829 India-China Friendship Society . . . . . 830 Indian Women’s Society for India-China Friendship . . . . . 831 Indian Medical Mission . . . . . 831 All India Dr Kotnis Memorial Committee ..... 832

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D. Personalities . . . . . 832

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Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty . . . . . 832 Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei Dynasty .... 834 Emperor Taizong of Tang Dynasty . . . . . 835 Emperor Gaozong of Tang Dynasty . . . . . 837 Empress Wu Zetian . . . . . 838 Wang Xuance . . . . . 840 Li Yibiao . . . . . 842 Kublai Khan . . . . . 843 Yang Tingbi . . . . . 845 Emperor Chengzu of Ming Dynasty . . . . . 845 Zheng He . . . . . 846 Huang Maocai . . . . . 847 Ma Jianzhong . . . . . 848 Wu Guangpei . . . . . 849 Soong Ching-ling . . . . . 850 Mao Zedong . . . . . 851 Zhou Enlai . . . . . 852 Deng Xiaoping . . . . . 853 Gupta King . . . . . 854 King Harsavardhana (Siladitya) . . . . . 854

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Narasimhavarman II Rajasimha . . . . . 858 Chandrapida . . . . . 858 Luo Haoxin . . . . . 859 Rajendra Chola . . . . . 859 Devakara . . . . . 860 Tie Ge . . . . . 860 Qasar Qaya . . . . . 860 Ibrahim Sharqi . . . . . 861 Saifuddin Hamza Shah . . . . . 861 Jalaluddin . . . . . 863 Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi . . . . . 863 Raja Mahendra Pratap . . . . . 868 M N Roy . . . . . 868 Benoy Kumar Sarkar . . . . . 869 Jawaharlal Nehru . . . . . 870 Subhash Chandra Bose . . . . . 871 Dr M Ramachandra Cholkar . . . . . 872 Dr Madan Mohanlal Atal . . . . . 872 Dr Dwarkanath Shantaram Kotnis . . . . . 873 Dr Bejoy Kumar Basu . . . . . 875 Dr Deben Mukherji . . . . . 875 K P S Menon . . . . . 876 K M Panikkar . . . . . 876 Bishambhar Nath Pande . . . . . 877 Bhakti Bhushan Mandal . . . . . 877

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SECTION XII

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MODERN ACADEMIC EXCHANGES . . . . . 879

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Overview . . . . . 882 India Studies in China . . . . . 884 China Studies in India . . . . . 887

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A. Organisations, Institutions . . . . . 890

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Peiping Lecture Association . . . . . 890 Sino-Indian Cultural Society . . . . . 890

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B. Personalities . . . . . 891

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Xu Chonghao . . . . . 891 Feng Chengjun . . . . . 892 Taixu . . . . . 892 Huang Chanhua . . . . . 894 Tao Xingzhi . . . . . 894 Hu shi . . . . . 896 Tang Yongtong . . . . . 897 Liang Shuming . . . . . 898 Lü Cheng . . . . . 899 Chen Hansheng . . . . . 900 Su Xuelin . . . . . 901 Wen Yiduo . . . . . 903 Zhou Shujia . . . . . 904 Xiang Da . . . . . 905 Shanti Tseng . . . . . 906 Chang Renxia (Chang Jen-hsieh) . . . . . 907 Fa-fang . . . . . 908 Chen Hongjin . . . . . 909 Dongchu . . . . . 909 Xu Fancheng . . . . . 910 Mi Wenkai . . . . . 911 Yu Yu . . . . . 912 Fang Hao . . . . . 912 Ji Xianlin . . . . . 913 Jin Kemu . . . . . 916 Wei Fengjiang . . . . . 918 Zhu Jieqin . . . . . 919 Yang Yunyuan . . . . . 919 Wei Guisun . . . . . 920 Jao Tsung-I (Rao Zongyi) . . . . . 920 Wu Yan . . . . . 921 W Pachow (Bazhou) . . . . . 921 Wu Baihui . . . . . 922 Yang Ruilin . . . . . 923 Wu Juncai . . . . . 923 Ran Yun-hua . . . . . 924 Yin Hongyuan . . . . . 924 Sun Peijun . . . . . 925 Huang Xinchuan . . . . . 926 Shih Shu-lu . . . . . 927 Li Zhifu . . . . . 928 Liu Anwu . . . . . 928 Jin Dinghan . . . . . 929 Liu Guonan . . . . . 930 Wang Huaiting . . . . . 930 Zhang Mantao . . . . . 931 Shan Yun . . . . . 931 Li Yuanshan . . . . . 932 Jiang Zhongxin . . . . . 932 Zhao Guohua . . . . . 933 Zhou Dafu . . . . . 934 Kshitimohan Sen . . . . . 934 Kalidas Nag . . . . . 935 Rahul Sankritiyayana . . . . . 935 Tan Yun-shan . . . . . 936 Prabodh Chandra Bagchi . . . . . 939 Dr Raghuvira . . . . . 940 Sujit Kumar Mukherji . . . . . 941 Pandit N Aiyaswami Sastri . . . . . 941 Prahlad Pradhan . . . . . 941 K Venkataramanan . . . . . 942 Amitendranath Tagore . . . . . 942 Vidya Prakash Dutt . . . . . 942 V V Paranjpe . . . . . 943 Lokesh Chandra . . . . . 943 Narayan Chandra Sen . . . . . 944 Rajesh Saran . . . . . 944 Tan Chung . . . . . 944 Biswadev Mukherjee . . . . . 946 Vimla Saran . . . . . 946 Haraprasad Ray . . . . . 946 Mira Sinha-Bhattacharjea . . . . . 947 Giridhar Dattatrey Deshingkar . . . . . 948 Govind Purushottam Deshpande . . . . . 948 Haridas Mitra . . . . . 949 Krishna Kinkar Sinha . . . . . 949 Satiranjan Sen . . . . . 949

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SECTION XIII

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OTHERS . . . . . 951

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Museums . . . . . 953

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National Museum of China . . . . . 954 Quanzhou Maritime Museum . . . . . 954 Indian Museum . . . . . 955 National Museum of India . . . . . 955 Salarjung Museum . . . . . 957 Xuanzang Memorial Hall . . . . . 958

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APPENDIX . . . . . 960

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INDEX . . . . . 992

Section VII Literature

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Even before 300 BCE, there was a legend of the Moon Rabbit in China which was once mentioned by the poet Qu Yuan (about 340-278 BCE) in the poem *Tian Wen*. Up to now, this legend is still popular among people. Meanwhile, a similar legend of the Moon Rabbit also existed in ancient India which can be found in the *Jataka Tales* (Jàtaka), a book created before 300 BCE. Some scholars hold that literary interaction between China and India began from then, but that is only a speculation and not a final conclusion. In fact, the literary interaction between India and China began after the introduction of Buddhism to China. As a growing number of Buddhist scriptures were being translated into Chinese, many Buddhist stories were introduced into China which began to influence Chinese literature. The transmission and influence of Indian Buddhist literature on China is almost synchronous with that of Indian Buddhism on China.

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1ˢᵗ-6ᵗʰ century CE

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It was from 1ˢᵗ - mid 3ʳᵈ century CE that Indian Buddhism was initially introduced to China. Indian literature started to influence Chinese literature and some Buddhist words such as *Sramana* (see Zhang Heng's *Poetry of West Capital*) and *Upàsaka* (see *History of Later Han Dynasty*) first appeared in Chinese poetry around this time. Afterwards, based on the birth story of Prince Gautama Siddhàrtha, the poet Cao Zhi (192-232 CE) created the lyrics of *Prince Poetry*. In the meantime, the Chinese also began to cite Buddhist stories in literary works. For example, Ying Shao (153-196 CE) included the *Two Women Scramble for the Son* and *Two Persons Battle for Fine Silk Fabrics* in his *Fengsu Tong*, both of which were sourced from the *Jakata Tales · Maha Umagga Jataka*. Han Danchun's (about 132-221 CE) *Xiao Lin* (*Humors Jokes*) includes the fable of *Curing the Hump* that was sourced from *The Hundred Parables Sutra*. China's orthodox history, *Records of the Three Kingdoms · The Book of Wei*, volume 20, has a story of *Cao Chong Weighs the Elephant* which was sourced from *Za Bao Zang Jing* (*The Sutra of Miscellaneous Jewels*). The characteristics of the influence of Indian Buddhist literature on Chinese literature during this period mainly manifested as a copy and simple adaptation of Chinese literary works from Buddhist stories.

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From mid 3ʳᵈ century to late 6ᵗʰ century CE, Buddhism witnessed further development in China which influenced Chinese scholars and bureaucrats and China's intellectual circles. It also began to be Sinified. It was at this period that Indian stories became popular in China's world of fiction, and the "Sakya Supporting Book" (cited from Lu Xun), characterised by promoting samsara, reincarnation and karma, was created. Inspired by Buddhist stories and Buddhist scriptures, the type of classical novel featuring ghost stories emerged, and Indian stories began to be obviously Sinified.

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Among the tales of mystery and supernatural, representative works were Gan Bao's (3ʳᵈ, 4ᵗʰ century) *Searching Deities*, *Record of Heretofore Lost Works* by Wang Jia (5ᵗʰ century CE), the anonymous *Records of Spirits and Ghosts*, *Record of the Nether World* by Liu Yiqing (403-444 CE), *Continued Records on Universal Harmony* by Wu Jun (569-520). The emergence of such novels in China was closely linked to the introduction of Indian Buddhism, and is mainly manifested in four aspects: firstly, Indian Buddhism influenced literary concept of Chinese novels. Confucianists in ancient China represented by Confucius never believed in and discussed ghosts, and did not write stories about ghosts and gods. However, Buddhism not only talked about stories about ghosts and gods, but was also adept in generating such stories. Obviously, the different belief system resulted in such phenomena. As Buddhism advocates eternity and samsara of the spirit, a complete set of life concepts and moral rules were evolved, which were reflected in the form of literary works. Buddhism had its own time and space views that were new and strange to the Chinese. Secondly, some Buddhist figures, sites, terms, etc., were introduced into Chinese literary works. Figures included Buddha, Bodhisattva, Sramana, Householder, Rakshasa, and so on. Sites include temples and the like in Tianzhu (“India”), the Western Regions, etc. Thirdly, the Indian story line directly influenced the contents of Chinese stories. There were many stories in Buddhist classics of high literary standard, and it was common to find such works in Buddhist scriptures, taboos and discussion, many of which were introduced to China. Therefore, Chinese stories during this period showed two characteristics: firstly, it copied stories in Buddhist scriptures; secondly, it imitated and adapted stories in Buddhist scriptures; thirdly, animals became the leading or second leading figures in a growing number of stories during this period. There are numerous examples to prove that it is also closely related to the introduction and influence of Indian Buddhism.

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'Jataka Tales' mural, Cave 17, Ajanta

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History of Later Han Dynasty (Dong guan han ji)

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‘The Hundred Parables Sūtra’ (Bai yu jing)

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‘Record of Heretofore Lost Works’ (Shiyi ji)

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‘Searching Deities’ (Sou shenji)

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Poetry During this period, Buddhism also had a profound impact on Chinese poetry, and it was fashionable for some scholars to write poems connected with Buddhism, including poets such as Tao Yuanming (about 372-427), Xie Lingyun (385-433), Bao Zhao (405-466), Shen Yue (441-513). Guang-hung-ming chi Volume 30 has collected many such poems. Interestingly, many Buddhists also ascended to the ranks of poets, not only Chinese but also foreigners, and their poems were included in the treasury of Chinese poetry to constitute a part of Chinese culture. The Buddhist poems in the Jin Dynasty were represented by the poet Zhi Dun (314-366), whose 18 poems such as Eulogy to the Buddha on the 8^th^ day of the fourth month have been handed down through generations. The Emperor Liangwu, Xiao Yan, (464-549) was a Buddhist and also a poet, who had written poems such as *Meet Three Religions*.

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**6^th^-10^th^ Century CE** During this period, it was almost impossible to find any examples of Indian literature being influenced by Chinese literature, but Indian literature, Indian Buddhist literature in particular, produced a significant impact on Chinese literature. Such influence had three characteristics: firstly, with the development of Chinese Buddhism, Buddhist principles, concepts, categories, vocabularies and so on sourced from Indian Buddhism penetrated through all aspects of Chinese literature. Especially in the field of poetry, excellent works reflecting Buddhist topics and promoting Buddhist concepts emerged, and even Chinese poetry theories were also seriously impacted. Secondly, Buddhist scriptures, stories, figures and sites entered Chinese literary works and were of vital importance to legends in the Tang period. Thirdly, the extensive spread of Buddhism influenced folk literature in the Tang period, and hastened the birth of an original literature genre called “Bianwen” (transformation texts).

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**Poetry** It was during this period in the Tang period that the development of Buddhism reached its peak, and this was also inevitably reflected in Tang poetry.

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Therefore, almost all great poets in Tang Dynasty were influenced by Buddhism. For example, Wang Wei (710-760), Bai Juyi (772-846) who believed in Buddhism in their later years, Li Bai (701-762) and Du Fu (712-770) all created plenty of works related to Buddhism and Buddhists. The number of Buddhist poems in Tang Dynasty was more than that in any other era, and the *Complete Collection of Tang Poetry* had 46 volumes of Buddhist poetry. Among numerous monk poets, some were regarded as authorities, for example, Han Shan (about the 7^th century), Shi De (about the 7^th century), Jiao Ran (about 720-about 800), Guan Xiu (832-913) and Qi Ji (863-937). In the Tang period, there were quite a few outstanding works of folk literature that were related to Buddhism, and the most representative was the folk poet Wang Fanzhi (about 590-660).

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**Literary theory** Jiao Ran wrote five volumes of *Poetic Styles* and one volume of *Poetic Notes*, a systematic monograph of poetics. Jiao Ran discussed the nature, writing rules, appreciation and style of poems, and expressed insightful ideas. He held a high place in the history of Chinese poetry criticism and aesthetics. In the text, he not only used Buddhist words, but also applied some Buddhist ideas to poetry theories.

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**Tang legends** In the words of Lu Xun, Chinese writers at this time started to consciously create novels. Such a consciously created novel was called 'Tang Legend', where clear traces of Indian

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influence were commonly found. For example, *The Tale of Liuyi* tells the story of a scholar named Liu Yi who helped the Daughter of the Dragon deliver a letter, and finally got married to her. *The Tale of the Governor of Nanke* tells the story of a person who fell into an ant hole unintentionally, and became an official in the ant kingdom, got married and had a son. Both tales reflected the ancient Indians' rich imagination, strange space concepts and ideas of ‘Existence Being Equal’ in Chinese literature. Apart from this, the influence of Indian literature on Tang Legends is also reflected in the narrative structure, namely, a trunk story connected to many small stories, like *The Record of the Ancient Mirror*.

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**Transformation Text (Bianwen)** The ‘transformation text’ was folk literature created under the influence of Buddhism. Firstly, its inception was because of the popularity of Buddhism: simple and popular language was needed to explain the doctrine of Buddhist scriptures among people. Therefore, monks began to promote Buddhism in simple words. The transformation text was a new literary genre formed on the basis of simple explanation. Secondly, regarding its contents: in the circulated and preserved transformation texts, many were taken from Buddhist scriptures, such as *Mulian Transformation Text*, *Hell Transformation Text*, *Vimalakirti Sutra Transformation Text*. However, some are from historical legends. Thirdly, regarding its literary form: it adopted the verse-prose mixed form, which deeply influenced the subsequent teaching and singing literature and its roots could be found in Buddhist scriptures. Fourthly, the commonly called “transformation text” marked a general reference: it is not limited to Buddhist stories, Chinese historical stories and legends, but also included other contents, such as fables of Swallow Poetry, *On Tea and Wine*, etc. Even transformation texts and fables originating from historic legends in ancient China were also obviously influenced by Buddhism.

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**10ᵗʰ -17ᵗʰ Century CE** By this time, it had been over 1,000 years since the introduction of Buddhism to China, and the Buddhist culture had blended with Chinese culture and constituted a whole. Therefore, it was common to find the influence of Buddhist thought in novels during this period.

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**Novels** Things recorded by Sun Guangxian’s (901-968) *Beimengsuoyan* in the 9ᵗʰ and 10ᵗʰ century follow the tradition of novels recording personalities and weird events in the 3ʳᵈ to 6ᵗʰ century, rather than inheriting Tang legends. His works recorded actual events and had a certain value as historical data. The contents such as “Reinvigorating Buddhism”, ‘Blood writing in Chinese Buddhism”, “Crash Sarira” reflected the status and social influence of Buddhism at that time, and indicated the transmission of Esoteric Buddhism.

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*Qing Suo Gao Yi* by Liu Fu (11ᵗʰ century) was another typical collection of novels in the tradition of Tang Legends. It included records of miscellaneous events, weird events and legendary novels, of which the latter two are dominant. It clearly reflected the influence of Buddhism. There were *Record of Kind Cloud* reflecting a fantastic dreamland, *Record of Foreign Fish* which tells the story of the daughter of a dragon who payed a debt of gratitude with jewels, *Record of Becoming Ape*, *Record of Killing a Chicken*, and *Record of Killing a Cat* which narrated the story of paying the price for killing, *Cheng Shuo*, etc. *Record of a Benevolent Deer* described how when Emperor Chuyuan hunted in Yunmeng Lake and chased after a flock of deer, the Deer King ran to Emperor Chuyuan and argued with him, willing to supply one deer to Emperor Chu every day. The Emperor was moved and issued a ban on killing deer. The deer felt much indebted and gave the Emperor Chu support in war. Here, the author adopts the historic background of Wu State and Chu State contending for hegemony, and located the story of the “Deer King” in *Six Paramitas Sutra*.

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Hong Mai (1123-1202) was a well-known scholar and novelist in the Southern Song Dynasty. It is said that his *Record of the Listener* consisted of 420 volumes, but the best-preserved edition has only over 200 volumes available, less than half the original book. Even so, the book was still the largest collection of classical Chinese novels in China and included over 2,700 novels. However, the *Record of the Listener* was also the compilation of earlier works. At least 700 persons contributed materials to him, and most of the works were created based on various folklores. His work clearly showed the influence of Buddhism, for example, the Buddha’s story, the pagoda involving supernatural or magical powers, Bodhisattva, Vajrasattva, Yama, Yaksa, and Daughter of the Dragon, Karma, Samsara and reincarnation.

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‘Mulian rescues his mother’, a Mongolian painting scrolls

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There continued to be many literary sketches during this period.

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**Poetry** During this period Chinese Buddhism was still flourishing, and there were still many Buddhists among scholars and bureaucrats, many of whom stood for reconsiling Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. Meanwhile, poetry in the Song period was still thriving after the peak in the Tang, and especially the emergence of “Ci poetry” was a breakthrough in poetry creation, and ushered in another peak of poetry in Chinese history. Therefore, Tang poems and Song poetry are known as two gorgeous flowers in Chinese poetry. Moreover, Buddhism still had a significant impact on the development of poetry.

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Among all poets, Su Shi (1036-1101) was the most influenced by Buddhism. His sincere friendship with the Buddhist Liao Yuan (also named Fo Yin) became a favourite tale before and after his death. His poem *Climb Guangli Pavillion at the Peak of Mount Chang* clearly conveyed his Buddhist thinking. Although seldom associated with Buddhists, Lu You (1125-1209) was also influenced by Buddhism. For example, his poem *To My Son* voiced his patriotism, and was also impacted by Buddhist thought.

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All Chinese scholars in the Song wrote poetry and most of them were influenced by Buddhism. They always called themselves Householder: for example, Ouyang Xiu (1007-1087, Liuyi Householder), Zhang Shunmin (?-1100, Fuxiu Householder), Su Shi (Dongpo Householder), Qin Guan (1049-1100, Huaihai Householder), Chen Shidao (1053-1101, Houshan Householder), Li Qingzhao (1084-1151, Yi’an Householder), Fan Chengda (1126-1193, Shihu Householder) and Zhang Xiaoxiang (1132-1169, Yuhu Householder). Not all of them believed in Buddhism, and it only indicated that it was a fashion for scholars to call themselves Householder then; they achieved a kind of elegance that was undoubtedly related to Buddhism. Some scholars in the Song treated Buddhism as a kind of learning. They became recluses, showed indifference to officialdom, called themselves Householder, and did what they liked.

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Taoist Dongpo

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'Collected Works of Dong Po (Dong Po Xiansheng Quanji)', Su Shi

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Su Zhe (1039-1112) was Su Shi’s younger brother and had intimate association with Buddhists. It can be seen in his *Yu Jia Ao· Birthday Congratulations with Disciples* that it was in middle age that he started believing in Buddhism and was disillusioned with life. Huang Buzhi (1053-1110) described his boredom and was eager to return home in poverty after being relegated to Xinzhou in *Immortal at the River Xinzhou*, where his loneliness and solitude stood out against the background of few monks in the wild pagoda. There were also quite a few Buddhist poems in the Song; for example, Liao Yuan (1032-1098), Qing Shun (11th century), Ke Zun (11th century), De Hong (1071-1128), etc, all created some graceful lyrics. Hong De’s Ci was more worldly, and it was difficult to identify from his lyrics that he was a Buddhist.

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**Literary Theory** During this period there were quite a few articles and monographs commenting on poems and poetry. Yan Yu’s (13th century) *Cang Lang’s Notes on Poets and Poetry* exerted the strongest influence on later generations, and evoked debates for hundreds of years. This book laid emphasis on discussing characteristics of poetry forms and his aesthetic interest, and was compiled in five parts: *Argument*, *Form*, *Method*, *Commentary*, and *Textual Criticism*. One of its key characteristics was to use the Chan thought of Buddhism to comment on poetry. Yan Yu was strongly opposed to poems written in the Song period and praised highly those poems that were written before the Tang Dynasty. He objected to “creating poems through words, talents and discussion” and proposed to see the poem as a realm of imagination.

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**Drama** During this period there were dedicated art performance places in Bianliang (the present Kaifeng, the capital of Northern Song Dynasty), and Lin’an (the present Hangzhou, the capital of Southern Song Dynasty) which are called “Washe” or “Wazi”. China’s early dramas were created in Washe, and the humorous dramas satirising current affairs in the Northern Song were the most prominent. Actors played roles in different identities and carried on dialogue and performance in a given context, but the scale was not large. A drama called “*Connecting Three Religions*” was a humourous dialogue between a Confucian, Daoist and Buddhist. In addition, a poetic drama named *Mulian Saves his Mother* was performed from days 7 to 15 of the seventh month (the lunar calendar). All the above indicate that there were relatively complete poetic dramas revolving around Buddhism in Washe and they were well-received. In the later Northern Song, the Jin Dynasty founded by the Jurchen in the north gradually grew bigger and finally occupied Bianjing, destroyed the Northern Song. The North was claimed by the Jin Dynasty and the South was governed by the Southern Song. During this period, “Northern Poetic Drama” and “Southern Drama” came out in the North and South respectively. Until the Ming Dynasty, Chinese drama was divided into Southern and Northern systems. Some contents related to Buddhism can be found from dramas in the Southern Song and Jin: For example, Tang Sanzang, a story about a Tang Monk going on a pilgrimage for Buddhist scriptures. Moreover, there were some other dramas that were clearly linked to Buddhism.

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13th -18th Century CE Poetry in the Yuan and Ming periods began to decline, and was replaced by other literary forms. The literature in the Yuan was

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Cang Lang's ‘Notes on Poets and Poetry: Collated and Annotated (Canglang shihua jiao shi)’, front cover

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dominated by Yuan Verse, including poetic drama and verse. In the Ming, with the development of novels, poetry appeared ordinary without many works of high quality.

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Poetry In spite of this, there were many examples that were influenced by Buddhism in the Yuan period poems. For example, Yuan Haowen’s (1190-1257) *Shaolin*, Chen Fu’s (1259-1309) *Evening Bell from a Mist-shrouded Temple*, and He Zhong’s (1265-1332) Nanju Temple. The short lyric in the Yuan was called Xiao Ling. Liu Binzhong’s (1216-1274) *Dried Lotus Leaf · No Title*, Guan Hanqing’s (1220-about 1300) two poems of *Four Jades ·Leisure* and Ma Zhiyuan’s (end of 13th century - first half of 14th century) Shouyang Qu ·*Evening Rings from the Misty Temple*, are all excellent short lyrics.

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Many Ming poems were also influenced by Buddhism, for example, *Follow the Person* by Liu Ji (1311-1375), *Monk Returns to Japan* by Zhang Yu (second half of 14th century), *Writing Down Feelings to a Monk* by Shen Zhou (1427-1509) , as well as other poems on touring Buddhist temples. Ming monks’ poems were represented by Fan Qi (1296-1370),

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Performance of poetic drama, historical painting, Song Dynasty

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Tong Run (14th century) and other poets. Tong Run’s *Early Plum Blossom* was the most famous, which describes how the plum blossom came and went silently. There, its “colour”, “aroma” and “shade” have their own Buddhist meanings signifying that the birth and death of objects are from something to nothing and from nothing to something.

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Classical Chinese novels: During this period, Buddhism was still strong. The rulers of the Yuan Dynasty were Mongolians who believed in Tibetan Buddhism. The rulers in the early Ming Dynasty also believed in Buddhism. Their attitude determined the influence of Buddhism on society. Such a situation was also true of novels.

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The anonymous *New Reports from Lake and Sea: Sequel to the Records of the Listener* in the Yuan was divided into two episodes, 17 categories, and was a large collection of novels involving strange phenomena. Volume III in the first episode included *Release Trionyx Sinensis to Pay a Debt of Gratitude*, which were also included in Liu Yiqing’s *Records of the Nether World*. It was obviously taken from volume III of the Buddhist scripture *Sutra of the Collection of the Practices of the Six Perfections*.

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There were many classical Chinese novels in Ming Dynasty, represented by *New Stories Told while Trimming the Wick* by Qu You (1341-1427) , *Stories Told While Trimming the Wick* by Li Changqi (1376-1451) , and *Stories Told While Searching for the Wick* by Shao Jingzhan (16th century). The above-mentioned three stories were obviously influenced by Buddhism as seen in the commonly used Buddhist words and literary quotations. The Buddhist temple was always the location of story or hero or heroine; the Buddhist monks and nuns, believers and those against Buddhism were leading characters in stories, and the doctrine of Buddhism was the main idea of the novel.

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There were many classical Chinese novels in the Qing period, as represented by *Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio* by Pu Songling (1630 or 1640-1715). The influence of Buddhism on it was basically the same as that in “*Three Stories*”.

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**Vernacular Novels** During this period, China’s vernacular novels emerged and reached their peak. Short vernacular novels were represented by “*Three Volumes of Words*” and “*Two Volumes of Slapping*”. Full-length novels were represented by *Water Margin*, *Romance of the Three Kingdoms*, *Journey to the West*, and *A Dream of Red Mansions*, which were all deeply influenced by Buddhism. Among them were Wu Cheng’en’s (about 1510-1582) *Journey to the West*, Xu Zhonglin’s (1567-1620) *Investiture of the Gods* and Luo Maodeng’s (16ᵗʰ century) *Western Record*, all three of which were called ‘Supernatural Evil-spirit Novels’ by Lu Xun.

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*Journey to the West* was the masterpiece in Chinese god-evil novels. Against the backdrop of Xuanzang’s pilgrimage to India for Buddhist scriptures, it told

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[Figure: Illustrated edition of the 'Journey to the West' (Xiyouji tuce)]

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the story of how the Tang Monk, Sha Wujing, Pigsy and Sun Wukong experience numerous difficulties and dangers, combat various demons, and finally arrive in the Indian Gridhakuta and then meet Sakyamuni, the founder of Buddhism, and obtain the scripture. In language, structure, figures and plots, *Journey to the West* was indeed the product of the influence of Buddhism and also that of cultural communication between India and China. Because Xuanzang’s journey to India and his pilgrimage were legendary, and have produced a great impact on later generations, the story of Xuanzang’s journey to the West is found in many scholars’ records and folklore since the 9ᵗʰ and 10ᵗʰ centuries. For example, *Tang Sanzang* in the 10ᵗʰ century (or 12ᵗʰ century) has turned Xuanzang’s journey into myth. In the late 10ᵗʰ century or later, the drama of *Tang Sanzang* was performed among popular audiences. In the 14ᵗʰ century, the poetic drama *Journey to the West* compiled by Yang Jingxian (the 14ᵗʰ century) was performed, and another novel in the same name was circulated. All these indicate that Wu Cheng’en’s *Journey to the West* was created by collecting, adapting and processing various kinds of folklore. Besides Wu Cheng’en’s work, various versions of *Journey to the West* were handed down, as well as some in continuation, for example, *Continued Journey to the West*, *Added Journey to the West* and *Late Journey to the West*, suggesting that Xuanzang’s stories were widely known, and Buddhism and India were interesting topics for Chinese people.

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