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Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v2.c13.s3: A. Name of Places

Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v2.c13.s3

Language
English

Contents

A. Name of Places

China

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"Cina" is one of the Indian names for China. The Chinese name for China, "Zhongguo" appeared as early as the 11^th century BCE, in inscriptions of the Western Zhou's bronze vessels of He Zun. "Zhongguo" initially referred to the central part of China centered on Luoyang. With the progressive expansion of Chinese civilisation into new territories, the region around the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River also came to be known as "Zhongguo". In the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States periods, each state called its capital as "Zhongguo" and "guo" meant the fiefdom of a feudal lord. From the Han dynasty onward, the word "Zhongguo" developed as the sign of the legitimate dynasty. In 1689, when the Qing government signed the Treaty of Nerchinsk with Russia, "Zhongguo" was formally used as the name of China for the first time. In 1912, when the Republic of China was founded, and also after the People's Republic of China was founded in 1949, the country's name was called "Zhongguo" for short.

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In ancient times, Indians called China as "Zhina". The word was seen as early as in the Indian epic *Mahabharata* (5^th century BCE) and in the '*Laws of Manu*' (2^nd century BCE). Even now, China is also called Cina in many languages, including Hindi and

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Chinese-Western Zhou Dynasty Bronze Wares with Hezun inscriptions (11^th century BCE)

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Bengali. In Chinese translations of Indian Buddhist scriptures before the 10^th century, China was also called Cina, Zhina, Zina, Cinisthana and so on.

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In ancient Greece and Rome, China was called Seres or Serica, ie, the country of silk. The ancient Farsi "China" came from Cina and it then passed on to Western Europe. After the Khitan founded the Liao dynasty in northern China, western countries began to call China after the Khitan. For example, China is called "Kitai" in Russian. The Western term "Cathay" also derives from Khitan. In 1516, the word "China" appeared in the diary of the Portuguese traveller Duarte Barbosa.

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*(Han Zhigeng)*

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Chang'an

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Chang'an was the ancient capital of several Chinese dynasties. These included the Western Han, New Mang, Former Zhao, Former Qin, Later Qin, Western Wei, Northern Zhou and the Sui and Tang dynasties. The sites that are still in existence include the Western Han Chang’an and Sui-Tang Chang’an.

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In the seventh year of the Western Han’s first emperor (200 BC), the Weiyang Palace was built and the capital was moved from Liyang to Chang’an. Emperor Wu further expanded the city. The character “长” was changed into “常” in the New Mang Period. In the Eastern Han, the capital was shifted to Luoyang but Chang’an remained the secondary western capital. Emperor Xian once again moved the capital to Chang’an. Under later dynasties, Chang’an’s old city was re-established as the capital. The Sui dynasty built a new city, Daxing, and the old Han Chang’an was abandoned. The new capital was about 3,000 metre northwest of today’s Xi’an City in Shaanxi Province.

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In the second year of the Kaihuang period of the Sui dynasty (582), the new capital Daxing was built southeast of Han Chang’an. Under the Tang dynasty, Chang’an remained the capital. It was rebuilt and partially expanded. In the golden age of the Tang dynasty, Chang’an was the largest and most prosperous metropolis in the world. In 904, Zhu Wen coerced Emperor Zhaozong to move to Luoyang. The palaces and houses of Chang’an were destroyed and Chang’an was ruined and abandoned. The ruins of the city are to be found in today’s Xi’an and its suburbs.

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Tang Chang’an consisted of an outer city, an imperial city and a palace complex. Chang’an was the most perfect form of a capital city under ancient China’s “li” and “fang” (living area and commercial area) system. It had an axial symmetrical layout, strict specifications and orderly neighbourhoods. It had a royal city as the administrative headquarters and closed “li” and “fang” areas for the administration of the common people. The layout of Chang’an had a significant impact on the capitals of some countries in East Asia.

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The Chang’an of the Tang dynasty was the starting point of the Silk Road as well as a major centre of cultural exchange between India and China, especially of Buddhist culture. The eight Chinese Buddhist sects originated in Chang’an. Chang’an retained many of the founding temples of those sects including the Sanlun sect’s Caotang Temple, Dharmalaksana’s Da Ci’en Temple and Xingjiao Temple, the Vinaya sect’s Jingye Temple and Fengde Temple, the Jodo sect’s Xiangji Temple, the Huayan sect’s Huayan Temple and Zhixiang Temple and the Tantra sect’s Great Xingshan Temple and Qinglong Temple. The four famous sites for the translation of Buddhist scriptures such as the Caotang Temple, the Great Xingshan Temple, the Da Ci’en Temple and the Jianfu Temple were all located in Chang’an.

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City wall of Xian, Shaanxi during Ming Dynasty

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Great translators such as Kumarajiva, Xuanzang, Yijing and Bukong once presided over the translation of scriptures in Chang’an. Monks from the western region such as Dharmaraksa and Kumarajiva and three famous masters in the Kaiyuan Period (the Indian monks Shan Wuwei, Bukong and Vajrabodhi) propagated Buddhism in Chang’an and translated Buddhist scriptures. Japanese and Korean monks such as Konghai, Yuanxing, Yuanren and Bukesiyi also studied the Buddhist scriptures and Chinese culture in Chang’an.

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A large number of Buddhist heritage sites are to be found in Chang’an. Da Ci’en Temple’s Dayan Pagoda was built in 652 in the Tang period. It is a landmark of the ancient city of Chang’an. In addition, Famen Temple, Xiaoyan Pagoda, Fawang Pagoda, Xuanzang Relics Pagoda, and the Kumarajiva Babao Yushi Pagoda that stored the Buddha Sakyamuni’s relics are all important historical monuments which have been carefully preserved.

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(*Han Zhigeng*)

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Luoyang

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Luoyang was the capital of the Sui and Tang dynasties in China and was one of the main centres of Buddhist interaction between the Indians and Chinese. In the first year of the reign of Emperor Yang in the Sui dynasty (605 CE), the emperor ordered a new capital to be built 18 miles to the west of Luoyang city of the Han and Wei dynasties. In the lunar January of the following year, the new city was completed. The city is south of Yique, north of Mangshan Hill, east of the Chanhe River and west of the Jianshui River and the Luoshui River flowed through it. Emperor Yang of the Sui dynasty, the Empress Wu Zetian of the Tang dynasty and the later Tang dynasty rulers all had the city as their capital. Under the Tang dynasty, it was the secondary capital known as the Eastern Capital.

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The palace complex and the imperial city were located north of the Luoshui River in the city. The palace was north of the imperial city. The imperial city was to the east, south and west of the palace city. Besides palace complex and the imperial city *Longmen Grottoes of Luoyang, Henan*

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mentioned above, there were wards north and the south of the Luoshui River which were called lifang. There were 120 wards in the Sui Period and 102 wards in the Tang Period. Sui and Tang Luoyang was the starting point of the Grand Canal. Many merchants gathered there and it was the most prosperous commercial capital of that time.

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Sui and Tang Luoyang was also one of the sites of Buddhist interaction between India and China. The earliest Buddhist temple, the Baima (White Horse) Temple was built in the east of Luoyang. Today, it is an important historical monument under special preservation. In 2008, some parts of this temple were renovated with the cooperation of India as a symbol of India-China friendship.

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After the An Lushan Rebellion in the Tang period, Luoyang suffered serious damage. In the Song and Jin dynasties, it was restored but it did not attain the original greatness which it had enjoyed under the Sui and Tang dynasties.

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(*Han Zhigeng*)

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Kashgar

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Kashgar is an oasis town in the southern part of Xinjiang province in China. Standing at the junction of the routes along the southern and northern rims of the Taklamakan Desert, it has always been an important point on the Silk Route and was a major destination for pilgrims, missionaries, goods and merchants passing between India, Central Asia and China.

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There are several references to Kashgar in Chinese literature dating back to the former Han period (206 BCE – 9 CE). It was then known in Chinese records as Shule (疏勒). From 2^nd – 10^th century CE, Kashgar emerged as a prominent Buddhist centre. Due to this, it developed links with other major Buddhist centres in the northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent. It has been noted by scholars that there must have existed a channel of transmission of stupa architecture models from Gandhara, Swat and Kashmir to the regions of eastern Central Asia and such transmission confirms links between Kashgar and northwestern Indian subcontinent.

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In 644 CE, the famous Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang passed through Kashgar on his way back to China from India. He reported that the country had a moderate climate, a developed culture and textile manufacturing. He also mentioned that there were more than 10,000 Buddhist monks in near several hundred monasteries adhering to the Sarvastivada school. From 10^th century onwards, Kashgar came under the dominant influence of Islam.

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By the time of the Qing empire’s conquest of Kashgar in 1759, there already existed a flourishing trade between Kashgar and Kashmir, Ladakh and Punjab in northern India. There were several routes used by the traders including one through Afghanistan (Badakshan), another through Srinagar and Gilgit over the Mintaka Pass, and one through Leh in Ladakh via the Karakoram Pass. The Leh-Karakoram Pass route was the preferred one most of the time. The main goods traded were, from the Indian side, cotton piece-goods, indigo, spices, tea, coral and opium, and from the Chinese side, wool, felt, carpets, silk, silver ingots (*yambo*) and *charas*, a drug made from a plant called hemp. There were several Indian merchants and businessmen from Kashmir, Punjab and Sindh who resided in Kashgar although not as many as in Yarkand. There was even a Hindi *serai* (resthouse) there.

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The age-old relationship between India and Kashgar and other towns of southern Xinjiang became complicated in the 19th century due to the rivalry between the expanding British and Russian empires commonly known as ‘The Great Game’. Both powers established consulates in Kashgar and sought to manipulate the terms of trade in their favour by putting pressure on the Chinese authorities there. In the 20th century, political turbulence, particularly in the 1930s and 1940s, had an adverse effect on the trade between India and Xinjiang and many Indian traders were compelled to leave. In late 1940s, this trade dwindled almost to nothing and stopped altogether.

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Old City, Kashgar, Xinjiang, China

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(*Madhavi Thampi*)

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Yarkand

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Yarkand, an oasis town in Xinjiang province of China, is situated on the southern edge of the Taklamakan desert and north of the Kunlun range of mountains. Its importance in India-China relations lies in the fact that historically it was a major site of trade between northern India and the Xinjiang region. As the major commercial centre of southern Xinjiang, it was an important stop on the network of trade routes known as the Silk Road.

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The route from Leh (Ladakh) in India to Yarkand via the Karakoram Pass was the preferred route of trade for merchants from Punjab and Kashmir. The journey from Leh to Yarkand took nearly a month. The bazaars of Yarkand were filled with cotton piece-goods, indigo, spices, tea, coral and other items from India. From Yarkand, silver ingots (known as *yambo*), wool, felt, carpets, silk and many other goods would be exported to India. Of all the towns of southern Xinjiang in the early modern period, the largest contingent of traders from India was to be found in Yarkand. The Indians in Yarkand were

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Yarkand County Fair

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mainly Kashmiri merchants although there were also a number of businessmen and moneylenders from Shikarpur in Sindh (in present-day Pakistan). Most of the traders from India came for the trading season and returned to India before the mountain passes closed in winter. Many of them stayed in lodging places exclusively meant for them known as *serais*. However, some of them were permanent settlers who established themselves for several generations in Xinjiang. Indian merchants and Indian goods were a familiar sight for many centuries in the bazaars of Yarkand and to this day there are places there with names such as ‘Gurdial serai’ and ‘Kashmir kucha (lane)’ which capture the once close connection between Yarkand and India.

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(*Madhavi Thampi*)

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Turfan

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Turfan (Tu-bo) was the state established by Tibetans in the 7^th–9^th century CE in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Bo was the name by which ancient Tibetans called themselves. In the 6^th century, a coalition of tribes led by an agricultural tribe Yarlung in Shannan Prefecture established their own state, and

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Jokhang Buddha Temple, Lhasa, Tibet

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expanded steadily to the Lhasa River. In the period of Tu-bo, Buddhism was introduced into Tibet and Tibetan Buddhism reached the height of its power and splendour.

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In 629 CE, Srongtsen Gampo was crowned as Tsenpo (King) and founded a capital in Luoxie (present-day Lhasa, Tibet). He began to communicate with the Tang empire, India and Nepal and brought about much cultural progress. Buddhism was brought to Tu-bo at this time. Princess Bhrikuti from Nepal and Princess Wencheng from the Tang, who married Srongtsen Gampo, brought Buddhist canon, statues, talismans and monks to Tibet and built the Jokhang Temple and Ramoche Temple in Lhasa. In the middle of the 8^th century, Trisong Detsen exterminated the ministers who opposed Buddhism. He sent people to Chang’an to study the Buddhist scriptures, and invited the famous Buddhist monks Padmasambhava and Shantarakshita to Tibet to develop and expand Buddhism. They carried out the initiation of monks, formed monastic orders and built the Samye Temple. Buddhism thus began to flourish. Trisong Detsen (?~816/817) formulated a system whereby seven families provided one monk and asked a monk Banshi Diqinbu to take charge of military and political powers. He also presided over the translation of 700 works of Buddhist scriptures. During his reign, Tibetan Buddhism reached its peak.

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In the time of Emperor Gao and Empress Wuzetian of the Tang dynasty, Tu-bo annihilated the Tuyuhun, threatened Longshi and Hexi of the Tang empire and formed an alliance with the Western Turks to fight the Tang for control of Anxi. There were battles as well as negotiations between the two sides. In 709, the Tang married a princess from the imperial family to Tsenpo Kride Zukzain. But there were still conflicts between the two governments. After the An Lushan Rebellion, the Tang recalled some of its armies from the frontiers so Tu-bo occupied Longyou and Guanxi when Tang military power was weak at these places. In 763, Tu-bo attacked Chang’an. Hexi, Anxi and Beiting were completely cut off from the Tang central power and fell into enemy hands. Nanzhao located to the southwest of the Tang also submitted to Tu-bo.

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In the 790s, the Tu-bo was extremely powerful, and the territory under their control extended west to Congling, north to the Tianshan and east to the western part of the present-day Sichuan and Longshan Gansu. They prevented incursions by the Arabs to the east and on the north they formed alliances with Karluk and Qırğız to fight against the Uighur. In 821-22 CE, the Tang made an alliance with Tu-bo to commemorate which a Tang-Tuobo stele was built. In 846 CE (or 842 CE), after Tsenpo Dharma died, Tu-bo collapsed. In 848 CE, a Shazhou Chinese named Zhang Yichao rebelled against Tu-bo, expelled the Tu-bo governors and established the Guiyi military regime. Hexi was brought back within the Tang jurisdiction. Overall, from the time of Srongtsen Gampo, there had been nine Tsenpoes in Tibet in a period of 218 years.

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Many steles, wooden books, documents, scriptures, etc, from the period of Tu-bo remain in good condition today and form important materials for studying Tu-bo’s society and history. Even after Tu-bo collapsed, historical works of the Song, Yuan and Ming periods continued to call the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and its people as Tu-bo or Xibo.

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(*Han Zhigeng*)

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Shanghai

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The connection of India and Indians with Shanghai goes back to the immediate aftermath of the First Opium War in 1842 when Shanghai was one of the four ports opened up for maritime trade along with the already open port of Canton (Guangzhou). Among the many foreign commercial firms that shifted their businesses northwards to Shanghai from the Guangzhou-Macau-Hong Kong area were several Indian firms and merchants. David Sassoon, the Baghdadi Jewish merchant based in Bombay (Mumbai), was one of the most prominent merchants from India to shift his main operations in China to Shanghai. The firm set up by his son, ED Sassoon & Co also concentrated on the trade between Bombay and Shanghai. It set up its headquarters at 5 Renji Road in Shanghai. While the Sassoons dominated the opium trade between India and China from the 1870s, they also imported cotton textiles and Indian cotton yarn with the latter business overtaking their opium sales in the early 20^th century. They also took advantage of the expanding commercial life of Shanghai to diversify into other areas, such as insurance, manufacture, hospitality, construction and public utilities, employing several hundred Chinese. They also owned several prominent real estate firms such as the Hua Mao Real Estate Co, Shanghai Real Estate Co., Far East Real Estate Co, and so on. Some of the most prominent buildings in Shanghai, including on its famous Bund, were built and owned by the Sassoons. These included the famous Cathay Hotel (later the Peace Hotel and now the Fairmont Peace Hotel) on the Bund, Cathay Mansions (Grosvenor House), the Embankment Building and Cathay Cinema. Another prominent Indian business house that established its presence in Shanghai early on was the Tatas. The patriarch of the Tata family, JN Tata, himself spent two years in China as a young man and set up a branch of his father’s firm in Shanghai. The Tatas later owned several cotton mills in Shanghai.

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*Tang-Tubo alliance monument*

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Early 20ᵗʰ century Shanghai Police, among them the second and third from the right are Sikhs

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A prominent and visible part of the Indian connection with Shanghai in the century from the 1840s to the 1940s was the presence of Indian policemen there. From the 1880s, Indians (mostly Sikhs from Punjab) were recruited by the Shanghai Municipal Council to police the area of the International Settlement. With their red turbans and distinctive appearance, they were commonly referred to as *hongtou asan* by local people. There were also a large number of Indians hired as private watchmen by hotels, shops, factories and other establishments. Initially, the Indian population in Shanghai consisted mostly of males but slowly the number of Indian families and mixed Indian-Chinese families increased in the early 20th century. There were Sikh gurdwaras and a Parsi fire temple (*agiary*) in the International Settlement area. By 1945, the number of Indians in Shanghai numbered between 2,000 and 2,500. At the end of World War II, in conditions of mass dislocation and destitution caused by war and occupation, the then British government of India decided to repatriate all Indians except for a very small number who refused to go in the ships sent from India for this purpose.

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Today, Shanghai has again become the main centre of Indians in China apart from Hong Kong, with an ever-expanding number of business firms setting up their offices here. These include IT companies like Tata Consultancy Services (TCS), Infosys, Wipro and NIIT as well as manufacturing concerns such as Larsen & Toubro, Reliance, Raymonds, Sundaram Fasteners and Dr Reddy’s Laboratories. Now, a growing number of Indian tourists also make their way to Shanghai.

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(*Madhavi Thampi*)

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Hong Kong

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There has been a significant connection between Hong Kong and India since the development of the former as a major port city under British control from the middle of the 19ᵗʰ century. This was due to the fact that hundreds of Indians had already been coming by sea to trade on the China coast from the later 18ᵗʰ century and used to visit Canton (Guangzhou) and Macau regularly. When Hong Kong was formally established as a British colony after the First Opium

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19ᵗʰ century Hong Kong

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War (1839-1842), about 2,700 Indian soldiers were present there. In addition, there were many Indians who bought land holdings in the port city in the very first land auction conducted by British authorities in June 1841. Near 346 Indian merchants set up their businesses in Hong Kong over the next few years. The first of these firms was Cowasjee Pallanjee & Co. Other firms were FM Talati & Co, Abdoolally Ebrahim & Co and the firm of Albert Sassoon. Abdoolally Ebrahim & Co is, in fact, the oldest trading house in Hong Kong today operating under its original name.

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A number of Indian businessmen in Hong Kong contributed significantly to the growth and development of the city. HN Mody played a pioneering role in the setting up of the University of Hong Kong. Abdoolally Ebrahim & Co is recorded as having set up the first cross-harbour ferry service in Hong Kong, while another Indian, Dorabji Naorojee is credited with the founding of a similar service that was the forerunner of Hong Kong’s famous ‘Star Ferry’. Paul Chater, a businessman of Armenian origin from Kolkata, was associated with many landmark projects and companies in Hong Kong. These included the Hong Kong and Kowloon Wharf and Godown company, the Praya Reclamation Scheme which developed the waterfront area on Hong Kong island’s northern shore, Hong Kong Land, and the Hong Kong Electric Company. ER Belilios and Elly Kadoorie were responsible for setting up many schools and educational institutions. Belilios helped to establish the first government school for Chinese girls while Kadoorie established a school for Chinese boys in 1901. The Ruttonjee family established the TB sanatorium which is named after them. The Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation also had many Indians in its early years on its board of directors.

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A panoramic view of the Bund

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The first Sikh Gurdwara in Hong Kong

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While Indians from the Parsi, Jewish and Ismaili communities were prominent in the 19th century, in the 20th century, many Sindhis and Marwaris also migrated to Hong Kong and established flourishing businesses. The Harilela family business is one of the most prominent ones among them today. While many of the early merchant companies were involved with the import-export business as Hong Kong expanded and developed, the business activities of Indians diversified into many spheres. One area in which Indians achieved prominence was the tailoring industry, especially in the 1950s. Many are in the food and hospitality business and in shipping and transport too. In recent decades, a large number of Indian professionals have made Hong Kong their base and they are well represented particularly in the financial, IT and telecommunication sectors.

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In Hong Kong, from the 1860s till the 1940s, there was a large number of Indians in the Hong Kong Police Force. For a number of decades, there was a rough parity in the number of Indians and Chinese in the Force. Apart from the Indians in the police force, a familiar sight in Hong Kong used to be Indian watchmen in hotels, restaurants, godowns and factories. Altogether, the number of Indians in Hong Kong in the 1940s stood a little over 7,000. At present, the number of Indian citizens in Hong Kong is a little over 22,000 but the number of persons of Indian and South Asian origin there is much larger. There are about 1,500 registered Indian companies in Hong Kong with more than 24 registered regional, religious and professional Indian associations in Hong Kong.

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(*Madhavi Thampi*)

India

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Yindu is one of the Chinese names for India. India is called Bharata in many Indian languages. This name appeared as early as in the Sanskrit epic *Mahabharata* and in the *Padma Purana*. India is also called Bharatavarsa in Indian languages which means the country of Bharata’s sons or Bharata’s country. The ancient Indians also called their land, Jambudvipa.

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The English name of India originated from the Indus River. Indian people called this cradle of civilisation, Sindhu (the original meaning of which is river). The Persians transformed Sindhu into “Hindu” and the word Hindu was subsequently transformed into “Indu”. The name of India was introduced into Greece by the Persians. The Greeks used the name of this river in western India as the name for the whole of India.

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After the Muslim invasion of India, they called India, “Hindustan”, following the Persian usage meaning the “place where Indians live” or “Indian country”. Later, the British called the religion followed by the majority of Indians “Hinduism” and called the country itself “India”. In ancient Chinese documents, India was called Sindhu and Tianzhu. Besides, India was also known to the Chinese as Sindo, Sidu, Sindus, Juandu, Indu, Indo, Saidu and so on. These names are transliterations of Sindhu but in different periods, different translators selected different Chinese characters. However, their pronunciations are similar.

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India Gate, New Delhi

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The word “Yindu” was first used in the Tang period in Xuanzang’s *Buddhist Records of the Western World*, ‘*juan* 2’. In *Summaries of Yindu - Interpretation of Names*, it is written: “there were many translations of Tianzhu’s name such as Sindu, Sindo. Now let us comply with the legitimate pronunciation and call it Yindu”. However, afterwards, historical documents of the Song period still called India “Tianzhu” and “Sindhu”.

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(*Han Zhigeng*)

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Magadha

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Magadha was one of the 16 states in ancient India in the period from the 6ᵗʰ century to 4ᵗʰ century BCE. It was located south of the middle and lower reaches of the Ganges river. Magadha was established in the period from the 7ᵗʰ to 6ᵗʰ century BCE by an eastern tribe far from the center of Vedic culture. At the beginning of the era of Buddhism, Magadha was ruled by Bimbisàra of the Haryanka dynasty. It was a city-state from this time or earlier. Bimbisara took Ràjagrha as the capital which was surrounded by extensive villages. He used to launch campaigns against Champà, the capital of Anga. He lived in the same period as the Buddha, and believed in Buddhism. He was killed by his son Ajatasatru in his old age.

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Ajatasatru fought with Kosala for many years and eventually made peace. He then fought with Vajji for 16 years and finally conquered this country and established the hegemony of Magadha in eastern India. Ajatasatru also believed in Buddhism. It is said that in his reign, Buddhism had its first Samgiti at the Saptparni Cave outside Rajgir. One of the fortifications built by him later developed into Pataliputra. This city became the capital of Magadha in the reign of his son. The emperors afterwards all took the throne by killing their fathers. The last emperor was overthrown by an uprising and the minister Sisunaga seized the opportunity and ascended the throne around the year 430. Magadha then conquered the powerful Avanti, Vajji and possibly Kosala states under the Sisunaga dynasty and became even more powerful. The dynasties of the Nandas, Mauryas, Sungas, Kanvas and Guptas all used to extend their power outwards from the

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Outside view of the Patna Museum, India

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centre of the Magadha area. Muslims conquered this area in the 12ᵗʰ century.

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Magadha was not unfamiliar to ancient China. There are references to it in ‘*juan* 221 in the *Xin Tang Shu*’ (New History of the Tang), one of which goes: “The soil there was fertile and suitable for sowing and reaping. There was a different kind of rice, the grains were large and were supplied only to the king. The king lived in……Kusumapura …… In the 21ˢᵗ year of Zhenguan (647), they started to despatch envoys to meet the emperor and present pineapple and aspen. Emperor Taizong despatched envoys to learn the method of extracting sugar by heating. He despatched Wang Xuance to set up monuments in the Mahabodhi Temple.” The Chinese monks 'Faxian and Xuanzang' both used to come here for pilgrimage during their travels in India. Their experiences were recorded in their books, *The Biography of Faxian* and *On Xuanzang's Travels in India*.

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(*Ge Weijun*)

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Takshasila

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Takshasilà, an ancient strategic town of northwest India, is known as Taxila today. In the period from the 6ᵗʰ – 4ᵗʰ century BCE, it was the capital of Gandhàra, one of the 16 states existing then. During the 3ʳᵈ BCE – 2ⁿᵈ century BCE, the powerful Maurya dynasty established its governor-general there. Buddhism became the prevalent faith during the reign of Asoka. This city was located on a vital communication line and was a significant political, economic and academic centre of northwest India. As a place which attracted much talent, it had many students from northern India who used to travel a long distance to study and learn Vedic scriptures and other kinds of knowledge and skills, including medicine. There were even students from Central Asia and West Asia in the famous medical school. The course was rigorous and long. Students had to complete seven years of study and examination before graduating and commencing the practice of medicine. There were also other technological courses.

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Taxila ruins, today in Taxila, Pakistan

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Archaeological excavations were undertaken at this site in the early 20th century. Unearthed were coins, jewellery, gold items, copperware, pottery and silver copies engraved with Kharosthi words and a large number of Buddhist works of art. The golden age of the Kushan Empire during the 1st–2nd century CE was the high point of economic, religious and cultural activities there. Taksasila entered a period of decline after the 3rd century and the city was finally ruined by the invasion of the Hephthalite Empire in the middle of the 5th century. The eminent Chinese monks, Faxian and Xuanzang, both came here when they went to India on pilgrimage.

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(*Ge Weijun*)

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Pataliputra

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Pataliputra is an ancient Indian city, also known as Puspapura, Pataliputta or Pāṭaligrāma. It was initially called Kusumapura and is known as Patna in the state of Bihar today. Located at the intersection of the Ganges, Gandak and Song rivers, it was of strategic importance. King Ajàtasatru of the Magadha dynasty in the 6th century BCE constructed fortifications here to defend against the Vrjji (Vajji) state. His son, Udayabhadra, built Pàtaliputra as a major city after inheriting the throne and moved the capital here. From then on, various dynasties including the Nanda,

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Pillars during the Mayuran period, excavated from Patna, India

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Maurya and the early Gupta rulers, all established their capital here.

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During his travels in India, Faxian was greatly impressed by the grand scale on which Pataliputra was built. “The palaces in the city were built by supernatural beings and spirits, rocks and stones were accumulated to raise the city walls and the imperial watch tower and engraved with decorative motifs and definitely, it was not built by human beings,” he wrote. Xuanzang also visited here and recorded in detail the many stories related to it. Coins, icons and temple foundations were discovered here in the course of archaeological excavations in modern times.

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(*Ge Weijun*)

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Kalinga

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Kalinga is an ancient Indian state which is referred to as Jielingjia, Qielingjia, Jialingwo and Jialing in

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Remains of the ruins of a statue of the Sum Temple, Kalinga

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Chinese records. It is located in the coastal region in east India, between the Godavari and Mahanadi rivers. Its territory is equal to about today’s Odisha, and its capital was Dantapura. The ancient Indian classic work, the *Puranas*, has listed the 32 rulers of Kalinga. It was conquered by the Nanda dynasty of Magadha (about 346 BC–324 BC), and then later recovered its independence. In the early years of the Maurya dynasty (324 BC–185 BC), the Greek Megasthenes, who was the envoy sent by Seleucus Nikator to the Maurya dynasty, also mentioned this country. He said its army was strong, with 60,000 infantry, 1,000 cavalry and 700 war elephants. The country’s overseas trade flourished and the economy was prosperous. However, around 260 BC, the third king Asoka of the Maurya dynasty annexed it after a brutal war. The consequence of the war was that 1,00,000 people were killed, 1,50,000 people were captured and the same number of people died indirectly as a result of the war. It is said that Asoka deeply regretted the suffering brought about by the war and so turned to the peaceful “Saddhamma” policy. It is said that this was the point from which he began to believe in Buddhism. Shortly after Asoka’s death, Kalinga regained independence at the end of the 3rd century BC. In the 2nd century BC, during the reign of Khàravela, the country once again became powerful and prosperous. Magadha was subdued and Kalinga captured Rajagrha. Its troops reached Punjab in the west and the Pandya in the south. After Khàravela’s death, the country began to decline again.

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Xuanzang visited Kalinga during his visit to India. He found that the country was a prosperous place, “with sowing and reaping, numerous flowers and fruits and thick woods and marshes for hundreds of miles”. However, it was already clear by his time that there had been a decline with people gradually moving to other places and the population becoming smaller. The ‘*Sutra of Vinaya (juan 39)*’ translated by Yijing, another monk of the Tang period, also contained this reference to Kalinga: “Buddha has four tooth relics ... with one in Kalinga”. In the second half of the 4th century, a prince Dantha, referred to as Tuoduo in Chinese records, carried it to Simhala (now Sri Lanka) secretly. It is said that the Buddha tooth relic enshrined in Kandy is the same.

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(*Ge Weijun*)

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Gandhara

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Gandhara was one of the 16 countries in ancient India in the period from the 6ᵗʰ century to about the 4ᵗʰ century BCE. It was located at the northeast of the subcontinent of India, mainly including the region around Peshawar on the upper reaches of the Indus River in the north of Pakistan today and the region surrounding Rawalpindi. Its capital Taksasilà (present-day Taxila) was a strategic town and the commercial and academic centre of northwest India. Gandhàra was under the control of Persians and Macedonians from the 6ᵗʰ century so it played an important role in cultural communication between the East and West. It was annexed by the Maurya dynasty in the late 4ᵗʰ century BC. The third emperor

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The lamp holding monk, sculpture carved around 2-3 century BCE

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of this dynasty, Asoka, mentioned Gandhàra in his fifth imperial edict carved on stone. In the period of the Kushana empire, which reached its height during the period from the middle of the 1ˢᵗ century to the end of the 2ⁿᵈ century CE, Gandhàra was its core region. Buddhism was introduced in the time of the Emperor Asoka and became popular. Buddhist architecture and art also started to appear here. The development of such art was at its peak period during the Kushana period. One of the greatest constructions was the Kanishka Tower in the suburbs of Peshawar. According to records, the tower was originally 213 m high and surrounded by hundreds of smaller towers. The earlier artistic convention of depicting the Buddha merely by symbolism, through the Dharmachakra, a footprint, a banyan tree or throne was broken, and artists started to depict the person of the Buddha. Absorbing artistic elements from Greece and Rome, Gandhàra art was characterised by fine proportions, exquisite modelling, elegant posture and unique style. Later in the Gupta period, during 320-550 CE, statues were made mostly of clay. After the middle of the 5ᵗʰ century, with the invasion of the Hephthalite Empire, Buddhist temples were ruined and the statuary art also started to decline. Gandhàra’s statuary art was introduced to China via Central Asia and then further east into North Korea and Japan and had a significant impact on the style of statues in East Asia.

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Gandhara art Buddha Statue, carved around 2-3 century BCE

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Kashmir

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Kawmira was the name for present-day Kashmir in India used in Chinese records during the Han, Wei, Northern and Southern dynasties, Sui and Tang periods. In the Han period, the name referred to the area downstream of the Kabul River and the region of Kashmir. It was also called Geshimi or Kasmira.

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There were many references to Kashmir in Chinese historical records. For example, the *Han Shu* - *the Biography of the Western Regions* said that “Kawmira, Wangzhi Xunxian city (near Srinagar present-day), was 2200 *li* from Chang’an, and it was not governed

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Kapisa carvings of Buddha, located in Swat Valley, Pakistan

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by the *duhu* (protectorate-general) in the past, the Xiongnu conquered Tokhara, Tokhara ruled over Bactria in the west and the king of Sai ruled Kawmira in the south.” It also said that the terrain here was flat and the climate was mild and that there was alfalfa, sandalwood, catalpa, bamboo and lacquer. The natives planted grain and grapes and fertilised the fields with manure. They ate raw fresh vegetables in winter. Products there included *fengniu* (zebu), buffalo, elephants, dogs, macaques, pearl, coral, *hupo* (amber) and gems. Craftsmen were skilled at engraving, weaving silk, doing embroidery and building palaces. Vessels were mostly made of gold, silver, copper and tin. The coins were also made of gold and silver with a horse on the front and a human head on the back.

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Contacts between the Han dynasty and Kashmir started from the time of Emperor Wu (141 BCE – 87 BCE), and the relationship between the Han envoys and the rulers of Kashmir was sometimes cordial and sometimes not. Kashmiri merchants used to come to China during the reign of Emperor Cheng (33 BCE – 7 BCE) and even afterwards. Contact between Kashmir and China was very close in the Tang dynasty. There were frequent references in the *Xin Tang Shu* and *Jiu Tang Shu* to envoys coming from Kawmira bearing local products as gifts and it is mentioned that the royal court of the Tang dynasty also “generously rewarded this country”. Kashmir used to be one of the centres of Mahayana Buddhism so many monks used to come to China to preach Buddhism and translate scriptures. Chinese monks also went to Kashmir to acquire Buddhist learning and scriptures. In the 1st year of the reign of Emperor Suzong of the Tang (758 CE), there were still envoys from Kashmir coming to China but this practice apparently ended after that. The word, Kawmira, also no longer appeared in Chinese historical records.

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(*Ge Weijun*)

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Chola

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The Chola (or Cola, “Zhunian” in Chinese) was a powerful kingdom in southern India. From the early 11th century to 15th century, the country maintained diplomatic and commercial relations with China.

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The Chola kingdom was located on the Coromandel coast of India, between Nellore and Pudukkottai. Its name can be found in Asoka’s inscriptions which mention that it was beyond the jurisdiction of the Maurya dynasty with Buddhism prevalent. In the 2nd century BCE, the king Elara once conquered Simhaladvipa (now Sri Lanka). Around 100 CE, during the reign of the famous King Karikkal, the country was very strong. He defeated two other important kingdoms in southern India, the Pandyan and Cera (Chera) kingdoms and launched an expedition to Simhaladvipa. In the 3rd-4th century, with the rise of the Pallava in the north and invasions by the Pandyan and Cera kingdoms, the Chola went into decline. In the 7th century, they surrendered to the Pallava. In the early 7th century, when the Buddhist monk Xuanzang visited the Chola kingdom, he noted that “Chola’s circumference is 2,000 and 400 or 500 *li*, the capital’s circumference is more than 10 *li*, with spacious land, deserted lakes and ponds, few households, rampant thieves, warm weather and many malefactors. People are more barbarous and follow beliefs other than Buddhism”.

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In the 9th century, during the reign of Aditya Chola (880-907), the country returned to its former prosperity. During the reign of Rajaraja (985-1016), the country dominated southern India and by the reign of Rajendra (1016-1044), the country reached the peak of its power which extended up to West Bengal. It even launched a naval expedition to Southeast Asia.

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Southernmost India, Cape Comorin Point

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From the 11th century to 15th century, the country had frequent exchanges with China. According to *Juan* 489 of the *History of the Song Dynasty*, Chola was five *li* distant from the sea on the east and 1,500 *li* distant from the western coast of India. It had abundant natural resources including pearls, ivory, coral, gem, areca-nut, cardamom, rattan, date, coconut and so on. It had goats, cattle, pheasants and parrots among other creatures. The city had seven sections, from the outermost to the innermost. Residents lived in the first to the third sections, with the river surrounding them, officials in the fourth section and an offspring of the top officials in the fifth section. Monks lived in the Buddhist temple in the sixth section and the highest officials in the innermost section, which had more flowers and trees. In fighting, they first used elephants and then used guns, swords, and bows and arrows. People charged with light crimes were tied to wooden frames, and whipped 50 to 100 times; and people charged with serious crimes were trampled to death by elephants. According to the Chinese historical records: “in September of the eighth year of Dazhongxiangfu (1015), Rajaraja sent assistant minister Suolisanwen and Pushu to China to pay tribute including real pearl-embroidered shirts and caps, 21100 *liang* of pearls, 60 pieces of ivory and 60 *jin* of frankincense”. Subsequently, in the fourth year of Tianxi (1020), the second year of Mingdao (1033), and the tenth year of Xining (1077) as well, the country sent envoys to China. The name 'Shi Li Luo Cha Yin Tuo Luo Zhu Luo' recorded in the second year of Mingdao was consistent with the modern translation “Rajendra” meaning Rajendra Chola.

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Chinese works on geography also had many records about the Chola. According to '*Ling Wai Dai Da*' of Zhou Qufei in the Southern Song period (1135-1189), the Chola often waged war with countries to the west. It had 60,000 war elephants. In wartime, the warriors stood on the howdahs on the elephants' backs. Spears were used in close fighting and bows and arrows for fighting at a distance. Victorious elephants were also honoured. People here were more impulsive, he claimed. If there were people who despised each other, they would fight with short swords right in front of the king, and even if they died, they had no regrets. Fathers, sons and brothers would not use the same stoves and utensils but they were loyal to each other. The *Zhu Fan Zhi* of Zhao Rushi (1170 – 1231) also contains detailed descriptions about the Chola system of marriage and divorce.

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(*Ge Weijun*)

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Tamralipta (now Tamluk)

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Tamralipta (Tamalitta in Pali) was an ancient country in the northeastern part of India and was also an important port. Many Chinese monks visited this place which was known as Danmolidi in Chinese.

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Tamralipta was located in the Ganges River delta in western Bengal, in the area of present-day Tamluk on the right bank of the mouth of the Hooghly river as mentioned in the ancient epic *Mahabharata*. As a centre of land and water transportation, it had commercial intercourse with Rome from the 1st and 2nd century CE and also with southern India and countries in Southeast Asia. During the Maurya era (about 321 BC – 185 BC), this place was a part of Magadha. Shortly after 250 BC, Sanghamitta, the daughter of Asoka, at the invitation of Simhala (now Sri Lanka), initiated the queen Anulo and the concubines in the palace into nunhood and established the Bhiksuni Sangha. It is said that to escort her and the Bodhi tree branch she carried, Asoka personally led the troops to Tamralipta and watched her ship sail away.

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Many Chinese monks visited Tamralipta. Faxian during the Jin dynasty visited the country in 408 CE, and noted: “… Duomolidi is a seaport. It has 24 Buddhist temples, full of Buddhists, and Buddhism is flourishing”. Faxian lived there for two years.

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Hoogly River, West Bengal, India

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He copied scriptures and made portraits. Later, he boarded a merchant ship and after 14 days and nights, he reached Simhala. Xuanzang also paid a visit. In the *Record of the Western Regions of the Great Tang*, he wrote: “Danmolidi is one thousand four hundred or five hundred *li* in circumference, and its capital is more than 10 *li* in circumference. The country is near the sea, with the dampness of a low-lying land. During the season of sowing and reaping, flowers and fruits are abundant. The weather here is warm and hot. People here are strong and brave, believing in good and evil. There are more than 10 Buddhist temples, with thousands of monks and there are more than 50 temples. There are different beliefs. The country is near the sea and is at the intersection of land and water, with many treasures so people in this country are generally rich.” Faxian had also wanted to go to Simhala by sea from here but a south Indian monk thought that the sea route was more risky and advised him to choose the land route. So he went in a southwesterly direction to Udra (in the north of Odisha today). Monk Yijing from the Tang period boarded a Persian merchant ship from Guangzhou to India on his pilgrimage in November of 671. He stayed for half-a-year in Srivijaya (Sumatra in present-day Indonesia), then went to Tamralipta and met with another monk Dachengdeng who had lived there for many years. He stayed there for one year and learned Sanskrit. They went to central India together. Before leaving India, he again resided in Tamralipta to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese and then returned to China by ship directly from there.

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Uddiyana

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Uddiyana, which means “garden”, is the name of an ancient country which lay on the branch of the Silk Road connecting India and China. It is also known as Ujjāna, Uḍḍiyāna, Oddiyāna, etc. It is widely believed that Udyàna was located on the upper reaches of the Indus River of north Pakistan today and the drainage basin of the Swat

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Uddiyana Buddha Pagoda, Pakistan

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River. It was situated on the only route on the Silk Road for Buddhist monks and merchants going between India and China. *Juan* 97 of the Chinese work ‘*Bei Shi*’ said, “Udyàna was south of Shemi. In the north were the Pamirs and south was India.” Faxian said in his *Record of the Buddhistic Kingdoms*, “Udyàna was due north of India, and people there all spoke Middle Indic.” Eminent monks, Song Yun and Huisheng, when they went west on pilgrimage in 518, met the king when they passed Udyàna. According to the *Records of the Luoyang Temples - Ningxuan Temple*, while talking about their own country they told him about “the morals of Zhou Gong, Confucius, Zhuangzi and Laozi... the cure of diseases by Hua Tuo and the necromancy of Zuo Ci”. This was supposed to have excited the king, and he said, “what you have spoken about is the country of Buddhism and I would like to be born in that country in my next life.” Besides, they also “spent from their travelling expenses and built a statue of Buddha on the mountain top and made a stone engraving to record the merits and virtues of the Wei dynasty.”

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There are more detailed descriptions in Xuanzang’s account of his travels: “Udyàna had an area of more than 5,000 *li* with mountains, valleys, rivers and lakes. Though they planted grain there, the oil there is not suitable. It had abundant grapes but there was little sugar cane. There was also gold and iron. It is suitable for tulip cultivation. The forests here were green and flowers and fruits were growing in profusion. The climate was comfortable. People here were timid, common and cunning. They were engaged in learning but not in physical labour and magic arts were popular. They respected Buddhism and believed in Mahayana.” There were many Chinese monks who travelled to the West who visited Udyana. Among them were Hui Jing, Dao Zheng, Hui Dai, Hui Chao, Dao Lin and Xuan Zhao.

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(Ge Weijun)

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Kamarupa

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Kàmarupa was an ancient place in the eastern part of India, located in the western part of present-day’s Assam, encompassing the Brahmaputra Valley and surrounding areas. It was called Pràgjyotisha in the past and later the name was changed to Kàmarupa, also translated into Chinese as Jiamolu.

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The epic *Mahabharata* mentions King Bhagadatta who ruled Prāgjyotiṣa. During the famous Kurukshetra War described in the epic, he was on the side of the Kauravas and was killed on the battlefield. Kàmarupa was founded in the 4ᵗʰ century CE by Pushyavarman, who used to be subservient to Samudragupta (reign 330–375 CE), the second emperor of the more powerful Gupta Dynasty. This dynasty lasted for 13 generations of emperors and became independent in the 6ᵗʰ century during the time of Bhutivarman. Its last emperor Bhàskaravarman was a contemporary of Harsha. He died around 650 CE and the kingdom changed hands afterwards. The governor of the new dynasty was Sàlastambha, the founder of the Mleccha Dynasty. In the 13ᵗʰ century, Ahoms from the east and Muslims from the west invaded, putting an end to this kingdom.

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Tea gardens of Assam

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Historically, Kàmarupa had been in close contact with China. The eminent Chinese monk, Xuanzang and the Tang envoy, Wang Xuance were both warmly received here. There is a detailed description of it in Xuanzang’s account. In it, he said, “Kàmarupa covered an area of thousands of *li* and the capital covered more than 30 *li*. The fields there were full of water and people sowed and reaped at the right time. There were many valuable trees, rivers and lakes crisscrossed the city. The air was gentle and pleasant and the people’s customs were simple. People were short and black and they believed in some gods rather than Buddhism.” There were also references to Kamarupa in *juan* 198 of the *Jiu Tang Shu* (*The Old Tang History*). It said: “There are tens of countries in ancient India, and their customs and local products are similar. There is a country called Jiamolu. There, the custom was to open the east door to face the sun. When Wang Xuance arrived there, the ruler despatched envoys to offer as tribute rare treasures and exotic things and maps, because he had received (from China) a statue of Lao-tzu and the (scripture) *Dao De Jing*.”

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