Chandragupta Maurya and His Times c10: Chapter VII: Land-System and Rural Administration

Chandragupta Maurya and His Times c10

Language: English

Chapter VII: Land-System and Rural Administration

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Survey. The cultivated land was measured by the *rajju*=10 *daṇḍas*=40 *hands*, 1 *hand* being equal to 54 *aṅgulas*. Different standards of measurement were used for different kinds of land, such as military camping grounds, timber-forests, roads and wells, revenue-free lands, and the like.

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The cost of Survey and Settlement was charged to the proprietor of the land benefiting by them.

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Settlement. There are interesting injunctions regarding the duties of the State as landlord. First, a start was made with the establishment of villages of minimum sizes of 100 and maximum 500 families. The State would settle on these villages the peoples of other regions by their assisted emigration (*paradeśāpavāhanena*) or a part of its own population by transferring it from over-populated areas (*svadeśābhishyandavamanena*).

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The villages are to be separated by well-defined boundaries such as river, hill, forest, shrubs (*grishṭi*), valley (*darī*), embankments (*setubandha*) and trees like *śālmalī*, *śamī*, or *vaṭa*. The villages should not be too far apart. They should be within a *krośa* or two of each other, so as to be able to protect each other (*anyonyāraksham*) [II. 1].

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The rural collective life was promoted by organising every 10 villages under a common administrative centre called *Saṅgrahaṇa*; every 200 villages under *Khārvaṭika*; every 400 villages under a *Droṇamukha*; till the culmination was reached in a union of 800 villages called *Mahāgrāma* with its administrative centre called a *Sthānīya*, a centre of culture, trade, business, and means of livelihood, where the villagers of the entire locality would meet and cultivate a corporate life [*Ib.*].

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The State is to grant lands free of rents and taxes to those whose services the village needs, viz., (1) those who conduct religious ceremonies, (2) teachers, (3) priests and (4) men of learning [*Ib.*].

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Such grants of land were also made to village officers in lieu of salaries, but these were inalienable by sale or mortgage (*vikrayādhānavarjam*). The scale of salaries payable to the rural officers of different grades in the shape of grants of land is thus fixed in both *Manu-Smriti* [VII. 119] and the *Māhābhārata* [XII. 87, 6-8]: The lord of 10 villages is to be given 1 *kula* of land, defined to be "as much land as can be cultivated with 12 oxen;" the lord of 20 villages, 5 *kulas*; of 100 villages, one entire village; and of 1,000 villages, one entire town.

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Land made fit for cultivation is to be settled on rent with its cultivator for life. Land not fit for cultivation is not to be taken away from those who are making it fit.

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Non-cultivation of land will render it liable to forfeiture. The land thus released will be given to other cultivators in the village in the first instance. Failing that, the State is to settle it with more resourceful people who can make it profitable and can pay rent for it. These may be persons in the employ of the village itself (*Grāmabhṛitakas*) and even the local merchants (*Vaidehaka*). This shows that non-cultivating capitalists were entertained for promoting agriculture instead of depending solely on the actual cultivators or tillers of the soil.

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The State should encourage cultivation by advance of seeds, cattle, and money (*hiraṇya*), so that cultivators may be enabled to make it profitable and afterwards (*anu*) pay back the agricultural loan and the dues to the State without difficulty (*sukhena dadyāt*).

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Favours and remissions of rent (*anugraha-parihāra*) cannot be granted to cultivators at the cost of the State [*Ib.*].

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According to Kauṭilya, [VII. II], a country the majority of whose population is of lower classes (*avaravarṇa-prāya*) is, from the economic point of view, better (*śreyasī*) than one of the four highest castes (*chāturvarṇyābhiniveśe*). The lower classes are capable of all work and hardship (*sarva-bhoga-sahatvāt*) such as agriculture needs. Agriculture further depends on cattle and the Śūdras are herdsmen and follow cattle-rearing as their profession (*pāśupālya*). There are also needed the Vaiśyas who store up grain and supply agricultural loans on the basis of crops (*paṇya-nichayariṇānugrahāt*). Kauṭilya considers Agriculture as the best industry because it may be plied at most places (*bāhulyāt*) and is certain of results (*dhruvatvāt*). Thus, in his opinion, that *bhūmi* or country is the best which is (1) *karshaṇavatī*, suitable to agriculture; (2) *gorakshakavatī*, full of herdsmen; and (3) *vaṇigvatī*, full of merchants who finance agriculture.

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Kauṭilya's appreciation of the lower castes and his Indian economics are remarkable in a Brahmin of his aggressive orthodoxy.

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**Village Planning.** Apart from its arable land, a village should have its uncultivated land (*akṛishyā bhūmi*) distributed for purposes of (1) Pastures (*vivīta*) for the grazing of its cattle; (2) Sylvan retreats for religious study and practices (*Brahma-Somāraṇya*) and for ascetics (*Tapovana*); (3) a reserved forest for royal hunt to be stocked "with tamed (*dānta*) animals like deer and elephant, and wild animals like tiger but with their teeth and claws cut off"; (4) ordinary forests for the shelter of all animals (*sarvātithi-mṛigam mṛiga vanam*); (5) plantations of different kinds of forests growing different kinds of produce such as Timber-forests, Bamboo-forests, or forests of bark-producing trees; (6) factories for utilisation of forest-products (*dravya-vana-karmāntān*); (7) colonies of foresters and (8) forests for rearing of elephants beyond human habitation [II. 2].

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**Rural Development.** The State must take charge of rural development under a programme comprising (1) Mining and Metallurgical works (*ākara-karmānta*), (2) Plantations of forests yielding timber and also valuable and medicinal woods like sandalwood or scented wood, (3) Plantation of forests for elephants, (4) Grazing grounds for cattle, (*vraja*), (5) Roads for traffic (*vaṇik-pathaprachārān*), (6) Water-ways and land routes (*vāri-sthalapatha*) and (7) markets for commodities (*paṇyapattana*) [II. 1].

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The State should also make provision for rural water-supply by construction of reservoirs (*setu*) filled from a river or by rain. It should also help private persons to construct tanks by free gifts of land, passage for water, timber, and other necessary materials.

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The State should also make such gifts of land and material to private persons constructing places for worship (*Puṇya-sthāna*) and rest for the public, (*Ārāma*).

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The State should enforce supply of stipulated contributions in the shape of labour and bullocks towards any co-operative undertaking decided on by the village. In lieu of stipulated contribution, the defaulter had to pay for it and his share of the cost of the undertaking (*vyaya-karmaṇi cha bhāgī syāt*).

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The sovereign has rights over what grows in the public tanks (*setushu*), whether fish, ducks, or aquatic plants.

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A village must not be provided with pleasure-gardens or halls for purposes of dramatic performance, dancing, vocal music, concerts, buffoons, and bards, disturbing the work of helpless agriculturists.

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The State must protect agriculturists from exacting fines, free labour, and rents or taxes.

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A village had its flower-gardens, orchards (*pushpa-phalavāṭa*), clusters of trees such as lotus or bamboo (*shaṇḍa*), and paddy fields (*kedāra*) [II. 1; 6].

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There are laid down a few other wholesome regulations for the growth of a healthy village life. The State must check indiscipline in the family and enforce the obedience of the dependants like relations, indentured servants (*āhitakas*) and hirelings [*dāsas* (by birth, *garbha-jāta*; from birth, *gṛiha-jāta*; by purchase (*krīta*), by acquisition (*labdha*), or by debt, *dāyopagata*)] to their master.

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The State is also to support the helpless in the village, the young, the aged, the diseased, the afflicted and the destitute, and the childless women.

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The elders of the village (*grāma-vṛiddhāḥ*) are enjoined to protect the property of its minors and see to its improvement till they come of age, and similarly protect the properties of temples for all times (*bāla-dravya* and *deva-dravya*).

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Again, failure to maintain one's children, wife, parents, minor brothers, daughters, sisters, and widowed daughters, on the part of one who is able to support them, was fined, except in the cases of lapses from morality, but the mother is to be excepted under all circumstances.

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Any person leaving home as an ascetic without providing for his son and wife was punishable; so also any person who converts a woman to asceticism.

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One could renounce the world only at the age fixed by the *Śāstras*. Otherwise he is to be imprisoned (*niyamya*) [II. 1].

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**Land Revenue.** The administration of the Department of Land Revenue was under the control of the officer called *Samāhartā* whose functions have been already dealt with.

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**Its Sources.** As we have already seen, the items of Land Revenue mentioned are derived from a variety of sources described under the term *Rāshṭra* which means 'the country side' or rural area, excluding the *Durga*. These are technically called (1) *Sītā* (Crown land); (2) *Bhāga* or the sixth part of agricultural produce payable to the State; (3) *Kara*, or the levy of an impost upon the yield of orchards; (4) *Vivīta* or a levy on pastures; (5) *Vartanī* or road-cess; (6) *Rajjū* or cess payable for settlement; (7) *Chora-rajjū* or Chowkidari or Police cess; (8) *Setu*, irrigated lands and tanks; (9) *Vana* or forests; (10) *Vraja* or Cattle-breeding Farms or Stud-Farms; (11) *Bali*, presents to the king, a sort of abwabs; (12) *Mines* such as those of "gold, silver, diamond, gems, pearls, corals, conch-shells, metals, salts, and other minerals extracted from earth, stone, or oilfields (*rasa*) like mercury." [II. 6].

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**Administration: Revenue Officers.** The Revenue Department comprised three grades of officials, viz., (1) *Samāhartā*, Collector-general, the Head of the Department, (2) *Sthānika* and (3) *Gopa*. The Province (*Janapada*) was split up into four Circles or Divisions, each under a *Sthānika*. Each such Circle was subdivided into groups or unions of 5 villages and 10 villages which were placed in charge of officers called *Gopas*. In addition to *Gopa* and *Sthānika*, the rural staff working in a village comprised the following officers: (1) *Adhyaksha*, like the officer in charge of gold and jewellery works (*suvarṇādhyaksha*); (2) *Saṁkhyāyaka*, the village accountant; (3) *Anīkastha*, trainer of elephants (caught in the adjoining elephant-forests); (4) *Chikitsaka*, the village *Vaidya* or physician; (5) *Aśvadamaka*, trainer of horses; (6) *Jaṅghākarika* (*Jāṅghika*); travelling agents (*dūradeśagatāgatajīvī*) and others [II. 1].

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Villages in each of the four provincial Divisions were grouped under three classes in the order of the number of their population and the value of their resources (Commentator).

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**Records.** Written records (*Nibandhas*) were prepared, counting villages of different descriptions such as (1) Revenue-free (*parihāraka*); (2) Contributing military service in lieu of taxes (*āyudhīyaṁ daṇḍakaradāyakaṁ grāmāgram*); or (3) Contributing regularly as tax assessed (*pratikaraḥ pratiniyataḥ karaḥ*) prescribed quantities of *dhānya* (grain or crops); number of animals of different kinds, whether beasts of burden, or those yielding milk or wool (*vāhadoha-lomādi-upakartṝn paśūn iti paśukaraḥ*); assessed quantities of precious metals (*hiraṇya*), such as gold, silver, or copper, for purposes of coinage (*kośapraveśya*); of raw materials (*kupya*); and of labour (*vishṭi karmakarapurushāḥ*) [II. 35].

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Thus the rural registers recorded the substance (*grāmāgraṁ*) of each village, its economic value and resources (*prātisvikam*), the kind of contribution it made to the general welfare of the country, as also the collective substance of all the villages in a division (*sāmūhikaṁ cha parimāṇam*).

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**Details.** After the villages were thus classified according to the kind of contribution they made to the revenue and resources of the State, each individual village was further studied with reference to the following particulars which the village officer in charge called the Gopa was to enter in his own Record (*Nibandha*), viz.

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(1) Demarcation of villages by defined boundaries such as river, rock and the like and ascertainment of the exact area of each village thus demarcated (*sīmāvarodhena grāmāgram*);

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(2) Measurement and description of plots (*kshetra*) as (a) cultivated, (b) uncultivated and waste, (c) high and dry, (d) paddy-fields (*kedāra*), (e) park (*ārāma*), (f) orchard (*shaṇḍa*), (g) plantations of sugar-cane and the like (*vāṭa*), (h) wood (*vana*) for supplying the villagers with firewood, (i) inhabited, covered by dwellings (*vāstu*), (j) trees for worship (*chaitya*), (k) temples, (l) irrigation works (*setu*), (m) cremation grounds, (n) almshouses (*sattra*), (o) watering places (*prapā pānīyaśālā*), (p) places of pilgrimage, (q) grazing grounds (*vivīta*) and (r) roads;

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(3) Preparation of Registers (*nibandhān*) recording (a) boundaries (*maryādā*) and areas (*pramāṇam*) of plots, (b) woods for common use (*araṇya*), (c) approaches to plots (*patha*), (d) plots acquired by gift (*sampradāna*), (e) plots acquired by sale (*vikraya*), (f) amount of loan advanced to agriculturists (*anugraha*) and (g) revenue remissions granted by Government (*parihāra*);

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(4) Preparation of a Census of Households in the village (*gṛihāṇām saṁkhyānena*) showing (a) the number of each house in the register; (b) whether it was taxed or tax-free (*karada* or *akarada*); (c) composition of each household as to number of Brāhmaṇas, Kshatriyas, Vaiśyas, and Śūdras living in it (*etāvat chāturvarṇyam*); (d) number of cultivators (*karshaka*), herdsmen (*gorakshaka*), traders (*vaidehaka*), artisans (*kāru*), workmen (*karmakara*), serfs (*dāsa*); (e) number of men and live-stock; (f) amount contributed by each household to the State in the forms of cash, labour, tolls and military service (*hiraṇya-vishṭi-śulka-*)

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*daṇḍa*); (g) number of males and females and their ages (*strī-purushāṇām bāla-vṛiddha-vayaḥ-parichchhedam*) in each household (*kulānām*); (h) occupations (*karmāṇi*) according to *varṇa* (caste); (i) customs (*charitra*) of the village and the family concerned; (j) domestic budget of each family indicating its Income and Expenditure (*ājīva-vyaya-parimāṇa*) [II. 35].

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The preparation of these village Records and Registers enabled government to have a complete grip upon the condition of the countryside in all its details, leaving no room for any speculation. Periodical Survey of rural conditions was obviated by the Census being kept up as a standing institution.

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Besides the village officer at the bottom of the scale, thus keeping record for each village under his charge, the next higher Revenue Officer, the *Sthānika*, in charge of one of the four districts of the province, (*janapada-chaturbhāgam*), was also to prepare similar records and registers for his circle.

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Inspectors (*Pradeshṭāras*). The Revenue Minister also enforced the working of this administrative system by means of Inspectors going about the country in disguise as Informers to inspect the Records and Accounts kept by the District and Village Officers regarding the cultivated fields, homesteads (*gṛiha*) and families (*kula*); (a) fields under the heads of area and output (*māna-saṁjātābhyāṁ kshetrāṇi*); (b) households under the heads of revenue assessed (*bhoga*) and remissions (*parihāra*); and (c) families under the heads of caste, occupation, number of members (*jaṅghāgra*, counted as per pair of feet and not per head), income and expenditure. They had also to inform themselves of the movements of the people, to and from the village, of doubtful characters (*anarthyānām*), “such as dancers, actors and the like,” and of foreign spies.

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Other classes of Inspectors will inspect the quantity and price of the various products due to the State, those from cultivated fields, orchards, forests, mines and factories.

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Another set will examine the imports by land or water and the dues levied on these in the shape of toll (*śulka*), road-cess (*vartanī*), conveyance-cess (*ātivāhika*), military-cess (*gulma-deya*), ferry charges (*tara-deya*), 1|6 portion of their value payable by merchants (*bhāga*), the charges for their living (*bhakta*), and accommodation of their goods in government warehouses (*paṇyāgāra*) [II. 35].

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Inspectors in the guise of ascetics were set to watch the activities of cultivators, herdsmen, merchants and Heads of Government Departments (*Adhyakshas*). “In places of trees worshipped, where four roads meet, at solitary places, in the vicinity of tanks, rivers, bathing-places, at centres of pilgrimage, at hermitages, in desert-tracts, on hills, and in thick forests, Informers in the guise of veteran thieves with their followers will be set to ascertain the causes of arrival and departure, and halt, of thieves, enemies and outlaws.”

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In addition to the subordinate Inspectorate, there were also *Pradeshṭāras* of higher grade to inspect regularly the work of their subordinate Revenue Officers in the districts [II. 35 for above].

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**Land Transactions** [III. 9]. Lands were as easily saleable as moveable properties. They were put up to auction publicly in the presence of forty persons who owned property in the vicinity of the land or the house on sale. They congregated before the land or in front of the house on sale and announced it as being such. The aged persons of the locality presided over the transaction. A description was given of the boundaries and other necessary particulars of the property. The auctioner then loudly called out three times, ‘Who will purchase the land or the house at such a price’ (*anena argheṇa kaḥ kretā*)? The purchaser gets the land after this, if it is not objected to by any one (*avyāhatam*). But if, at this stage of the transaction, bidding commences, and the price is enhanced, the enhanced amount, together with the toll on the sale-value, was paid into the king’s treasury. The purchaser, who enhanced the value by bidding, paid the toll. The seller of lands or houses, the owners of which were absent or unknown, had to pay a fine of 24 (*paṇas*) [III. 9].

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Tax-paying cultivators could mortgage or sell their lands only among themselves. Persons who enjoyed revenue-free (*brahmadeyika*) lands could mortgage or sell such lands only to those who deserved or were already granted such lands. Otherwise the sellers were liable to a fine of first amercement [III. 10].

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Similarly, a tax-payer had to live only in a village of tax-payers. A tax-payer living in a non-tax-paying village was punished with fines. A tax-payer acquiring property in a village of tax-payers had the same rights and privileges as the tax-payer replaced [*Ibid*].

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In the case of a land-owner unable to cultivate his lands, another might do so on a five year’s lease at the expiry of which he surrendered the land after obtaining a compensation for his improvements on the land. An absentee landlord in possession of rent-free land who was obliged to sojourn abroad for a time was entitled only to its usufruct (*bhoga*) and not the other gains from the land which accrued to the king [*Ib.*].

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Assessment. The basis of assessment was, as we have seen, a share of the produce due to the State, usually 1|6. Irrigated lands paid in addition water-rates (*udakabhāga*) varying with the means of irrigation employed, amounting to 1|5 to 1|3, as has been already described. Any one constructing a new irrigation work like a tank will be entitled to a remission of tax for 5 years (*Taṭākasetubandhānāṁ navapravartane pāñchavarshikaḥ parīhāraḥ*); for repairing such a work, remission for 9 years (*bhagnotsṛishṭānāṁ chāturvarshikaḥ*); for bringing new land into cultivation by clearing it of jungles, 3 year's remission (*samupārūḍhānāṁ traivarshikaḥ*) and 2 years for land in a better condition (*sthalam*) [III. 9].

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To this basic revenue demand of a share of the produce (known as Asal jumma in Mogul times) were added then, as now, various additional demands (*abwabs*, as now called). The State in need (*kośamakośaḥ pratyutpannārthakṛichchhaḥ*) may claim 1|3 or 1|4 of bumper harvests reaped on well-watered lands (*deva-mātṛikān*). It may also claim 1|4 of grain (*dhānyānām*) and 1|6 of the following: (1) *Vanya* (forest produce), (2) *Tūla* (silk-cotton), (3) *Lākshā* (lac), (4) *Kshauma* (jute), (5) *Valka* (bark), (6) *Kārpāsa* (cotton), (7) *Rauma* (wool), (8) *Kauśeya* (silk), (9) *Aushadha* (drugs), (10) *Gandhapushpa* (flowers), (11) *Phala* (fruits), (12) *Śāka* (vegetables), (13) *Kāshṭha* (fire-wood), (14) *Veṇu* (bamboo); (15) *Māṁsavallūra* (dried meats) and also 1/2 of (1) *Danta* (ivory) and (2) *Ajina* (skins of animals like kine).

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And again: "Fowls and pigs should pay 1/2, smaller beasts (like goat and sheep) 1/6, and cows, buffaloes, horses, mules, asses, and camels 1/10."

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All this demand will be for once only, and never twice (*sakṛideva na dviḥ prayojyaḥ*).

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But the *Samāhartā* would also raise money by appealing to the people of the town and country for donations in aid of a specific undertaking (*Samāhartā kāryamapadiśya paura-jānapadān bhiksheta*) [V. II]. We may add to these the extra taxes levied on the village like *piṇḍakara*, *senābhakta*, *bali*, *utsaṅga*, *pārśva* or *pārihīnaka* by the *Samāhartā*, as noticed before.

Linked texts (3)

Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra — Kauṭilya, Sanskrit
Mānava Dharmaśāstra — Manu & Bhṛgu, Sanskrit
Mahābhārata — Vyāsa, Sanskrit