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An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c9.s19.t3: 4.19.7 N.-e. Deccan

An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c9.s19.t3

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4.19.7 N.-e. Deccan

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The archaeological records of SISUPALGARH are perhaps the most convincing evidence of the historical fact of the transition from the early eras of prosperity to a decadent phase (c. 200-350)

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which brought about the end of the occupation at the site. It was the close of this phase that marks the beginning of the late historical cultures of Orissa. The finds of this period, which include Puri-Kushan coins and an imitation gold coin of the Kushans, hardly throw any light on the cultural life of the people. However a few *yakṣa* and *nāga* images found in the periphery of Bhubaneswar reflect the cultural pursuits and affiliation of the people in that epoch of uncertainty.

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The Gupta invasion of Orissa had a great impact upon its cultural growth. The upsurge introduced many new political elements, the foremost of them being the Māṭharas whose rule extended roughly from *c.* 350 to 500. The period is particularly noteworthy for the first appearance of Śaivism and Vaiṣṇavism in Orissa. From the epigraphic sources it is known that the rulers espoused the causes of Brāhmaṇism and Vaiṣṇavism, both of which flourished with remarkable popularity, though Buddhism simultaneously retained its hold.

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Meanwhile a new centre of a flourishing culture had come into being in Dt Keonjhar. Here we find, between Sitabhinji and Denguaposi, two adjacent villages, extensive remains of an ancient township and a number of rock-shelters of which one contains a tempera painting of a royal procession depicting a king on elephant with a contingent of cavalry and infantry. At the bottom is inscribed in 5th-century characters the name of Mahārājā Diśābhañja, the suffix of the name indicating the family to which the king belonged. This remarkable work of art recalling the tradition of Bagh in c. India, along with other finds such as a *caturmukha-liṅga*, scattered boulders inscribed in the s. Indian characters of the 5th century and a soapstone figurine amply demonstrate that Sitabhinji was a prosperous town, as well as a flourishing Śaiva centre.

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Another flow of culture, apparently the main current, is encountered in the coastal region. Here, in the 7th century Bhubaneswar suddenly became the hub of a brisk temple-building movement which expressed itself in the progressive evolution of a distinctive style of architecture known as the Kalinga order. The importance of the centre lies not only in the group of temples which presents a complete chronicle of the Orissan style of temple architecture but also as showing a confluence of diverse religious cults and sects prevailing in the region. Numerous representations of Lakulīśa, the founder-teacher of the Pāśupata sect of Śaivism, in all the early temples of Bhubaneswar, clearly indicate that the inspiration for the activity was provided by that particular sect in the process of bringing about a sudden change in the religion of the people. The earliest group of extant temples, of which Paraśurāmeśvara is the best example, belonged to the period of the Śailodbhavas, who asserted their independence some time after 619, the date up to which the Gauḍa king Śaśāṅka had remained as the overlord of Koṅgada.

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The Śailodbhavas were followed by the Bhaumas who attained a high stage of culture. The landmarks of the epoch are the emergence of Mahāyana Buddhism as the dominant form of religion and the first appearance of Śāktism in Orissa. Virajā or modern Jajpur in Dt Cuttack, the capital of the Bhaumas, soon became a renowned centre of Mahāyāna Buddhism and Śāktism. The Vaital Deul at Bhubaneswar, a singular temple of an exotic appearance, is assigned to this period and is the first Śākta shrine of Bhubaneswar. Through its eclectic representations are refracted the spectrum of cultures and moods of the times. Evidently there was co-existence of Śāktism, Śaivism and Mahāyana Buddhism notwithstanding a strong religious rivalry among them. The Bahirangeśvara temple on the top of the Dhauli hill and an inscription of Śāntikaradeva in a cave of the hill testify that the hill again became a centre of religious activities during the rule of the Bhaumas.

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These apart, remains of Buddhist art and architecture of the period have been discovered at KHICHING in Dt Mayurbhanj, at Baudh, at Chowduar near Cuttack and on the hills of Udayagiri, Lalitagiri and RATNAGIRI in Dt Cuttack. Colossal images of Buddha, Bodhisattvas, Tārā and host of other deities of the Mahāyāna order abound in these hills, which have proved to be the veritable store-houses of Buddhist sculptures. Hiuen Tsang visited Puṣpagiri-vihāra, located in this region, and from his account it is known that the famous *vihāra* was a prosperous and magnificent establishment under the patronage of the Bhaumas. The extensive remains of a Buddhist establishment uncovered at RATNAGIRI, comprising a main *stūpa*, magnificent monasteries, shrines, innumerable votive *stūpas* and sealings bearing the legend *Ratnagiri-mahāvihāra ārya-bhikṣu-saṁghasya* testify that RATNAGIRI, like NĀLANDĀ, was a prosperous and renowned centre of Mahāyāna Buddhism. The date of the establishment extending from the 8th to the 13th century indicates that Buddhism continued to flourish as a living faith in the hills while Śaivism became the religion of the plains.

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The fame of Orissa as a centre of culture and learning reached even beyond the frontiers of India to China during the Bhauma rule. From the history of China it is known that the Bhauma ruler Śubhākaradeva sent the manuscript of a religious treatise along with a letter (now preserved in China) to the Chinese emperor towards the close of the 8th century. The episode, apart from revealing cultural relations with China, is a tribute to the culture and learning of Orissa during the Bhauma era. On the whole Orissa attained unprecedented heights in art and culture during the Bhauma rule.

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Towards the beginning of the 9th century the Bhauma kingdom broke up in confusion and in the sequel vassals of the Bhaumas established themselves in their own regions. Of them the Bhañjas of Mayurbhanj came to limelight in w. Orissa not only as powerful rulers but also as great patrons of art. The sprawling remains of KHICHING indicate that under the Bhañja chiefs KHICHING (Khijjiṅga-koṭṭa) was a prosperous town where Brāhmaṇism, Buddhism and Jainism flourished at an equal space and a distinctive school of art and architecture had grown up in the region. A small-scale excavation brought to light the partial remains of a brick quadrangular structure, appearing to be a monastery.

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The Somavaṁśīs, popularly called the Kesaris, became all powerful in Orissa in about the middle of the 10th century. Chowduar near Cuttack was the capital of the rulers. Its ruins, on the bank of the Birupa, are spread over several villages, but the site is greatly disturbed by modern constructions. Jajpur, Dt Cuttack, was the metropolis of many dynasties. The catholic outlook of the rulers finds an eloquent expression in the sculptural vocabulary of the Mukteśvara temple at Bhubaneswar. Among other works the construction of the largest Śaiva temple at Bhubaneswar is the greatest contribution of the rulers of the dynasty. The last ruler, Uddyotakesarin upheld the cause of the revival of Jainism in Orissa. An inscription in the Lalāṭendukesari cave (Cave 11) of the KHANDAGIRI hill records that Uddyotakesarin, in his fifth regnal year, repaired temples and wells on the hill (called Kumāraparvata in the inscription) and set up the images of Tīrthaṅkaras in a few of the old caves.

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The Somavaṁśīs were overthrown by the Gaṅgas at the beginning of the 12th century, which ushered in a brilliant epoch in Orissa. Epigraphic records of the family reveal the transfer of the capital to Barabati fort in modern Cuttack and within the capital was built a temple of Puruṣottama in 1230. It is also known that the Gaṅga kings made liberal grants for the construction and maintenance of the Śaiva temples at Bhubaneswar and elsewhere. The Gaṅgas seem to have had a predilection for a grandiose architecture of soaring height and elaborate plan with an emphasis on the exuberance of plastic embellishments. The Jagannātha temple of Puri and the Sun temple at Konark are the outstanding contributions of the Gaṅgas. The glitter of the Gaṅgas faded away during the rule of the Sūryavaṁśī Gajapatis who supplanted the Gaṅgas in the 15th century. The period represents a decadent phase in the sphere of art and architecture in Orissa.

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Of the material remains of the late historical period little information is available. Apart from the sites of KHICHING and Chowduar mentioned above, only a few other sites are known. ASURGARH, Dt Kalahandi, has an impressive oblong fort, seemingly with a gateway in each direction. The visible portion of the fortification is made of earth and *kankar*, with remnants of brickwork at the gateways. The surface finds include a Neolithic celt, microlithic cores and flakes and beads of semiprecious stones. Limited excavation within the fort revealed a circular brick structure of the 5th-6th century. The earliest level yielded black-slipped and polished ware. In the next upper level was found the black-and-red ware. The topmost stratum had sherds of red ware of early medieval times. There were also silver punch-marked coins [3.1], copper Puri-Kushan coins, terracotta figurines and stone beads.

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At Churangarh, also called Sarangarh, Dts Cuttack-Puri, fortification walls are traced amidst jungle, but nothing is known about the fort, which, to judge from its name, might have been founded by Anantavarman Coḍagaṅga (1078-1150). The Barabati fort at Cuttack is traditionally believed to have been founded by Anaṅgabhīma (1216-35). With a wide moat veneered with masonry, the stone walls of the fort were strengthened with sloping bastions. Jajpur, Dt Cuttack, the capital of several dynasties, is singularly denuded of all traces of habitation, and the temples are merely represented by ruins and numerous images.

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An excavation was carried out in the valley facing the rock-edict of Aśoka at DHAULI, not far from SISUPALGARH. While remains of the 6th-7th century were unearthed, no records of the finds are available.

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For sites see relevant entries in vol. II.—S.K. MUKHERJEE

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*4.19.8 Upper Deccan*. The majority of sites in the upper Deccan appear to have been deserted after the downfall of the Sātavāhanas in the 3rd century A.D. Some, however, continued under occupation for some centuries more as the find of Kalacuri and Viṣṇukuṇḍin coins thereat would show. TER was inhabited, but poorly, because of the decline in its status as a great trading emporium, though habitation during the Vākāṭaka-Gupta period (c. A.D. 300-600) is attested by the find of terracottas in the Gupta style. At Kausan near PAITHAN the earlier settlement was washed away by a heavy flood but the site was reoccupied during *c.* A.D. 600-800 as is indicated by a ruined brick temple of the Rāṣṭrakūṭa period. At BHOKARDAN the structures of the late historical period were built in a haphazard manner, and there is a marked deterioration in the art and crafts for which the site had been justly famous in the preceding period. To this period belong stone plaques carved with figures of Śiva and Pārvatī and depicting nude women, in many cases headless, the like of which are found in the structural and cave temples of the Chalukyan period in the Deccan. It may be stated that terracotta plaques of this type occur even in the early historical levels in the upper Deccan.

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In the Tapti valley too habitation continued after the 3rd century at some sites as PRAKASH where such objects as the *aṅka-dhātrī* type of mother-and-child terracotta plaques belonging to *c.* 4th-7th centuries have been found; small and crude sandstone images of Gaṇeśa, datable to *c.* 8th-9th centuries, also occur. Occupation continued till the 11th century.

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The late historical pottery, represented by nondescript wares, is extremely crude and coarse. At PAUNAR however a bright red-slipped pottery is found. A noteworthy feature of this period is the profusion of opaque monochrome glass bangles and later on their polychrome varieties. This is also the time when the Chinese Celadon Ware [11.25] makes its appearance in the upper Deccan.

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In the Krishna valley the remains of rubble structures datable to the Śilāhāra period (*c.* 12th century) have been noted at BRAHMAPURĪ (Kolhapur). Those at Pandharpur, of the same period, were however built of dressed stone. Extensive ruins of the 12th-13th centuries can be seen at Daulatabad, ancient Devagiri, the capital of the Yādavas, but they are unexcavated.

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Khandalawala, K J , 1960, in *Lalit Kala*, 7 (for Brahmapuri), Mate, M.S., & Dhavalikar, M.K., in *Bull Deccan College Res. Inst*, 29, pp 76-117 (for Pandharpur). For sites see respective entries in vol II.—M.K. DHAVALIKAR

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*4.19.9 S.-e. Deccan.* By the early decades of this century many Buddhist sites had been brought to light in Andhra, and sporadic excavations at some of them—AMARAVATI, Guntupalli, Jaggayyapeta, Ghantasala, Alluru, Bhattiprolu and a dozen others in coastal Andhra—had resulted in mass collections of sculptures, inscribed slabs, coins, relic caskets [12.8] and the like, without any serious attempt at recording their stratified contexts. In recent years planned excavations at some historical sites like NAGARJUNAKONDA, YELLESWARAM, KESARAPALLE, AMARAVATI, DHARANIKOTA and SALIHUNDAM have enabled us to assess, partially at least, the contents of the later historical cultures.

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Dynastically four main phases may be brought out: I, Ikṣvāku (3rd-4th centuries); II, post-Ikṣvāku (5th-7th centuries); III, Chalukya and E. Ganga (8th-12th centuries); and IV, still later, which is not of much concern here.

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Phase I: The excavations at NAGARJUNAKONDA have laid bare in great detail the cultural assemblage of the Ikṣvāku period. The dynasty rose to prominence in the early decades of the 3rd century, when the main activity, both political and religious, shifted to NAGARJUNAKONDA (ancient Vijayapurī) almost eclipsing the earlier city of Dhānyakaṭaka. The fortifications of Vijayapuri on the right bank of the Krishna enclosing an extensive trapezoidal area covering two rugged hillocks were initially of mud, 26 m wide at the base, and was subsequently strengthened by massive brick wall on top, 2 to 3 m wide on all sides except the w. facing the river. The main gateways were on the e. and w., and a postern gate existed on the n. There was a ditch all around nearly 4 m deep and 28 to 44 m wide. The structures inside the citadel comprised residential buildings, an *aśvamedha* complex and temples of Mahāsena, besides barracks, stables, cisterns, etc. Outside the citadel were widely spread well-planned residential houses amidst a variety of religious edifices. The layout of roads was distinguished by memorials for the dead heroes and royal personages. A huge canal with ramps on both sides, 10 m wide and 2 m deep, is an interesting feature. Architectural ventures of a grand scale are an amphitheatre, a royal bathing ghat, a burning ghat, a multistoreyed temple (*Sarvadevādhivāsa*) and large temples for Kārttikeya. Interesting secular buildings outside the citadel include flat-roofed pillared halls, wayside rest-houses, clubs, etc. The amphitheatre [14.2] with acoustic properties is a remarkable conception. Ample evidence of Roman contact can be gleaned from the representations in sculpture, exchange objects like Roman coins, amphorae [11.9], glass, precious ornaments, etc. Sculptural depictions backed by material evidence prove the existence of numerous games and amusements such as dice playing, dancing, animal and human fights, sometimes mixed (elephants, horse and cocks, cock-and-man, ram-and-man fight, etc.) and wrestling.

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The rulers built brick temples of Śiva (Mahādeva, Puṣpabhadra, Noḍagīśvara) and Mahāsena (Kārttikeya), Devasena, the *mātṛkās* and Kubera. Their plans exhibit a remarkable similarity to the Buddhist *caityagṛhas* of the place. The patronage to Buddhism was also phenomenal. Almost all the sites in coastal Andhra right from SALIHUNDAM (Dt Srikakulam) to Chandavaram (Dt Prakasham) were renovated and sculptural embellishment added. Excavations at the *stūpa* sites have yielded large quantities of pottery—fine red-slipped ware, Red Polished Ware [11.23], sprinklers, kaoline and terracotta objects, etc., besides a large number of sculptures and lead Ikṣvāku coins. At NAGARJUNAKONDA itself no less than 30 major monastic establishments were raised, with the nucleus of the Mahā-caitya believed to enshrine the tooth relic of Buddha. Separate monastic establishments for the foreign missionaries also existed at this place, viz. the Simhala-vihāra.

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Phase II: The cultural assemblages of YELLESWARAM, DHARANIKOTA and NAGARJUNAKONDA show a general decline with the fall of the Ikṣvāku dynasty. Several minor rulers came to power. While the early Pallava rulers of the Guntur-Nellore region held control over Dhānyakaṭaka towards the close of the 4th century, a large number of copper-plates, coins, structures, etc., of the Viṣṇukuṇḍin kings from YELLESWARAM, NAGARJUNAKONDA, AMARAVATI, Sankaram, Ramathirtham (Dt Vishakhapatnam), etc., suggest that the Viṣṇukuṇḍins held control over the entire e. Deccan till the beginning of the 7th century. Rock-cut ventures in the E. Ghats as exemplified at Ramathirtham, Sankaram, Guntupalli, Undavalli and Vijayawada appear to be Viṣṇukuṇḍin in origin. The Buddhists continued their activity at AMARAVATI and other places.

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Phase III: Veṅgī (Peddavegi in Dt W. Godavari), the capital of the E. Chalukya dynasty, has extensive ruins of fortifications, habitation sites and temples. With a much earlier beginning dating back to the Ikṣvāku period, a series of Śaiva centres came up during the period over the earlier Buddhist shrines. Mahāyāna Buddhism too flourished and many Tantric sects grew up at AMARAVATI, Ramathirtham and SALIHUNDAM. In the levels ascribable to the end of the 10th century sherds of the Celadon Ware [11.25] and Tantric icons are reported at AMARAVATI. Clay tablets containing the Buddhist creed [12.8] and Vajrayāna images are also found in good numbers at this place as well as at other centres like Guntupalli and Sankaram. At YELLESWARAM several pilgrim records and temple vestiges of the period have been laid bare.

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Mitra, D., 1971, *Buddhist Monuments*, Calcutta, p. 198-222. For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—I.K. SARMA

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*4.19.10 Lower Deccan.* The area now covered by Karnataka State was ruled by several important dynasties in the late historical period—the Chalukyas, the Rāṣṭrakūṭas, the Yādavas, the Hoysaḷas, etc.,—who studded the land with temples and left behind inscriptions and coins. But the archaeology proper of the area during this period has been inadequately studied, with the result that hardly anything of the material culture is known.

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*4.19.11 S. and s.-w. region.* The period between the 3rd and 12th centuries saw the proliferation of the late Śaṅgam·literature, erection of inscribed hero-stones, scriptal development, firstly Vaṭṭeḷuṭṭu, then Pallava-Grantha [20.4.2] and ultimately the present Tamil besides the innovation of the Grantha characters for denoting Sanskrit sounds in Tamil inscriptions. In the religious field Buddhism and Jainism faced strong opposition and lost their prestigious position to Śaivism and Vaiṣṇavism. By the early 7th century rock-cut architecture penetrated Tamil Nadu only to be replaced within a century by stone structural temples which attained zenith in the two gigantic Bṛhadīśvara temples at Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram built by Rājarāja and his son Rājendra Coḻa respectively. The period also witnessed the beginnings of dynastic—Pallava, Coḻa, Pāṇḍya—rule; each dynasty issued its own currency.

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Archaeologically the period witnessed the straggling continuation of the ceramics of the early historical period [4.18.10], albeit in a degenerate form. Thus the pottery in the Kaveri basin right from Koṅgu-nāḍu to Coḻamaṇḍalam and Paṇḍimaṇḍalam consisted of the Russet-coated Painted Ware [11.22] with the usual painted pattern, crude degenerate Black-and-red Ware [11.15.3] (not found in Koṅgu-nāḍu) and slipped wares in red black and brown colours, some of the red wares bearing paintings in black pigment. Besides an unslipped dull red ware including a thick variety is also available. In the Koṅgu country, in late levels appears a new ceramic-blackish grey in colour and bearing stamped and incised designs. In the provincial capital of Kāñchī (KANCHIPURAM), however, locally made amphorae [11.19] continue along with a fine red and orangeslipped wares. The Rouletted Ware [11.21] is absent. The shapes in general are mainly utilitarian, such as the bowl, dish, globular pot, carinated cooking vessel, storage jar, etc. Paintings on the Russet-coated Pained Ware comprise mostly linear and geometric patterns. Incised and stamped designs consist of linear, geometric and floral patterns, viz., bands of lines, criss-cross forming diamonds, herring-bone, etc. An annular rubble structure with rammed brickbat floor and brick cistern are some of the structural vestiges. Earlier brick structures of religious import continued to be repaired and flourish. The personal ornaments consist of beads of semiprecious stones, glass, terracotta and paste and bangles of glass and shell. Gold was also used for ornaments. The other antiquities include terracotta toys, human and animal figurines, copper antimony rods [18.1], nails and rings of iron, etc., the last being mostly of household utility.

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[In Kerala excavation at some localities near GANGANORE, Dt Trichur, supposed to be Muziris of the Romans, yielded antiquities which might indicate their identity with the capital of the second Cera empire.]

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