An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c9.s4: 4.4 Upper Palaeolithic
An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c9.s4
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4.4 Upper Palaeolithic
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The Upper Palaeolithic culture of Europe and w. Asia evolved during the later half of the last glacial period [9.8.2] (c. 40000 B.P.) and was marked by a rapid technological advancement as well as the first expression of man’s imaginative power and artistic talent. Despite great regional variations its chief diagnostic trait is the lithic blade tool technology and economic way of utilizing the raw material by snapping a series of elongated parallel-sided blades from prismatic cores. These blades were subsequently finished into various forms such as backed knives, backed points, scrapers, awls, etc. However tools on flake-blade also form an important component of the industries. In relatively recent years planned investigations have been undertaken in India to examine the archaeological status of sporadic discoveries of blade artefacts and bone tools from the BILLA SURGAM caves of Kurnool made from the times of R.B. Foote; to locate open-air and cave sites yielding Upper Palaeolithic industries; to identify their stratigraphical position in relation to the local cultural sequences; to determine their typo-technological features; and to interpret the chronological and ecological situations. As a result it is now established that in the subcontinent, as in the other parts of the Old World, there are lithic industries based on either incipient or developed blade tool industries occupying intermediate positions, wherever stratigraphical evidence is available, between the Indian Middle Palaeolithic [4.3] and Mesolithic [4.5], and that they can be ascribed to the Late Pleistocene [9.8.2] on faunal evidence and a few ¹⁴C dates. Further a cave site in Dt Kurnool has also yielded a bone tool industry, confirming the earlier discoveries of Foote, in association with a lithic blade industry of the same age. The evidence suggests though not proving conclusively, that the absence of bone tools at the open-air stations and cave sites in other parts of the country might be due to deleterious conditions for the preservation of organic remains within the microenvironment of the sediments in which they lay buried.
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Lithic industries displaying Upper Palaeolithic traits from different parts of the country have been variously labelled as flake-blade, blade tool and blade-and-burin. Notwithstanding the fact that a greater part of the evidence is recorded from secondary sites it can be inferred from the mode of their occurrence that favourable ecological niches in the river valleys in different parts of the country, sand-dune regions in Gujarat and Rajasthan and cave areas in the hilly and forested zones of c. India and Andhra Pradesh were inhabited during this period.
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These industries can be divided into three major groups: the flake-blade, blade tool and blade-and-burin, on typological grounds. The flake-blades display the inception of blade production techniques. Relatively broad and flake-like blades preponderate, although a few regular blades also form a component. The conspicuous features are the rare occurrence of finished forms of blades and burins and a greater representation of scrapers, points, etc., on flakes and flake-blades. Industries of this group are known from river valley sites in Bihar (DHEKULIA, PRATAPPUR and MARVANIA in Dt Palamau and a few sites in Dt Singhbhum) and in Madhya Pradesh (MAHESHWAR, in Dt W. Nimar).
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The blade tools comprise large-to-small blades, backed blades, burins, scrapers, points and awls on flake and flake-blade. The proportion of the tool components varies from site to site, but there is a significant increase in the relative occurrence of blades. Industries of this category have been brought to light from (1) river valley sites in Uttar Pradesh (on a tributary of the Yamuna at BARIYARI, Dt Banda, and on the BELAN, Dt Allahabad), in Madhya Pradesh (on the Banjer at BAMNI, Dt Mandla), in Maharashtra (on the PRAVARA at NEVASA, Dt Ahmadnagar), on the Jharpat Nala in Wardha, on the GHOD at INAMGAON, Dt Pune, and at Dhavalpuri in Dt Ahmadnagar, and in Karnataka (at SALVADIGI, Dt Bijapur, and Shorapur Doab, Dt Gulbarga); (2) sand-dune sites in c. Rajasthan (overlooking the BUDH PUSHKAR lake in Dt Ajmer); (3) open-air and cave sites in Andhra Pradesh (at BETAMCHERLA, Dt Kurnool); and (4) cave and rock-shelter sites in Madhya Pradesh (BHIMBETKA, Dt Raisen).
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Blades and burins are characterized by a prominent blade, backed blade and burin element, while tools on flake and flake-blade also occur. Backed blades (backed points, pen-knives, etc.), scrapers on blade, flake and flake-blade and well-defined burins make a significant percentage, but there is a great variation from site to site in the frequency of these types. These industries are known from (1) river valley sites in Andhra Pradesh (on the Rallakalava near RENIGUNTA, Dt Chittoor, in the Erramalai and Nallamalai hill ranges, Dt Kurnool, YERRAGONDAPALEM, Dt Prakasam, and NAGARJUNAKONDA, Dt Guntur) and in Maharashtra (at PATNE on a tributary of the Girna, Dt Jalgaon); (2) sand-dune sites in Gujarat (at VISADI, near Baroda); and (3) rock-shelter sites in Uttar Pradesh (BASAULI and LEKHANIA, Dt Mirzapur) and Madhya Pradesh (MORI, Dt Mandsaur).
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For most of these industries rocks of crypto-crystalline silica, like chert, jasper, agate and chalcedony, formed the chief raw material, although quartzite and quartz were also occasionally used. Quartzite and quartz were mainly used for the blade industry at BUDH PUSHKAR and quartz for the blade and burin industry at VISADI, both in Gujarat. Quartzite was primarily used for the blade industry at BHIMBETKA in Madhya Pradesh and for the blade and burin industries at RENIGUNTA and YERRAGONDAPALEM in Andhra Pradesh.
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Fig. 5. Upper Palaeolithic tools: 1, 2, 4. backed blade—Lahariadih; 3, blade—Vedullachervu; 6, end-scraper on backed blade—Kalinjar; 7, 8, denticulated blade; 9, 10, blade with retouched margin; 11, double borer on blade—Lahariadih; 12, burin—Kalinjar; 13, burin—Vedullachervu; 14, 15, scraper—upper Soan valley; 16, point on blade, Belan valley; 17, thumb-nail scraper—Upper Soan; 18, Levallois point; 19, end-scraper—Vedullachervu; 20, burin; 21, scraper upper Soan valley
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R.B. Foote and H.B. Foote excavated the BILLA SURGAM caves near Betamcherla, Dt Kurnool, as early as 1885 and obtained a variety of bone tools, some of which, according to the former, were comparable with the Magdalenian of France, no lithic artefacts being reported. The associated faunal remains were ascribed to the Late Pleistocene by Lydekker. The recent excavation at MUCHCHATLA CHINTAMANI GAVI, another cave in the same area, yielded a bone tool industry along with a lithic blade tool industry and Late Pleistocene fauna. The bone tools comprise scrapers, perforators, chisels, scoops, shouldered points, barbs, spatulas, worked bones, bone blanks, broken and cut bones and splinters. Evidence of bone tool industries from other parts of the country is wanting.
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Fig. 6. Upper Palaeolithic bone tools: 1, 7 scraper; 2, 3, perforators; 4, shouldered point; 5, 6, chisels; 7, spatula; 8, bone blank—all from Muchchatla Chintamanu Gavi
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The hallmark of the Upper Palaeolithic technology was the production of blades from prismatic cores. The selected raw material, in the form of nodules or pebbles or tabular pieces, was initially dressed apparently with a cylinder hammer. For dressing the core flakes were struck off from different directions, as is observable in the cross and parallel negative scars on the primary core-dressing flakes and some of the first detached blades. After dressing one or both ends of the core were trimmed on the horizontal axis to facilitate a suitable platform, but not necessarily in all cases. After dressing blades were struck off along the perimeter with a soft hammer and by direct percussion. It is likely that an intermediate punch was used in some cases. The process of detaching blades along the perimeter was repeated several times until the core got exhausted. Several core-rejuvenation flakes (or core tablets) and plunging blades found at some of the workshop centres show that both the striking platform and the body of the core were reworked a few times, to get the maximum production of blades from a single core. There are also instances, particularly when raw material of crypto-crystalline silica was used, indicating that even thick flakes were used as cores for blade production. These blades, strictly speaking blade blanks, were eventually finished by backing, nibbling and pressure retouch into a variety of tool types such as backed points, pen-knives, scrapers, shouldered points, etc. Burins were produced by the removal of minute spalls at the business end and were made on blade, flake and split core. Scrapers, points and awls were made on flake, flake-blade and nodule. The backed tools must have been hafted with bone or wood to make composite tools.
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Bone implements, the only examples of which come from the caves in Kurnool, were made on elongated strips taken out of long bones, which can be termed as bone blanks. To produce the latter the epiphyseal ends of the long bones were first cleared off either by chopping or by percussion flaking. On these prepared-to-size shafts parallel grooves were made along the long axis and bone blanks were removed by splitting along these grooves. Bone blanks were also made by vertical flaking on the external surface of a longitudinally cut bone. They were finally finished into various forms by lateral chipping, pressure flaking, oblique flaking and vertical flaking, and the working edge was ground in some cases. The working ends on some of the perforators were also fire-hardened.
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Not much evidence is available to indicate if any artistic objects were made in this country during the Upper Palaeolithic, excepting a fragment of an ostrich eggshell having an engraving in a criss-cross pattern found at PATNE and a bone figurine [a doubtful mother goddess, 12.6] found in a gravel horizon on the BELAN. Of the paintings in the caves and rock-shelters of the Vindhyan and Kaimur ranges in Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh the earlier ones might probably belong to this period, though no clear-cut association with the archaeological levels has yet been established [13].
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Palaeoclimates with a general tendency towards aridity have been postulated for the Upper Palaeolithic by sedimentological studies of the tool-bearing deposits of the river BELAN, at PATNE and in the VISADI and BUDH PUSHKAR sand-dunes. Analyses of the Belan deposits have shown that they were laid in a fluvial environment and that the stream had possibly a uniform water-flow throughout the year, suggesting that the climatic conditions were not as arid as in the Holocene. More or less similar conclusions have been arrived at by the study of Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic sediments at PATNE, which indicate the formation of the former under less arid climatic conditions than the latter.
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The faunal remains from the Kurnool caves include a variety of mammalian species, notable among them being: *Rhinoceros karnuliensis* (rhinoceros), *Boselaphus tragocamelus* (nilgai), *Gazella gazella* (chinkara), *Antelope cervicapra* (black buck), *Tetracerus quadricornis* (four-horned antelope), *Cervus unicolor* (sambar), *Axis axis* (chital) and *Tragulus* cf. *meminna* (mouse deer). All these animals, which move in flocks, throw light on the rich animal life during this period and point to a thick vegetation cover of scrub-to-tree jungle type with open expanses of grasses and a continuous source of water in the streams and streamlets. Chemical analyses of the cave sediments have further revealed that they were deposited under somewhat humid conditions. The faunal remains found in the gravel horizon associated with the incipient blade industry in the GHOD valley at INAMGAON belong to *Hexaprotodon palaeindicus* (hippopotamus), *Equus namadicus* (horse), *Bos* sp. (ox), *Bubalus* (buffalo) and *Cervus* sp. (*sambar*), again indicating a forested environment with local pools and swamps providing ideal conditions for the survival of animals like the hippopotamus.
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The Upper Palaeolithic industries, wherever found stratigraphically, succeed the Middle Palaeolithic [4.3] and precede the Mesolithic [4.5] the former falling in the range of the Upper Pleistocene and the latter of the Early Holocene. Thus, on relative chronological grounds they can be ascribed to the Late Pleistocene. The faunal remains associated with this phase in the Kurnool caves and the GHOD valley also represent Late Pleistocene forms. There are also few ¹⁴C dates to corroborate the Late Pleistocene dating. Shell samples from the BELAN have given a date of c. 19000 B.P. Two dates of shell samples for the GHOD valley indicate a range of c. 18000 to 22000 B P A date obtained from ostrich eggshell fragments from PATNE suggests an age between 20000 and 25000 years.
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Jayaswal, V , 1978, *Palaeohistory of India*, Delhi, Sankalia, H.D , 1974 *Prehistory & Protohistory of India & Pakistan*, Poona, with complete bibliography in ch. III. For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—M L. MURTY & H.D SANKALIA
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*4.4.1 Siwalik region*. The evidence for the Upper Palaeolithic phase in the Siwalik region is scanty. There are a few assemblages in Pakistan (de Terra *et al.*, 1939) which chronologically seem to be contemporary with those of the peninsula. On the Indian side the evidence is not well-marked.
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De Terra H , & Paterson, T T , 1939, *Studies on the Ice Age in India & Associated Human Cultures*, Washington.—V JAYASWAL
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*4.4.2 Vindhyan region*. The alluvial deposits of the BELAN and Seoti in Dts Allahabad and Mirzapur provide a definite chronology to the Upper Palaeolithic blade-burin tradition in India. Besides it is only here that a deposit with Upper Palaeolithic tools is dated by ¹⁴C method, the date being 19715 ± 340 B P A typical blade and burin assemblage was obtained by Sharma, (1973). from Gravel III of the Upper Gravel of the region. From the underlying and overlying layers of silt Upper Palaeolithic tools were obtained respectively in association with Middle Palaeolithic [4.3] and non-geometric microlithic [4.5] tools. Associated with the classical lithic group was discovered a bone image, regarded as a 'mother goddess' [12.6] on its typological similarity with the mother goddess images of the European Upper Palaeolithic culture complex. The Upper Palaeolithic man of the area manufactured implements on the adjoining hill slopes, where the raw material was available in the form of small chunks, and occasionally occupied the neighbouring rock-shelters. Factory sites and rock-shelters with Upper Palaeolithic deposits are reported from the Kaimur range. The main components of the BELAN group of industries are the burin, steep scraper, side scraper, backed blade and bladelet and feddermesser (cresentic backed blade). The tools are made on fine-grained siliceous stones. Investigations in the upper course of the Son (Ahmed, 1966) have brought to light remains of a blade-burin tradition, which is characterized by somewhat similar techno-typological features as are noticed in the BELAN group. However the blades of the Son basin are larger and thicker than those of the other regions. Factory sites of the Upper Palaeolithic man were noticed near Karwi, Lodhwara and Manikpur in Dt Banda (Pant, 1963-4). Made on chert these assemblages comprise blade tools, end scrapers, burins and varieties of side scrapers. Besides, a few blade-burin remains are reported from JABALPUR and MORHANA PAHAR. But the true nature of these discoveries is still to be sorted out. At BHIMBETKA in Dt Raisen a separate horizon of the black-burin assemblage was unearthed from one of the rock-shelters. The Upper Palaeolithic implementiferous deposit rests on the layer yielding scraper-points. The assemblage is characterized by the burin made on thick blade and scraper and a few other types of scraper (Sankalia, 1974).
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Ahmed, N., 1966, "Stone Age Cultures of the Upper Son Valley", unpublished thesis, Poona, Pant, P.C., 1963-4, in *Bharati*, Varanasi, pp. 114-42. Sankalia, H.D , 1974, *Prehistory & Protohistory of India & Pakistan*, Poona, pp. 224-6. Sharma, G.R., 1973, in Agrawal, D.P., & Ghosh, A., ed., *Radiocarbon & Indian Archaeology*, Bombay, pp. 106-10. For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—V. JAYASWAL
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*4.4.3 Chota Nagpur region*. As in the earlier phases [4.2.4] the Upper Palaeolithic assemblages of Singhbhum come from four areas, CHANDIL, GUA, GHATSILA and SINI (Ghosh, 1970). In all these areas the blade-burin group was obtained from the Upper Clay; the collections are characterized by scrapers, borers, points, burins, blades and blade tools. In comparison to the other blade-burin industries, the proportion of burin is less in the Singhbhum area.
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Ghosh, A K , 1970, in *Trans American Philosophical Soc.*, N.S , 60 For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—V JAYASWAL
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*4.4.4 Upper Deccan*. In Maharashtra two regions—the TAPTI valley and Bombay area—have revealed blade-burin assemblages. At BHADNE in the basin of the Kan, a tributary of the TAPTI, Dt Dhulia, Upper Palaeolithic implements were obtained from alluvial deposits as well as from the neighbouring factory sites (Sali, 1970). From the total deposit with 12 layers Upper Palaeolithic tools were obtained from layers 5 to 11. The assemblages are divided into four groups on the basis of the stratigraphy as well as the techno-typological characters The earliest phase of implements, found *in situ* from the layer 11, are said to represent a formative stage. From the upper two layers, 10 and 9, a comparatively advanced tool kit was obtained. In both the groups implements are made on jasper. Evidence of a change in the raw material from jasper to chalcedony is obtainable in the next group—layers 8 and 7; the size of blades becomes smaller. In the last phase a considerable proportion of geometric microliths are found along with the preceding forms.
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From the Upper Gravel and Upper Clay deposits at KANDIVLI near Bombay Todd, 1939, obtained an assemblage characterized by blade and burin implements and claimed to have typological similarities with the Aurignacian industries of Asia, the Middle East and Europe. The noteworthy tool types of Todd’s collection are the polyhydral, angle and parrot burin, steep scraper, borer and knife. Later investigations by Malik, 1959, confirmed the claims of Todd as around BORIVLI he discovered remains of flake-blade-scraper industry of siliceous material.
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Malik, S.C., 1959, in *M.S. Univ. Arch. Series*, 4, Baroda. Sali, S.A., 1970, in *Jour. Asiatic Soc.*, Bombay, 39-40, pp. 157-67. Todd, K.R.U., 1939, in *Jour. Royal Anthropological Inst.*, London, 69, pp. 257-72. For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—V. JAYASWAL
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4.4.5 *S.-e. Deccan*. Isaac’s Series III assemblages of Dt Kurnool were claimed to belong to the blade-burin tradition (Isaac, 1960). Prior to him Cammiade and Burkitt, 1930, and Soundara Rajan, 1952, had discovered implements of this tradition from GIDDALUR and NANDIPAKKAM. The collection of these investigators consists of a good proportion of pointed implements along with various types of scrapers. However the occurrence of burins, retouched blades, backed blades and trapezoidal-shaped implements in considerable numbers is noteworthy. The recent excavations of shelters and natural caves in the area have brought to light a rich bone tool tradition. In the total artefact yield from the cave near BETAMCHERLA more than 90% are fashioned out of bone and the remainder out of stone. The lithic group is marked by the general blade-burin tradition. It may be stated that the workmanship of this bone tool kit is considerably inferior to that of the European Upper Palaeolithic.
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The SALVADGI and MERALBHAVI localities of the Shorapur doab have yielded remains of the Upper Palaeolithic man (*IAR 1960-61*, p. 64; Paddayya, 1970). The implements are fashioned out of stones of the siliceous group and are characterized by general techno-typological features of blade and burin tradition. In the collection, besides a good number of burins and tools made on blades, non-edged tools like points, borers and notched blades are noteworthy. On general typo-technological considerations the Shorapur industry reveals an inclination towards the earlier tradition and seems to lack the true Upper Palaeolithic refinement.
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N.-e. of Renigunta in Dt Chittoor four Upper Palaeolithic localities were discovered by Murty, 1966, 1969, 1970. The tools of this region are located on the eroded first aggradational terrace formed by a red-soil deposit. The tools comprise specimens made on fine grained grey and purple quartzite lumps. The proportions of blades and blade tools are considerably high in this industry. There are also a few backed blades. Besides the typology of the tool kit is marked by high frequencies of burins and points. Most of the points are made on blades. A considerable proportion is formed by the end scrapers. The Renigunta group is quite rich both numerically and typologically.
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In addition a few other discoveries, such as from VEMULA, Dt Cuddapah, YERRAGONDAPALEM, Dt Nellore, the NAGARJUNAKONDA valley, etc., are reported, but their typo-technological details are awaited.
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Cammiade, L.A., & Burkitt, M., 1930, in *Antiquity*, 4, pp. 327-39. Isaac, N., 1960, “Stone Age Culture of Kurnool”, unpublished thesis, Poona. Murty, M.L.K., 1966, “Stone Age Cultures of Chittoor”, unpublished thesis, Poona; 1969, in *Proc. Prehistoric Soc.*, 34, pp. 83-101; 1970, in *Indian Antiquary*, 3rd series, 4, 1-4, 106-28. Paddayya, K., 1970, in *ibid.*, pp. 165-90. Soundara Rajan, K.V., 1952, in *AI*, 8, pp. 64-92. For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—V. JAYASWAL