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The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature c8: Chapter IV. The Thirty-Seven “Dharmas”

The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature c8

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Chapter IV. The Thirty-Seven “Dharmas”

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The Buddhist philosophers devised a formula of thirty-seven “*bodhipakṣyā dharmāḥ*”, which enumerates and comprises thirty-seven practices and principles. They are held to be conducive to the attainment of Enlightenment. The word is met with in several forms :—

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*Bodhipakṣāḥ* (*M.S. Al.* 159.9–177; *Kar. Pu.*, 127.8; *Pr. Pā. Aṣṭa.*, 194.18; *Divy.*, 350.14, etc.).

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*Bodhipakṣyāḥ* (*Sam. Rā.*, fol. 193b.2; *Bo. Bhū.*, fol. 36b.4.1, fol. 100b.3.3, and passim).

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*Bodhipakṣikāḥ* (*Bo. Bhū.*, fol. 90a.2.2; *Mtu.* ii, 290.6).

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*Bodhipākṣikāḥ* (*Da. Bhū.*, 53.22; *Kar. Pu.*, 10.13; *Lal. V.*, 424.12; *Dh. S.*, section 43.)

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The first two forms (*pakṣāḥ* and *pakṣyāḥ*) occur more frequently than the others. The *dharmas* are also called *bodhipakṣyāni mārga-aṅgāni* in the *Da. Bhū.* (42.9), and the *Ava. Ṣa.* speaks of *bodhi-karakā dharmāḥ* and *bodhisattva-karakā dharmāḥ*, which are presumably the same as the “*bodhipakṣyā dharmāḥ*” (*Ava. Ṣa.* i, 69.12; i, 86.15; i, 75.4).

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The term “*bodhipakṣyā dharmāḥ*” has been variously translated as follows :—

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*T. W. Rhys Davids* and *W. Stede* (s.v. bodhipakkhika and pakkhiya): “belonging to Enlightenment, qualities or items constituting or contributing to *bodhi*” (*Pāli Dictionary*).

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*E. Burnouf*: “*les conditions qui sont du côté de la bodhi*” (*Lotus*: p. 430).

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*S. Lévi*: “*Les Ailes d’illumination*” (*M.S. Al.* tr. p. 291).

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*T. W. Rhys Davids*: “The principles, which are the wings of wisdom” (*Dialogues*, ii, 348).

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*L. de la Vallée Poussin*: “Principles conducive to Enlightenment” (*Le Muséon*, 1905, p. 7).

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*L. Feer*: (1) “*Les lois qui forment les 37 ailes de la bodhi*” (*Ava. Ṣa.* tr., p. 101).

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(2) “*Les 37 lois relative à la bodhi*” (*Ava. Ṣa.* tr., p. 229).

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C. F. Koeppen: “Die begleitenden Bedingungen der *bodhi*” (Buddha, i, 436). E. J. Thomas: “Principles tending to Enlightenment” (Buddha, p. 183, note). P. Oltramare, “Conditions favorables à l’Illumination” (Bouddhique, p. 348). A. B. Keith: “Wings of Enlightenment” (Philosophy, p. 292).

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It seems probable that the form *pakṣya* is not related to the word *pakṣa*, which means “wing”. That simile would not be very appropriate, as no bird has thirty-seven wings. We find other similes referring to the two wings of a bird. The Pāli word *bodhipakkhiya* is probably derived from the Sanskrit form, which was the earlier of the two, as this word does not occur often in the *Nikāyas* or the *Milinda-pañha*, though all the factors are mentioned in the *Mahāparinibbāna-sutta* (Dīgha, ii, 120; *Mil.*, pp. 37ff.; *Vibhaṅga*, p. 372). As E. Hardy has pointed out, the collective term *bodhipakṣā dharmāḥ* is found in the *Lalita-vistara* (8.6; 182.11).¹ It also occurs in the *Mtu.* (ii, 290.6). The number “thirty-seven” is first mentioned in the *Sad. Pu.* (458.1). The term emphatically refers to *bodhi* and not to the *nirvāṇa* of the Pāli scriptures. Both the term and the complete formula seem to have originated among the Sanskritists or quasi-Sanskritists, who were the forerunners of the Mahāyāna. The Pāli rendering points to *pakṣya* as the correct Sanskrit form, which is also used in the *Bo. Bhū.* in connection with other words, e.g. *sukha-pakṣya*, etc. (fol. 5a.2, fol. 83b.4). It is derived from the substantive *pakṣa*, which means “a side, party, faction” (Skt. Dicy. M.W. 520b), as in such words as *pakṣapāta*, *pratipakṣa*, etc. Literally it means “belonging to a side” (Skt. Dicy. M.W. 521a). *Pakṣyāḥ* makes both good sense and good grammar. We are therefore justified in accepting this latter form and translating: “Principles which are conducive to Enlightenment.” The Tibetan equivalent renders *pakṣa* or *pakṣya* by *phyogs*, which means “side, party, direction”, and not “wing” (Tib. Dicy. Das, 840a; J. Rahder, Glossary, 134).

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I

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It is a curious circumstance that the thirty-seven items of the formula are enumerated in several passages of Buddhist Sanskrit literature without being called by the collective appellation, *bodhipakṣyā dharmāḥ*, e.g. *Divy.* 208.7ff. : *Pr. Pā. Ṣata.* 56–7, 133, 162, 1473; *M. Vy.* sections 38ff. The term *bodhipakṣāḥ* occurs in the *Pr. Pā. Ṣata.* (p. 1636, line 10), but the list includes more than thirty-seven *dharmas*. The numeral “thirty-seven”, however, is also found in the same book (p. 1410.19; 274.22). It may be inferred that the exact number and the name of these *dharmas* were determined at a comparatively late period. The Pāli *Nettipakaraṇa*, which dates from the beginning of the Christian era, mentions forty-three *bodhipakkhiyā dhammā*.² Aṣvaghoṣa mentions only twenty-eight items in the *Saund.-kāvya* (xvii, 24, ff.), and he does not use the term *bodhipakṣa*.

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The formula, in its final form, includes the following thirty-seven *dharmas*, which are usually given in this order :³

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| Four *Smṛty-upasthānāni* | . . . . . | 4 |
| Four *Samyak-prahāṇāni* | . . . . . | 4 |
| Four *Ṛddhi-pādāḥ* | . . . . . | 4 |
| Five *Indriyāṇi* | . . . . . | 5 |
| Five *Balāni* | . . . . . | 5 |
| Seven *Bodhy-aṅgāni* | . . . . . | 7 |
| The Noble Eightfold Way (*Āry-aṣṭ-āṅga-mārgaḥ* or *Āry-aṣṭ-āṅgika-mārgaḥ*) | . . . . . | 8 |
| | | — |
| Total | . . . . . | 37 |

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These principles and practices are regarded as highly beneficial in this life and also for the purposes of a happy rebirth. They are supposed to embody the last precepts and injunctions of Gautama Buddha himself.⁴ They also lead to the attainment of the spiritual stage of a *pratyeka-buddha*. They are common to the *Hīnayāna* and the *Mahāyāna*. The latter starts with these *dharmas*, but adds the *pāramitās* and the *bhūmis*, which constitute its special contribution to the development of Buddhism.

II. The Smṛty-upasthānas

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A *bodhisattva* must cultivate the four *smṛty-upasthānāni*. This term *smṛty-upasthānāni* has been interpreted by modern scholars in different ways :—

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T. W. and C. A. F. Rhys Davids : (1) “Applications of Mindfulness” (Dialogues, iii, 214). (2) “Earnest meditations” (Dialogues, ii, 128).

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S. Lévi : “Les Aides-Mémoires” (M.S. Al., tr., p. 203).

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R. O. Franke : “Die vierfache Geistessammlung” (Dīgha, p. 218).

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A. Schiefner : “Die vier Handlungen des Gedächtnisses” (Triglotte, iii).

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H. Oldenberg : “Die vierfache Wachsamkeit” (Buddha, p. 227).

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W. H. D. Rouse : “Subjects of intent contemplation” (Çikṣā, tr., p. 216).

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M. Winternitz : “Die Richtungen des Gedenkens” (Lesebuch, p. 251).

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E. Burnouf : “Les soutiens de la mémoire” (Introduction, p. 85, edition 1844).

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L. de la Vallée Poussin : “Subjects of mindful reflexion” (ERE, ii, 752b).

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C. F. Koeppen : “Die Handlungen oder Zustände des Gedächtnisses” (Buddha, i, 436).

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E. J. Thomas : “Meditations” (Buddha, p. 183, note 2).

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Lord Chalmers : (1) “Applications of Mindfulness” (Majjh., tr., ii, 246). (2) “The four starting-points for mustering up Mindfulness” (Majjh., tr., ii, 6).

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Csoma de Kőrös : “The four kinds of recollection or self-presence” (Csoma, p. 13).

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D. T. Suzuki : “Subjects of Recollection” (Zen Essays, p. 72, note).

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M. Anesaki : “The fourfold fixation of mind” (ERE, v, 455).

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H. C. Warren : “Intent Contemplations” (Buddhism, p. 353).

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Böhtlingk and Roth (s.v. upasthāna) : “Das Dabeistehen, Dasein, Gegenwart. Hierher gehören vielleicht auch die catuḥ-smṛtyupasthānāni der Buddhisten.”

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T. W. Rhys Davids and W. Stede : “Intent contemplation and mindfulness, earnest thought, application of mindfulness” (Pāli Dicy., s.v. sati).

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S. C. Das : “The four essential recollections” (Tibetan Dicy., 650b, s.v. dran-pa-ñe-bar-baḥig-pa. Lal. V. Tib., p. 10, line 12).

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F. Heiler : “Die Meditationsobjekte” (Versenkung, p. 17).

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K. E. Neumann : " Die Pfeiler der Einsicht " (Majjh., tr., ii, 327). M. Walleser : " Die vier Stützen des Gedenkens " (Pr. Pā., tr., p. 56). P. Oltramare : " Les assistances de l'attention " (Bouddhique, p. 348). P. E. Foucaux : " La présence de la mémoire " (Lal. V., tr., p. 9).

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The term smṛty-upasthāna is composed of two words, smṛti and upasthāna. Smṛti (Pāli : sati) is derived from the root smṛ, and it has therefore been interpreted as " memory " by some scholars, (S. Lévi, E. Burnouf, A. Schiefner, C. F. Koeppen, cited above). Other translations have also been suggested, e.g.

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T. W. Rhys Davids and W. Stede : (1) Memory, recognition, consciousness. (2) Intentness of mind, wakefulness of mind, mindfulness, alertness, lucidity of mind, self-possession, conscience, self-consciousness (Pāli Dicy, s.v. sati).

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H. Oldenberg : " Gedenken, Wachsamkeit " (Buddha, pp. 350, 351).

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K. E. Neumann : " Einsicht " (Majjh., tr., ii, 327).

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R. O. Franke : (1) " Sittlicher Ernst, Sammlung " (Dīgha, p. 27, note 6). (2) Ernstes sichbesinnen " (Dīgha, p. 157).

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H. Beckh : " Die Besonnenheit " (Buddhismus, ii, 37).

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F. Max Müller : " Intense thought " (SBE, vol x, part i, p. 99).

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C. A. F. Rhys Davids : (1) " Mindfulness " (Psychology, p. 90, line 19). (2) " Mental clearness " (IHQ, vol. iii, No. 4, p. 701).

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F. Heiler : " Gedenken " (Versenkung, p. 96).

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E. Senart : " Raison, conscience " (Mtu., i, 554).

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M. Winternitz : " Das Gedenken, die Bedachtsamkeit " (Lesebuch, p. 319).

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P. E. Foucaux : " Le souvenir " ; " la mémoire " (Lal. V., tr., pp. 34, 35).

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L. de la Vallée Poussin : " La mémoire de la loi de Bouddha " (B. C. Ava., tr., p. 30).

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R. S. Hardy : (1) " The ascertainment of truth by mental application " (Manual, p. 517). (2) " Attention " (ibid., p. 516).

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The word smṛti has the ordinary meaning of " memory " in many passages, but it cannot be so rendered in the term *smṛty-upasthāna*. As F. Max Müller has pointed out,⁵ the root *smṛ* originally denoted "intense thought". *Smṛti* in that sense would signify "Mindfulness". Almost all modern scholars are now agreed in translating *smṛti* (and *sati*) by this expressive English word, "Mindfulness." *Upasthāna* means "das Dabeistehen, Dasein, Gegenwart, das Hinzutreten, Erscheinen; standing near, presence . . . approaching, appearing, obtaining, getting" (Skt. Dicy. Pbg. and M.W.). The term may thus be interpreted as the four *upasthānas* (risings, appearances, or starting-points) of *smṛti*. But it is probably a wrongly Sanskritized form. The Pāli word is *sati-paṭṭhāna*.⁶ *Paṭṭhāna* may be derived from *pra-sthā*, or it may be a contracted form of *upaṭṭhāna*. As a Pāli substantive, *paṭṭhāna* means the resort or feeding-ground of an animal, and figuratively the area, field or sphere of Mindfulness (Skt. *gocara*). But *paṭṭhāna*, as a derivative of the root *sthā*, cannot be a contracted form of *upaṭṭhāna*, and the Pāli term *sati-paṭṭhāna* is always masculine. Hence the term cannot be a compound of *sati* and the derivative *upaṭṭhāna*, and we must interpret it as "the *prasthāna* of *sati*". The word *paṭṭhāna* also occurs in the title of the seventh book of the *Abhidhamma-piṭaka*, and it has been held to mean "starting-point, origin, cause".⁷ L. Sadaw explains *paṭṭhāna* as meaning "principal cause",⁸ but that meaning does not yield a proper sense in the compound *sati-paṭṭhāna*. There is no Sanskrit term that corresponds to the Pāli masculine substantive *paṭṭhāna*. The Mahāyānists have interpreted it, not as *prasthāna*, but as *upasthāna*, and they have recklessly changed the sense in order to get an intelligible Sanskrit word. It is an unfortunate blunder, as the four meditations are not merely the "appearances" or "risings" of *smṛti*; they include the whole of it. They are in fact the fields or spheres, in which *smṛti* is to operate. Most scholars have failed to convey the exact sense of *paṭṭhāna* in their translations. Perhaps it is best to translate, "The Four Fields of Mindfulness", thus preserving the original metaphor to a certain extent.

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*Smṛti* is a very important adjunct of a *bodhisattva*'s personality. It is often associated with another quality, *samprajanya* (Pāli, *sampajañña*), which means "sustained cognizing, deliberateness, self-awareness, self-possession".⁹ The latter word denotes mental alertness and self-control, and emphasizes the intellectual factors implied in such self-mastery.

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*Smṛti* is the *sine qua non* of moral progress for a *bodhisattva*. All Buddhist writers emphasize the necessity of cultivating, safeguarding and developing it. It is the theme of many homilies in prose and verse. Its importance in Buddhist philosophy may be gauged by the circumstance that it is included in several of those overlapping numerical formulæ, which the Buddhist philosophers devised with an ingenuity that was worthy of a better cause. *Smṛti* is reckoned as the seventh of the eight items in the time-honoured, ancient Eightfold Way (*vide infra*). It is also the first of the seven *bodhy-aṅgas* (“Factors of Enlightenment”, *vide infra*) and the third of the five *balas* (Powers) and the five *indriyas* (Ruling Principles). It thus appears four times on the list of the thirty-seven “*bodhipakṣyā dharmāḥ*” (Principles conducive to Enlightenment). It is also mentioned in the well-known sentence, which describes the fourth *dhyāna* (*Mtu.*, i, 228.10). It is even mentioned as a factor of the third *dhyāna* (*Da. Bhū.*, 34.4). Such frequency of occurrence in these formulae shows that the Buddhist teachers attached the greatest importance to it.

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*Smṛti* is one of the words that recur very frequently in Buddhist Sanskrit literature. Right *smṛti* is the entrance to the light of the Faith, and a *bodhisattva* does not pay attention to anything that is adverse or prejudicial to it.¹⁰ When the *bodhisattva* Siddhārtha visits the sage Ārāḍa Kālāma as a wandering seeker after truth, he boasts that he possesses *smṛti* along with other virtues, and that he is therefore vigilant and ardent.¹¹ One of the titles of a perfect Buddha is *amuṣita-smṛtiḥ* (one whose *smṛti* never falters or disappears),¹² and this quality is also reckoned among his eighteen special characteristic attributes.¹³ A Buddhist writer goes so far as to say that Gautama’s very gait was suggestive of *smṛti*, as he wended his way to the *bodhi*-tree at Gayā immediately before the attainment of perfect Enlightenment.¹⁴ He possessed *smṛti* even during his residence in the Tuṣita heaven before his birth.¹⁵ *Smṛti* is the axe that is laid to the root of the tree of mundane existence in order to cut it down.¹⁶ A *bodhisattva* never loses *smṛti* and is therefore never confused or distracted in mind.¹⁷ Indeed, he regards *smṛti* as his principal asset.¹⁸ He teaches others the duty of safeguarding it.¹⁹ It purifies his *buddhi* (intellect), gives constancy and consistency to his thoughts, and helps him always to keep the doctrine in his mind.²⁰ A *bodhisattva* always cultivates self-possession,²¹ and Mindfulness is indeed an essential element in his Equipment, like virtue and knowledge,²² (smṛti-sambhāra). It is like a door for the control of the senses²³ (i.e. to detach the sense-organs from the external objects). It is the chief instrument with which the senses, which are naturally in a state of unrest, can be diverted from the objects by which they are attracted.²⁴ It leads to the attainment of Truth.²⁵ Without smṛti and samprajanya, one cannot expect to succeed in the struggle against sin.²⁶ Smṛti confers great power on a bodhisattva (smṛti-balam).²⁷

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Almost all Buddhist writers have something to say about smṛti and samprajanya, but Aṣvaghoṣa and Ṣāntideva have especially distinguished themselves by their earnest and eloquent exhortations. Aṣvaghoṣa thus sings the praises of smṛti in the Saundarānanda-kāvya (xiv, 35 ff.):—

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“So you should preserve Mindfulness and self-possession in all actions, such as sitting, looking round and speaking.
“He who has established Mindfulness as a doorkeeper at the gate cannot be menaced (overpowered) by sins, even as enemies cannot (conquer) a well-guarded (or concealed) town.

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“He who lacks the defensive armour of Mindfulness is indeed a target for sins (i.e., regarded as arrows), even as a warrior in battle, who has no armour, is (exposed to the arrows of) his foes.
“That mind, which is not protected by Mindfulness, is indeed to be regarded as helpless, like a blind man (literally, “one deprived of sight ”) walking about on uneven ground without a guide.²⁸
“(People) are addicted to evils; they are averse to their own highest good; they feel no trepidation when fearsome things are nigh; all this is due to the loss of Mindfulness.
“Virtuous conduct and all the other good qualities remain in their own spheres, and are as it were separated from one another (scattered), but Mindfulness follows them as a cowherd (goes after) the cows.
“Whoever loses Mindfulness loses the Deathless; but he who applies Mindfulness to the body, the Deathless is his (literally, “ rests in his hands ”).
“Who hath not Mindfulness, how can noble Justice (or

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Right) be his? And whoever lacks noble Justice goes astray from the true path (literally, “the true path is lost for him”).

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“Who has lost the true path loses also the seat of the Deathless. Who loses the Deathless cannot win release from Evil (literally, “is not freed from Evil”).

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“Therefore, you should keep Mindfulness at all times and in all actions. When you are walking, you should reflect, ‘I am walking.’ When you are sitting, you should reflect, ‘I am sitting,’ and so on.”

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In the verses cited above, Aṣvaghoṣa has given us a beautiful lyric on *smṛti*, but its simple and terse style cannot be reproduced in a literal prose translation. Çāntideva, on the other hand, has described, analysed and classified *smṛti* in the spirit of a theologian and philosopher. He says :—

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“The teaching of a *bodhisattva* is nothing but the preparation of the mind” (i.e., of the mind when it is not in a state of unrest).

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“The mind will not be diverted from calmness, if external activity is inhibited.

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“The mind of one, who has lost Mindfulness and self-possession through being dependent on others, is in a state of unrest, as it is being led towards something else than the desired object. When external activities are kept off (inhibited) by means of Mindfulness and self-awareness, then the mind, for that reason, remains fixed on a single object as long as he desires”. (*Çikṣā*., p. 123.)

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In the fifth canto of Çāntideva’s immortal poem, the *Bodhi-cary-āvatāra*, a *bodhisattva* is exhorted to keep his great Vow under all circumstances, and he has need of *smṛti* and *samprajanya* for this purpose. The following verses breathe a spirit of profound earnestness :—

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“He, who wishes to keep the Rule, should make a great effort to guard his mind.

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“He, who does not guard the restive (inconstant, unstable) mind, cannot keep the Rule.

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“Mad and uncontrolled elephants do not cause so much pain in this world as will be occasioned by an unrestrained mind in *avīci* and the other purgatories. If the elephant of the mind is bound with the rope of Mindfulness on all sides, then all danger vanishes and all Good makes its appearance.

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“Tigers, lions, elephants, bears, serpents, all the guardians of purgatory, the ogres and demonesses, yea, all one’s enemies can be bound (in fetters), if one’s mind is bound. All of them can be controlled, if only the mind is controlled. . .

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“I do obeisance to those who desire to guard their minds, and (say to them): ‘Safeguard carefully Mindfulness and Self-awareness in all their aspects.’

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“If the mind has lost these two, it is unable to perform any actions (auspicious deeds), as a man, who is afflicted with illness, is unable to do anything.

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“The man, who is not self-possessed in his mind, cannot retain in his memory (the truths) that he has heard, pondered or cultivated, as water cannot remain in a pot that has a hole in it. Many there be who have learning, faith and energy, but they soil themselves with sin through the fault of lacking Self-awareness.

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“Lack of Self-awareness is like a thief; it follows in the wake of the loss of Mindfulness. Those who are thus robbed go to painful rebirths, even though they may have accumulated spiritual Merit.

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“The sins are like a band of thieves, who are looking for a chance to enter. If they enter (literally, “obtain entry”), they steal (one’s Merit) and destroy happy rebirths.

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“Therefore, Mindfulness should never be removed from the gate of the mind. Even if it has been lost, it should be re-established by thinking of the pain of evil rebirths (i.e., in purgatory, or as a preta or an animal). . .

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“When Mindfulness is seated at the gate of the Mind for its protection, then Self-awareness appears; and it does not disappear, when once it has arisen.”

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(B.C. Ava., v, 1-5, 23-29, 33.)

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So much for *smṛti* in general. The Buddhist philosophers have devised the special formula of the four Fields of Mindfulness. *Smṛti* should be applied to

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Kāya (the body), Vedanā (feelings), Citta (thoughts), and the Dharmas (phenomena).

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These four *smṛty-upasthānas* are often mentioned in Buddhist Sanskrit literature (*M. Vy.*, xxxviii, p. 73; *Dh. S.*, xliv, p. 9; *Pra. Pā. Ṣata.*, pp. 1,427 ff.; *Da. Bhū.*, p. 38; *M.S. Al.*, p. 140; *Cikṣā.*, pp. 228 ff.). It should be noted that the *Lalita-vistara* calls them only *anusmṛtis* without adding the word *upasthāna* (p. 33.11).

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It seems probable that the *kāya-smṛty-upasthāna* was the only one at the beginning, as we find *kāya-gatā-smṛti* frequently mentioned by itself without any reference to the others. The Pāli canon has also a whole *sutta* devoted to this one form of *smṛti* (“*kāya-gatā-sati-sutta*”, *Majjh.*, iii, 88 ff.). The *Karuṇā-puṇḍarīka* and the *Lalita-vistara* sometimes mention only this kind of *smṛti* (*Lal. V.*, 209.1—*Kar. Pu.* 13.9). Aṣvaghoṣa also speaks only of *kāya-gatā-smṛti* in a verse of the *Saund. Kā.* (xiv, 42). Only *kāya* (the body) figures among the ten *anusmṛtis*, which a bodhisattva should cultivate (*Pra. Pā. Ṣata.*, p. 1443). The next step in the evolution of the formula was presumably taken by adding *citta* as an object of *smṛti*. *Kāya* and *citta* (body and mind) are a natural pair, and they are often mentioned together. Thus Aṣvaghoṣa speaks of them in the *Saund. Kā.* (xiv, 37):—

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“Sin does not arise for him who applies Mindfulness to the body : he guards his mind under all circumstances, as a nurse protects a child.”

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*Kāya* and *citta* are also spoken of together in the *B. C. Ava.*, the *Avadāna-ṣataka* and the *Sam. Rā.* 29 The *Bodhisattva-bhūmi* speaks of a virtuous man as *prasrabdha-kāyaḥ prasrabdha-cittaḥ* (fol. 87b, 6). The other two items, *vedanā* and *dharma*, were added in order to make up the number four. As a matter of fact, the Buddhist authors have written a great deal only about *kāya-smṛty-upasthāna*; they dismiss the other three with a few words. This shows that this *kāya-smṛty-upasthāna* is the chief theme. The other *smṛty-upasthānas* are merely ancillary in character.

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Before discussing each *smṛty-upasthāna* in detail, it may not be out of place to refer to certain comments that have been made about them collectively as a group.

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Aṣvaghoṣa and Vasubandhu agree in regarding these four meditations as antidotes to the four *viparyāsas* 30 (*Saund. Kā.*, xvii, 25; *M. S. Al.*, 140.24). Aṣvaghoṣa declares that the four viparyāsas (perversions), which cause evil, should be destroyed by the four smṛty-upasthānas respectively. These viparyāsas are mentioned in several passages of Buddhist literature (e.g. Da. Bhū, 29.12, 63.6; Ċikṣā, 198.11; Pr. Pā. Ċata., 478; Lal. V., 372.2). Ċantideva explains that a man is afflicted with the four viparyāsas, when he harbours these wrong opinions :—

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(1) What is really impermanent (anitya) is permanent.
(2) The things, which have really no substantial permanent individuality (anātman), possess it.
(3) What is really impure (açuci) is pure.
(4) What is really painful (duḥkha) is pleasant.

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The viparyāsa of impurity was probably introduced through the influence of the Yoga system, which defines avidyā in exactly the same terms (Yo. Sū, ii, 5, p. 61). The old Pāli texts speak of açubha and not of açuci (Aṅguttara, ii, 52, line 6). Now the four smṛty-upasthānas are regarded as the opposites (pratipakṣatvāt) of these four errors, as a man learns that the body, the feelings, the thoughts and the phenomena are really impermanent and have no substantial existence (M. S. Al., 140.25).

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Vasubandhu goes further and ascribes other merits to these four meditations taken collectively. They help a bodhisattva to understand the four Noble Truths about the existence of Evil, the origin of Evil, the cessation of Evil and the Eightfold Way. They are based on the threefold Wisdom and promote the cultivation of the pāramitās. They are adapted by a bodhisattva to the instruction of the ordinary people and of the leaders of the Hīnayāna. They confer superior capacity on a bodhisattva, even if they are practised only to a small extent. The beneficial results accruing from them do not disappear even in complete nirvāṇa, and they lead to the Perfections of the ten bhūmis (stages) and the Wisdom of the Buddha. (M. S. Al., p. 141.)

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The four smṛty-upasthānas may now be considered in detail.

(A) Kāya-smṛty-upasthāna

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A bodhisattva’s attitude towards the body should be determined by this simple rule : “ He should see the body in the body, i.e. regard it as the body should be regarded ” (kāye kāy-ānudarçī). The complete formula runs thus :—

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“ A *bodhisattva* envisages the body internally, externally, and both internally and externally as it should be envisaged. He is ardent, self-possessed and mindful, and he has got rid of covetousness and despondency in the world. He does not harbour any perverse thoughts associated with the body.”³¹

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The same words are used to describe the other *smṛty-upasthānas*, substituting *vedanā*, *citta* and *dharmāḥ* respectively for *kāya*.

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*Kāye kāy-ānudarṣī*: This simple rule seems innocuous enough. But it has let loose a flood of cynical diatribes against the body in Buddhist Sanskrit literature. We find two currents of thought on this subject in these treatises. First, the body is condemned, reviled, despised and anathematized as the source of evil, filth and sin. St. Francis called the body “Brother Ass”, but the Buddhist philosophers indulge in more virulent invective. They touch the lowest depths of morbid cynicism. Secondly, the body is valued and cherished as the instrument of altruistic service and final perfection.

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According to the *Lalita-vistara*, Mindfulness with regard to the body is “an entrance to the light of the Faith”, which helps a *bodhisattva* to isolate himself from the body.³² Almost all Buddhist writers approve of the threefold dictum that the body is foul and filthy, that it is transient and unsubstantial, and that it is the seat and source of sinful passions and desires. These are the three main charges in their scathing indictment of the body.

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Physiologically considered, the body is a mass of filth and putridity. It exudes such malodorous and impure substances as sweat, pus, bile, phlegm, urine, saliva and excrements through its nine apertures.³³ It is indeed a rotten carcass,³⁴ and it is infested by eighty thousand worms.³⁵ Its natural foulness is not realised by ordinary men and women, as it is usually covered with clothes and ornaments.³⁶

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The body is thus revolting and repulsive from the aesthetic point of view. But the chief burden of complaint against it is that it is transient and unsubstantial. A *bodhisattva* analyses the body with his keen insight, and scrutinises it “from the soles of the feet to the crown of the head”. He sees that it is merely an artificial collection of “feet, toes, legs, chest, loins, belly, navel, backbone, heart, ribs, flanks, hands, forearms, upper-arms, shoulders, neck, jaw, forehead, head, skull”, to which are added other things like the hair, the bones, the sinews, etc.³⁷ It is composed of the four elements—earth, water, fire and wind.38 A bodhisattva clearly recognises its composite nature, just as a butcher or his apprentice may cut up a cow’s carcass into four pieces and examine them.39 A bodhisattva never forgets that the body is made up of many separate ingredients and members, just as a farmer knows exactly that his granaries contain wheat, rice, barley, sesamum seeds, beans, mustard seeds, kidney beans, lentils, and other pulses and cereals.40 As the body is thus a merely composite structure, it cannot be really said to exist, as the name corresponds to no reality. A bodhisattva may therefore reasonably ask, “Then what is this body?”41 And he understands that it is only like ākāça. Further, the body is thus nothing more than an instrument or tool, as it has no essential and independent existence. It cannot feel, or perform actions, or maintain its identity in the past, present and future.42 It is also transient and fragile.43 It is subject to hunger, thirst, disease, old age and death.44 It is like unto a foam-bubble45 or a lamp of straw.46 Man, the Wayfarer, cannot stay long in this abode of the body.47 It is indeed more fragile than a pot of clay: the latter may be kept intact for a long time with proper care, but the body is destroyed very soon like a tree growing on the bank of a river.48 By its very nature, it is exposed to the five calamities of “decaying, falling, breaking, scattering and crumbling”.49 Indeed, it cannot be otherwise, for the body is the outcome of one’s deeds in a previous life, one’s karma; it grows in the soil of karma and is watered by sensual passion. Karma50 is its artificer. It can know no happiness or peace; it must continually be in a state of pain.51

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The body is also the seat and source of sin. It suffers from sensual desires, the emotions of hate, fear and despondency, and the fatal malady of delusion and folly. All these are like thieves and robbers, that attack it.52 It is the abode of sinful deeds.53 The elements, of which it is composed, are unruly and dangerous, like wild horses and serpents. They always cause physical and spiritual evil.54

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This threefold arraignment of the body culminates in the famous (or infamous) formula of the nine meditations on the Impure (i.e. the impurity of the body—aśubha-bhāvanā or aśubha-pratyavekṣā; M. Vy., lii, p. 87; Pr. Pā. Ṣata., 59, 1258, 1431 ff.; Lal. V., 32.21). This method of realising the transitoriness of the body consists in visiting a cemetery (or thinking of it) and seeing or visualising the different aspects of a corpse in process of disintegration and decomposition. It is called the realisation (*bhāvanā*) or the examination (*pratyavekṣā*) of that which is inauspicious, foul or loathsome. The Pāli texts mention ten offensive conditions of a corpse (*Dhammasaṅgaṇi*, Sections 263 and 264, page 55), but the Sanskrit writers discuss only nine. The *Mahā-vyutpatti* gives the following list :—

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(1) vinīlaka (a discoloured, bluish, livid corpse).
(2) vidhūtika (*vipūyaka*, a festering corpse).
(3) vipaḍumaka (a worm-eaten corpse).⁵⁵
(4) vyādhmātaka (a bloated, swollen corpse).
(5) vilohitaka (a bloody corpse).
(6) vikhāditaka (a devoured and mangled corpse).
(7) vikṣiptaka (a scattered corpse).
(8) vidagdhaka (a burned corpse).
(9) asthi (bones).

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The *bodhisattva* is exhorted to frequent cemeteries and reflect on the fate of the body. The idea of a visit to the cremation-ground was probably suggested by the old legend, which related that the *bodhisattva* Siddhārtha saw a funeral procession. A dead man's body was being carried to the cremation-ground.⁵⁶ This was regarded as one of the four incidents that preceded his flight from his home. Kṣemendra, indeed, improves upon the ancient biographies and tells us that the young Siddhārtha actually visited a cemetery and gave expression to edifying sentiments.⁵⁷ The vivid Indian imagination played with the idea and did not recoil from suggesting these lugubrious meditations. The author or authors of the *Pr. Pā. Ṣata.* follow an old tradition in recommending these meditative exercises, which are also mentioned in the Pāli canon.⁵⁸ A *bodhisattva* should go to a cemetery and see the corpses of the persons who died one, two, three, four, or five days before. As he observes them in different stages of decomposition, he should apply the moral to his own body and say to himself : “ This body has also the same constitution : it is of such a nature, and it cannot escape this condition.” Then he may observe corpses, which have lain in the cemetery for six or seven days, or which have been devoured and mangled by crows, eagles, vultures, dogs, jackals and worms. Again, he may see heaps of bones hanging together by the tendons, with the flesh and blood on them ; or such bones as have altogether lost the flesh, blood and tendons, and look like sea-shells ; or such bones as are scattered on all sides, the bones of the feet in one direction and the bones of the thighs and other limbs in other directions. Finally, he may see such bones as have lain in the cemetery for several years and have been reduced to rotten powder-dust of a bluish colour. Seeing such corpses and bones, he should constantly think of his own body, and say to himself: “Such is the nature of this body”. (Pr. Pā. Çata., pp. 1431-3; Çikṣā, pp. 210 ff.)

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In justice to the Mahāyānist writers, it must be stated that most of them do not mention these meditations at all. They are not discussed in such standard treatises as the Dh. S., the M. S. Al. and the Da. Bhū. This circumstance shows that they were not practised or recommended by all the sects. The idea was probably borrowed from the Jainas, who attached great importance to the açuci-bhāvanā (anuprekṣā).59

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These diatribes against the body and such funereal meditations are intended to help the bodhisattva in his spiritual development. They lead to the abandonment of the sins of sensual passion.60 A bodhisattva is soon delivered from the darkness of delusion, as he constantly practises these meditations.61 He also uses them as the means of converting others.62 When he regards the transient body as the abode of calamities and the victim of evil destiny, he is filled with disgust for it (nirveda).63 The meditation on the Impurities is the real antidote to sensual desire.64 Even an arrant deluded fool would not love the body and its lusts, if he practised these exercises. Self-sacrifice is not difficult for a bodhisattva, if he regards the body as impermanent. He can render service as a servant and a disciple to all living beings.65 He avoids all wickedness, crookedness and hypocrisy, and does not commit any sins for the sake of the body. He does not hanker after pleasures, and gives his all for others. As he grows in spiritual stature, he understands the fundamental unity of all beings and identifies their bodies with his own. He then thinks of establishing all of them in the eternal unity of the Buddha’s spiritual Body, which is free from sin and ignorance. He knows that his own body, the bodies of other beings and the Buddha’s universal spiritual Body are essentially of the same nature.66 Thus the application of Mindfulness to the body gradually leads him to the highest Wisdom.

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In the course of development of Buddhist thought, the body ceased to be despised and condemned, as it came to be regarded as the blessed instrument of altruistic service and final perfection. This constructive idea finds frequent expression in the works of Çūra, Çāntideva and Kṣemendra. The *Lalita-vistara* warns a *bodhisattva* that a weak body is unfit for the attainment of Wisdom.⁶⁷ The body is transient and unsubstantial, but it should be used to achieve substantial results by earning spiritual merit (*asāra, sāra*).⁶⁸ In that case, it becomes an instrument (*sādhana*) for the service of others.⁶⁹ The body, which is troubled with hundreds of diseases and various afflictions, should be employed as a ship to carry other creatures across the sea of troubles.⁷⁰ It is indeed frail, unsubstantial, unreal, miserable, impure and ungrateful; but when it is used for the good of others, a *bodhisattva* rejoices exceedingly, as a wise man should do.⁷¹ He, who does not use this mortal body to secure enduring benefit for himself and others, is indeed unable to discern the difference between the ephemeral things that are worthless and the things that are "a possession for ever".⁷² In the end, the body will be devoured by vultures and jackals, but it should be preserved as an instrument of Action.⁷³ It is indeed subject to old age, disease, sorrow and death; it must suffer the pangs of union and separation; but if it is inspired by the wisdom and resolution of a *bodhisattva*, it can pursue the long career of a *bodhisattva*, ripen all beings, and fulfil the law of the Buddha.⁷⁴ A *bodhisattva* should regard every action and movement of his body as an occasion for the cultivation of friendly thoughts for the good of all creatures.⁷⁵ When he sits down, he thinks thus: "May I help all beings to sit on the throne of *bodhi*!" When he lies on his right side, he thinks thus: "May I lead all beings to *nirvāṇa*!" When he washes his hands, he thinks thus: "May I remove the sinful propensities of all creatures!" When he washes his feet, he thinks thus: "May I take away the dirt of sins and passions from all creatures!" In this way the body can be converted into a holy vessel of benediction. And who can deny that the great Buddha's body was auspicious (*kalyāṇa-niketana*)? ⁷⁶ Blessed indeed is he who loses this frail body in doing good to others.⁷⁷ Such a sacrifice can be made only by those who have already cultivated virtue and acquired much spiritual Merit.⁷⁸ A *bodhisattva* can never love the body for its own sake, as it is foul, dirty and illusory; if he cherishes it, he does so only because he will gird himself up to save someone sometime somewhere on some occasion in the moment of tribulation.⁷⁹ This journey of life is fruitful only if one does good to others, for who knows what the end of the body will be? 80 A bodhisattva should therefore be indifferent to the body and even to his life. His actions can lead to Enlightenment only if he maintains such a heroic spirit.81

(b) Vedanā-smṛty-upasthāna

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Vedanā is a “term of very general import, meaning sentience or reaction, bodily or mental, on contact or impression”. It is derived from the root *vid* in the sense of experiencing a feeling or sensation. It may be interpreted as “sensation”, as it is regarded as the immediate outcome of the contact (*sparśa*) between the sense-organs and the external objects in the well-known formula of the twelve *nidānas*. It is also described as sixfold according to the sense-organ, whose contact originates it (*cakṣuḥ-sparśajā vedanā, śrotra-sparśajā vedanā*, etc.).82 T. W. Rhys Davids, L. de la Vallée Poussin, L. Feer, P. Oltramare and P. E. Foucaux agree in translating *vedanā* here as “sensations”.83 M. Anesaki’s rendering, “senses,” is perhaps inadmissible.84 But *vedanā* also seems to mean “feeling”, as it is said to be of three kinds: pleasant (*sukhā*), painful (*duḥkhā*), and neither-painful-nor-pleasant, i.e. neutral, indifferent (*aduḥkhāsukhā*).85 In the famous Tibetan pictorial representation of the twelve *nidānas*, the symbol of *vedanā* is a couple of lovers.86 Surely this is suggestive of “feeling”, and not of mere “sensation”!

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It appears that *vedanā* is something which is both feeling and sensation. We cannot perhaps find a proper word for it in the terminology of European psychology, which has adopted a different principal of analysis and classification. The Buddhist did not regard feeling and sensation as mutually exclusive terms. In any case, *vedanā* as a *smṛty-upasthāna* should be interpreted as “feeling”, as there is no sense in speaking of Mindfulness with regard to the sensations, which reach the mind from the external world. The feelings, which arise in the mind, can be the objects of mindful reflexion. It seems proper to follow the lead of R. O. Franke and W. H. D. Rouse, and translate “feeling”.87

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A *bodhisattva*, who practises Mindfulness with regard to Feeling, learns to restrain and control all feelings. He girds himself up in order to teach all beings that they should suppress Feeling, as happiness is possible only when Feeling does not exist. Feeling is a perversion and a delusion. He exhorts all beings to adopt this negative attitude towards Feeling; but he himself, as a *bodhisattva*, tries to sublimate the three kinds of Feeling into universal compassion. He reflects upon his feelings in such a manner that he achieves two results: he feels deep compassion for all creatures, and he improves his own personality by destroying or diminishing *rāga* (sense-desire), *dveṣa* (hate, ill-will) and *moha* (delusion, folly). Mindfulness with regard to Feeling can thus subserve the highest ends of a *bodhisattva’s* discipline. When he experiences a pleasant feeling, he is on his guard against *rāga*. At the same time, he thinks with infinite pity of all those beings who are the slaves of pleasurable feelings. When he experiences a painful feeling, he is free from hatred and ill-will, and he pities those whose hearts are darkened by those emotions. When he experiences a feeling which is neither painful nor pleasant, he hastens to get rid of *moha*, and thinks compassionately of those creatures who are the victims of *moha*. Further, he also realises other truths. He understands that pleasant feeling is impermanent, that painful feeling is just like a thorn, and that neutral feeling should leave him calm and serene. Finally, he comprehends that there is no enduring Self behind Feeling, no Ego that feels. He regards Feeling as altogether illusory, like a dream. (*Lal. V.*, 33.12; *M. S. Al.*, 141; *Cikṣā*, 232.)

(c) Citta-smṛty-upasthāna

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A *bodhisattva* applies Mindfulness internally, externally, and both internally and externally to *citta*. This word may be interpreted as “Thought”, “thoughts,” or “the mind.” The rendering “heart” has also been suggested. As the word is always used in the singular in all the texts dealing with this *upasthāna*, it is best to render it as “Thought”.

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A *bodhisattva*, who practises Mindfulness with regard to *citta*, understands that it is by nature luminous, like *ākāśa*. This is Vasubandhu’s teaching on the subject. But all the other writers take up a different line of argument, which culminates in unalloyed subjective nihilism. They hold that *citta* is produced and conditioned by the external objects, which are perceived by the senses; it moves among them and is unstable and restless, like a monkey or the wind. It may be compared to a flowing stream, a flash of lightning, or the flame of a lamp. It is also sensuous and sensual in its nature, as it takes delight in the five kinds of sensations derived from the external world. It finds pleasure in form, sound, smell, taste and touch, and is therefore nothing better than a moth’s eye, a battle-drum, a hog, a servant that eats of the leavings of food, and a fly in a vessel filled with oil. Further, Thought is altogether illusory and non-existent, as it is related to Time, and a *bodhisattva* knows that Time is a figment of the imagination. The past is gone, the future is still unborn, and the present cannot stand still. Thus the dependence of Thought on Time shows that it is altogether unreal and impossible. The relation between Thought and the external world leads a *bodhisattva* to the same conclusion. Çāntideva propounds a dilemma in connection with the vexed question of Subject and Object in philosophy and psychology. He says: “If Thought exists before the Object, on what does its origination depend? And if it arises with the Object...”, the same query can be repeated. As this conundrum is insoluble, we must conclude that Thought does not exist. An examination of one’s own consciousness also confirms this opinion. Thought cannot be the object of mental cognition, as a sword-blade cannot cut itself or a finger-tip cannot touch itself. How, then, can one be sure of its reality? It cannot be found inside us, nor outside us, nor anywhere between the two. It is without form and habitation, and no Buddha has ever perceived it, does perceive it, or shall perceive it at any time. It is a false notion and an illusion.

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Having argued thus, a *bodhisattva* should remember a few striking similes with regard to Thought. It is like a bad friend, as it is the cause of all evil. It is like a fish-hook, as it looks pleasant to the fishes, but is really a calamity for them. It is like a blue fly, which regards filthy things as pure. It is like an enemy, as it torments a person in various ways. It is like a strength-destroying ogre, which always seeks for a loophole to enter. It is like a thief, as it steals all the “Roots of Merit” that have been accumulated. Thus does a *bodhisattva* look upon *citta*! (*Lal. V.*, 33.13; *Mdh.*, 62-3; *B.C. Ava.*, ix, 103 ff.; *Çikṣā*, 233 ff.; *M. S. Al.*, 141.)

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(d) *Dharma-smṛty-upasthāna*

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A *bodhisattva* also practises Mindfulness with regard to “the dharmas”. This word, in this context, has been variously translated as follows:

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*T. W. Rhys Davids and W. T. Stede* : “Phenomena” (Pāli Dicy. s.v. sati).

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*M. Anesaki* : “The ultimate nature of things” (ERE, v, 455).

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*R. O. Franke* : “Die seelischen und äusseren Daseinerscheinungen” (Dīgha, p. 187, note).

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*W. and M. Geiger* : “Die Dinge” (Pāli Dhamma, p. 89, l. 7).

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*M. Winternitz* : “Die Erscheinungen” (Lesebuch, p. 251).

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*H. Beckh* : “Die Natur der Dinge” (Buddhismus, i, 20, note).

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*T. W. Rhys Davids* : (1) “Reason and Character” (Dialogues, ii, 129). (2) “Ideas” (Dialogues, ii, 334).

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*S. Lévi* : “L’idéal” (M. S. Al. tr., p. 105, note).

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*J. Masuda* : “Die Gegenstände ausser den drei vorhergehenden” (Idealismus, p. 8, note).

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*W. H. D. Rouse* : “The Elements of Existence” (Çikṣā tr., p. 221).

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*K. E. Neumann* : “Die Erscheinungen” (Majjh. tr., ii, 327).

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*P. E. Foucaux* : “La loi” (Lal. V. Tib., ii, 42).

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*S. C. Das* translates the Tibetan equivalent (chos) as “conditions of existence”.

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It is to be noted that the word *dharma* is almost always used in the plural number in this *smṛty-upasthāna* : *Dharmeṣu dharmānudarṣī*. The detailed comments of the Buddhist writers also show that it cannot mean “the ideal, virtue, character”. We must also dismiss the long disquisition on the different principles and precepts (*nīvaraṇas, skandhas*, etc.) at Dīgha-Nikāya, ii, 300 ff. as irrelevant and misleading. *Dharmāḥ* cannot refer to all those doctrinal categories as the objects of this *smṛty-upasthāna*. If we interpret *dharmāḥ* here as “Phenomena”, “Things,” we find that the sense suits the context. Having reflected on the elements of his own personality, like the body, the feelings and the mind, a *bodhisattva* now turns his thoughts towards the outer world, the universe in general. Thus both the Ego and the non-Ego are included in the operations of Mindfulness. This natural climax gives symmetry and completeness to the formula.

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A *bodhisattva*, who applies Mindfulness to the Phenomena, understands that they are adventitious and extraneous, just as dust, smoke, clouds and frost are merely accidental adjuncts of Space. He acquires perfect knowledge, which is free from all delusion and darkness. He realises that the Phenomena arise from causes and are thus relative and inter-dependent. They are impermanent and fragile, like a pot of unbaked clay or a town built of sand. They may be compared to the sand on the bank of a river, the flame of a lamp, a clot of foam, a gust of wind, the plaster washed away in the rainy season, the stem of a plantain tree and an empty fist. Such similes can be appropriately applied to the Phenomena. They are caused by Ignorance and they do not really exist. Grass can be twisted and made into a rope, and the buckets of water are turned by a wheel at the well; but there is no “turning” in them one by one. Similarly, the movements of the things in the universe are dependent on one another. The Phenomena are in fact unintelligible. The sprout springs from the seed, but it is neither the same as the seed nor different from it. A seal can give an impression, which is neither the same as the seal nor different from it. We see things on account of the contact between the eye and external forms, but the latter are not in the eye. Fire is produced by the friction of two pieces of wood, but no man can see or tell whence it came and whither it has gone. In the same way, sound is produced by the combined action of the bodily organs and the mind, but all sound is but an echo. It may be produced by means of a stringed musical instrument, which is played with the hand; but no one can perceive whence it comes or whither it goes. Thus the Phenomena are due to primary and secondary causes, and they are void within and without. There is no essence and reality in them. (*Lal. V.*, 33; *M. S. Al.*, 141; *Çikṣā*, 236 ff.)

III. The Samyak-prahāṇas

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A *bodhisattva* should cultivate the four “*samyak-prahāṇāni*” (Pāli *sammappadhānā*).⁸⁸ The term has been variously translated as follows:—

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*T. W. Rhys Davids and W. Stede*: “Right exertions” (Pāli *Dicy.*, s.v. *padhāna*).

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*S. Lévi*: “Les abandons réguliers” (*M. S. Al.* tr., p. 238).

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*A. Schiefner*: “Die vier vollkommenen Entsagungen” (*Triglotte*, iii).

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P. E. Foucaux : "Les quatre abandons complets" (Lal. V. tr., p. 34). W. H. D. Rouse : "The four kinds of quietism" (Çikṣā tr., p. 107). H. Oldenberg : "Das vierfache rechte Streben" (Buddha, p. 227). R. O. Franke : "Das vierlei rechte Ringen" (Dīgha, p. 218). M. Winternitz : "Die tüchtigen Anstrengungen" (Lesebuch, p. 251). M. Anesaki : "Right control or exertion" (ERE, v, 455). E. Burnouf : "Les quatre abandons complets" (Introduction, p. 85, ed. 1844). E. Eklund : "Den fyrfaldiga stora kampen mot synd" (the fourfold great struggle or fight against sin). (Nirvāṇa, p. 133.) T. W. and C. A. F. Rhys Davids : "Four Supreme Efforts" (Dialogues, iii, 215). Lord Chalmers : (1) "The four Right Struggles" (Majjh. tr., ii, 6). (2) "The four Efforts" (Majjh. tr., ii, 320). C. F. Koeppen : "Die vollkommenen Entsagungen" (Buddha, i, 436). K. E. Neumann : "Die vier gewaltigen Kämpfe" (Majjh. tr., ii, 327). S. C. Das (s.v. Tibetan spoṅ-ba and chos) : "The Renunciations" (Tib. Dicy., 429a and 802a).

c8.s2.6

The four samyak-prahāṇas are mentioned in several passages of Buddhist literature (M. Vy., Section 39, p. 73; Dh. S., xlv; M. S. Al., 141; Da. Bhū., 39; Çikṣā, 356; Pr. Pā. Çata., 1436).

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