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The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies v9: Volume 9

The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies v9

Language
English

Contents

Volume 9

Front matter

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VOLUMES ALREADY PUBLISHED

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I. Bibliography. Sections I and II, 3rd ed. (1995)—Ed. Karl H. Potter. II. Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology: The Tradition of Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika up to Gaṅgeśa (1977)—Ed. Karl H. Potter. III. Advaita Vedānta up to Śaṅkara and His Pupils (1981)—Ed. Karl H. Potter. IV. Sāṃkhya: a Dualist Tradition in Indian Philosophy (1987)—Eds. Gerald James Larson & Ram Shanker Bhattacharya. V. The Philosophy of the Grammarians (1990)—Ed. H.G. Coward. VI. Indian Philosophical Analysis: Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika from Gaṅgeśa to Raghunātha Siromaṇi (1993)—Eds. Karl H. Potter & Sibjiban Bhattacharyya. VII. Abhidharma Buddhism to 150 A.D. (1996)—Eds. Karl H. Potter with Robert E. Buswell Jr., Padmanabh S. Jaini & Noble Ross Reat. VIII. Buddhist Philosophy from 100 to 350 A.D. (1999)—Ed. Karl H. Potter. IX. Buddhist Philosophy from 350 to 600 A.D. (2003)—Ed. Karl H. Potter.

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VOLUMES UNDER PREPARATION

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X. Buddhist Philosophy from 600 to 750 A.D.— Ed. Karl H. Potter. XI. Buddhist Philosophy from 750 to 1300 A.D.— Ed. Karl H. Potter. XII. Yoga Philosophy—Eds. Gerald J. Larson & Ram Shanker Bhattacharya. XIII. Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika after Raghunātha to Gadādhara's Time Eds. Sibjiban Bhattacharyya & Karl H. Potter. XIV. Advaita Vedānta from 800 to 1300 A.D.— Ed. Paul Kuepferle. XV. Advaita Vedānta from 1300 to the present— Ed. Karl H. Potter. XVI. Jain Philosophy [Part I]— Eds. Dalsukh Malvania & Jayendra Soni. XVII. Jain Philosophy [Part III — Eds. Karl H. Potter. XVIII. Kashmir Śaiva Philosophy— Ed. Navjivan Rastogi. XIX. Viśiṣṭādvaita Vedānta Philosophy—Eds. Stephen H. Phillips & M. Narasimhachary. XX. Dvaitādvaita Philosophy—Eds. Ram Shankar Bhattacharya & Karl H. Potter. XXI. Pūrvamīmāṃsā Philosophy— Eds. K. T. Pandurangi & Karl H. Potter. XXII. Acintyabhedābheda Philosophy— Ed. Srivatsa Goswami. XXIII. Dvaita Vedānta Philosophy— Ed. K.T. Pandurangi. XXIV. Cārvāka Philosophy— Ed. Eli Franco. XXV. Śuddhādvaita Vedānta Philosophy—Eds. Sharadaniruddha Goswami & Shyam Manoharji Goswami. XXVI. Vīraśaiva Philosophy— Eds. Inch Sen. XXVII. Collective Glossary-Index— Ed. Karl H. Potter.

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHIES

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VOLUME IX

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Buddhist Philosophy from 350 to 600 A.D.

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EDITED BY KARL H. POTTER

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MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PRIVATE LIMITED • DELHI

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*First Indian Edition: Delhi, 2003*

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© MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PRIVATE LIMITED All Rights Reserved

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ISBN: 81-208-1968-3

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*Also available at:* MOTILAL BANARSIDASS 41 U.A. Bungalow Road, Jawahar Nagar, Delhi 110 007 8 Mahalaxmi Chamber, 22 Bhulabhai Desai Road, Mumbai 400 026 236, 9th Main III Block, Javanagar, Bangalore 560 011 120 Royapettah High Road, Mylapore, Chennai 600 004 Sanas Plaza, 1302 Baji Rao Road, Pune 411 002 8 Camac Street, Kolkata 700017 Ashok Rajpath, Patna 800 004 Chowk, Varanasi 221 007

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[Figure: AVČR ORIENTAČNÍ ÚSTAV Všeobecná knihovna P.O. Sy.]

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Printed in India BY JAINENDRA PRAKASH JAIN AT SHRI JAINENDRA PRESS, A-45 NARAINA, PHASE-I, NEW DELHI 110 028 AND PUBLISHED BY NARENDRA PRAKASH JAIN FOR MOTILAL BANARSIDASS PUBLISHERS PRIVATE LIMITED, BUNGALOW ROAD, DELHI 110 007

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CONTRIBUTORS:

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William L. Ames Stefan Anacker Sitansushekar Bagchi Robert E. Buswell Jr. Binayendra Chaudhury Edward Conze Lance S. Cousins Ronald Davidson Douglas D. Daye Carmen Dragonetti Nalinaksha Dutt Fred Greiner V.V. Gokhale Paul Griffiths Richard P. Hayes Jay Hirabayashi Shotaro Iida Padmanabh S. Jaini Shoryu Katsura Hidenori Kitagawa Karen Lang Bimala Chum Law Christian Lindtner Prabhas Chandra Majumdar James P. McDermott Marek Mejor Diana Y. Paul Karl H. Potter Ollie Qvarnström Paula Richman Musashi Tachikawa Jikido Takasaki Mark Tatz Fernando Tola Satischandra Vidyabhusana

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In the Preface to Volume VIII, the previous volume of this Encyclopedia dealing with Buddhist philosophy, certain disclaimers were made by this Editor. These remarks, concerning the limitations on our knowledge of the Buddhist authors and works and the shortcomings of the Editor's understanding of the material there surveyed, apply likewise to material in the present Volume, whose Editor is unfortunately the same person. I can only hope that someone more conversant with the language and literature of Buddhist philosophy can be found to write the Introductions to the future Volumes.

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This Volume, like its predecessors, has been made possible in part by grants from various agencies: the American Institute of Indian Studies, the National Endowment for the Humanities, and the Smithsonian Institute, as well as the University of Washington. Many thanks to all. I should like particularly to thank Prof. Eli Franco for his needed last-minutue corrections to the Introduction, some of which came unfortunately, though no fault of his, too late to incorporate into the final version published here. And Dr. Christine Mullikin Keyt has, as before, provided invaluable aid in resolving many of the problems that have arisen during the preparation of the manuscript on my present computer and its predecessors.

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January 2003 Karl H. Potter

Contents

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PREFACE 6 ABBREVIATIONS 15

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PART ONE INTRODUCTION Chapter One: Historical Overview 19 Chapter Two: Abhidharma Developments 25 Chapter Three: Epistemology, Logic and Language 34 I. Dignāga on Perception 36 II. Dignāga on Inference 42 III. Dignāga on Language 47 IV. Bhavya on Inference 53 V. Mapping the Three Natures onto the Two Levels 58

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PART TWO SUMMARIES OF WORKS (Arranged Chronologically)
1. Sarvadharmapravṛttinirdeśasūtra (351) 73
2. Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśasūtra (Nāgārjuna) (354) 73
3. Tathāgataguṇajñānacintyaviṣayāvatārasūtra (355) 83
4. Anantadhāraṇīdharmaparyāyasūtra (355) 83
5. Bhadraśerīsūtra (355) 83
6. Sūtra on Ananda's thinking (355) 83
7. Śrīkanthasūtra (355) 83
8. Ākāśagarbhasūtra (363) 84
9. Kṣudrakasūtra (365) 84
10. Anantamukhasādhakadhāraṇīsūtra (369) 84
11. Buddhadhyānasamādhisāgarasūtra (369) 84
12. Buddhadharmācintyanirdeśasūtra (369) 84
13. Devarājasamtuṣṭamaṅgalagāthāsūtra (369) 85
14. Karuṇāpuṇḍarīkasūtra (369) 85
15. Mahāmeghasūtra (370) 86
16. Ratnaketudhāraṇīsūtra (370) 86 17. *Sūryagarbhasūtra* (370) 94
18. *Suvarṇaprabhāsāsūtra* (370) 95
19. *Caturdevarājasūtra* (377) 98
20. *Tathāgatagarbhasūtra* (380) 98
21. *Karmāvaraṇaviśuddhiśāstra* (380) 98
22. *Daśacakrakṣitigarbhasūtra* (385) 98
23. *Vajrasamādhisūtra* (385) 98
24. *Alpadevatāsūtra* (390) 99
25. *Bodhisattvagocaropāyavikurvāṇanirdeśasūtra* (390) 99
26. *Dvajāgṛhasūtra* (390) 99
27. *Jyotiṣkasūtra* (390) 99
28. *Mahāmatisūtra* (390) 99
29. *Tsui fu pao ying ching* (390) 99
30. *Mahābherihārakaparivartasūtra* (390) 100
31. *Caturvargaśikṣādharmasūtra* (390) 100
32. *Īśvarakartṛtvanirākaraṇaviṣṇorekakartṛtvanirākaraṇa* (Nāgārjuna) (400) 100
33. *Nāgaśrīparipṛcchasūtra* (400) 101
34. *Śuddhodanarājaparinirvāṇasūtra* (405) 102
35. *Sūtra on the advancement of learning* (405) 102
36. *Sūtra on a pupil who received (seven days) after his death* (405) 102
37. *Candanavatdeśarājasūtra* (405) 102
38. *Mudrādeśarājasūtra* (405) 103
39. *Malarājasūtra* (405) 103
40. *Sūtra on the five (elements) not returning again* (405) 103
41. *Rājāvavādakasūtra* (405) 103
42. *Samavabhedopacakra* (Vasumitra) (405) 103
43. *Bodhisattvabuddhānusmṛtisamādhi* (412) 107
44. *Mahāśrayārtharddhimantrasūtra* (412) 107
45. *Upāya (kauśalya) hṛdayasūtra* (Nāgārjuna) (422) 107
46. *Kusumasaṃcayasūtra* (422) 110
47. *Visuddhimagga* (Buddhaghosa) (425) 111
48. *Dhammasaṅgaṇi-Aṭṭhakathā* (425) 173

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49. *Sammohavinodani* or *Vibhaṅga-Aṭṭhakathā* (Buddhaghosa?) (425) 194
50. *Kathāvatthu-Aṭṭhakathā* (Buddhaghosa?) 195
51. *Yamaka-Aṭṭhakathā* (Buddhaghosa?) (425) 212
52. *Paṭṭhāna-Aṭṭhakathā* (Buddhaghosa?) (425) 215
53. *Dhātukathā-Aṭṭhakathā* (Buddhaghosa?) (425) 215
54. *Puggalapaññatti-Aṭṭhakathā* (Buddhaghosa?) (425) 215
55. *Abhidhammāvatāra* (Buddhadatta) (425) 217
56. *Rūpārūpavibhāga* (Buddhadatta) (425) 254
57. *Tarkaśāstra* (425) (Vidyabhusana) 256
58. *Samantapāsādikasūtra* (438) 257
59. *Praṭityasamutpādaśāstra* (Ullaṅgha) (440) 257
60. *Anyūnatvāpūrṇatvanirdeśaparivartasūtra* (440) 261
61. *Ratnagotravibhāga/Vyākhyā* (Sāramati) (450) 262
62. *Mahāyānadharmaviśeṣa* (Sāramati) (450) 272
63. *Abhidharmāvatāra* (Skandhila/Sugandhara) (450) 274
64. *Abhidharmakośa-Ṭīkopāyika* (Śamathadeva) (450) 280
65. *Bhavasaṃkrāntisūtra* (450) 282
66. *Dharmadhātubuddhakasūtra* (453) 283
67. *Ratnameghasūtra* (453) 283
68. *Śraddhābalādhānāvatāramudrāsūtra* (454) 283
69. *Sarvabuddhaviṣayāvatārajñānālokaṃkārasūtra* (457) 283
70. *Aśokarājasūtra* (462) 283
71. *Dharmasaṃgītisūtra* (465) 283
72. *Mañjuśrīparipṛcchāsūtra* (468) 284
73. *Praṭityasamutpādahṛdaya-Vyākhyāna* (Cśuddhamati) (470) 284
74. *Saptaśatikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra* (470) 284
75. *Samantamukhaparivartasūtra* (470) 285
76. *Vajramaṇḍadhāraṇīsūtra* (475) 285
77. *Buddhanāmasūtra* (475) 285
78. *Kṣemavatīvyākaraṇasūtra* (475) 285
79. *Siṃhanādikasūtra* (475) 285
80. *Abhidharmāvatāra-Sārasamuccaya* (475) 286
81. *Madhyamakasūtra-Vṛtti* (Buddhapālita) (480) 286
82. *Aṇakṣarendraka (vai) vocanagarbhasūtra* (485) 305 83. *Sarvabālāpaladhāraṇ sūtra* (485) 305
84. *Mañjuśrīparicaraṇasūtra* (485) 306
85. *Maitreya (bodhisattva) paripṛcchāsūtra* (485) 306
86. *Saṃghātasūtra* (488) 306
87. *Saddharmasmṛtyupasthānasūtra* (489) 307
88. *Yogācārabhūmi* (Buddhasena) (490) 307
89. *Marīcidhāraṇīsūtra* (490) 307
90. *Maitreya (mahā) siṃhanādasūtra* (491) 307
91. *Vimala (nāna) upāsikāparipṛcchāsūtra* (492) 307
92. *Kanakavarṇapūrvayogasūtra* (492) 308
93. *Maṅgalāṣṭakasūtra* (492) 308
94. *Niyatāniyatāvatāramudrāsūtra* (492) 308
95. *Paramārthadharmavijayasūtra* (492) 308
96. *(Rsi) Vyāsaparipṛcchāsūtra* (492) 308
97. *Susthitamatiparipṛcchāsūtra* (492) 308
98. *Sūtra on the highest reliance* (492) 308
99. *Buddhagotraśāstra* (495) 309
100. *Kāraṇḍavyūhasūtra* (495) 310
101. *Aparāmitāyurjñānahr̥dayadhāraṇīsūtra* (500) 311
102. *Mahāmaṇivipulyamānavisvasupratiṣṭhaguhyasūtra* (500) 311
103. *Saptabuddhakasūtra* (500) 311
104. *Pradīpanīyasūtra* (508) 311
105. *Sumerugarbhasūtra* (508) 312
106. *Lokaprajñaptyabhidharmasūtra* (509) 312
107. *Abhidharmakośa-Marma(pra)dīpa* (Dignāga) (510) 313
108. *Alambanaparīkṣā* (Dignāga) 314
109. *Hastavālānamaprakaraṇavṛtti* (Dignāga) 318
110. *Hetucakra* (Dignāga) 319
111. *Nyāyamukha* (Dignāga) 320
112. *Prajñāpāramitāpiṇḍārtha* (Dignāga) 322
113. *Pramāṇasamuccaya* (Dignāga) 328 113.1 *Pratyakṣa* 328 113.2 *Svārthānumāna* 337 113.3 *Parārthānumāna* 342 113.4 *Drṣṭānta* 347

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113.5 *Apohaparīkṣā* 349 113.6 *Jāti* 360
114. *Upādayaprajñaptiprakaraṇa* (Dignāga) 362
115. *Traikālyaparīkṣā* (Dignāga) 367
116. *Sāmānyalakṣaṇaparīkṣā* (Dignāga) 367
117. *Nyāyaparīkṣā* (Dignāga) 368
118. *Rājaparikathāratnamālāsūtra* (510) 368
119. *Prajñāpāramitāpiṇḍārtha-Vivarana* (Triratnadāsa) (510) 368
120. *Vidyānirdeśasūtra* (515) 368
121. *Vidyāpravartanaśāstra* (515) 368
122. *Vidyāmātr̥siddhi* (515) 369
123. *Tryalakṣaṇaśāstra* (515) 369
124. *Anākaracintārajas* (Jina) (515) 369
125. *Muṣṭiprakaraṇaśāstra* (Jina) (515) 369
126. *Life of Vasubandhu* (515) 369
127. *Buddhābhidharmasūtra* (515) 369
128. *Catursatyaśāstra* (Vasuvarman) (515) 369
129. *Paṭisambhidāmagga-Saddhammappakāsinī* (Mahānāma) (520) 369
130. *Pītaputrasamāgamasūtra* (520) 370
131. *Abhidharmakośakārikā-Bhāṣya* (Vinītabhadra) (520) 370
132. *Mahāyānābhisamayasūtra* (520) 370
133. *Mahāyānasamgraha-Upanibandha* (Asvabhāva) (520) 371
134. *Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra-Ṭīkā* (Asvabhāva) (520) 371
135. *Ekādaśamukhahṛdayasūtra* (525) 371
136. *Alokamālā* (Kambala) (525) 372
137. *Aṣṭasahasrikāprajñāpāramitāsūtra-Piṇḍārtha* or *Navaśloka* (Kambala) (525) 378
138. *Abhisamayapañjikā* (Kambala) (525) 379
139. *Prajñāpāramitopadeśa* (Kambala) (525) 379
140. *Saptaślokībhagavatīprajñāpāramitāsūtra* (Kambala) (525) 379
141. *Tattvaprabhāṣāraṇadīpa* (Kambala) (525) 379
142. *Dharmadāsa* (530) 379
143. *Suvikrāntavikrāmiparipṛcchāsūtra* (530) 379 144. *Lakṣānusāriṇīṭīkā* (Guṇamati) (530) 380
145. *Vyākhyāyukti-Ṭīkā* (Guṇamati) (530) 381
146. *Pratītyasamutpādadibhaṅganirdeśa-Ṭīkā* (Guṇamati) (530) 381
147. *Padmamukha-* or *Puṇḍarīkamukha-sūtra* (534) 382
148. *Sūtra on the good qualities of rare comparison* (536) 382
149. *Dvādaśabuddhakasūtra* (537) 382
150. *Amoghapāśahṛdayasūtra* (537) 382
151. *Candrottarādhikārikāvyākaraṇasūtra* (540) 382
152. *Bhadrapālaśreṣṭhiparipṛcchāsūtra* (541) 382
153. *Mahādharmolkādhāraṇīsūtra* (544) 383
154. *Acintyaguṇasarvabuddhaparigrahasūtra* (544) 383
155. *Pañcasahasrapaṇcaśatabuddhanāmasūtra* (544) 383
156. *Sarvadharmāvacārasūtra* (545) 383
157. *Mahāsannipātavādanarājasūtra* (545) 383
158. *Mahābaladharmikadhāraṇīsūtra* (546) 383
159. *Agrapradīpadhāraṇīvidyārājasūtra* (546) 383
160. *Sūtra on the Bodhisattva Akiñcana* (546) 384
161. *Karatalaratna* (Bhavya) (550) 384
162. *Madhyamakahṛdayakārikā/Tarkajvālā* (Bhavya) (550) 397
162. 1 *Bodhicittaparityāga* 398
162. 2 *Munivratasamā. raya* 400
162. 3 *Tattvāmṛtāvatāra* 401
162. 4 *Śrāvakatattvaniścavāvatāra* 410
162. 5 *Yogācāratattvaniścaya* 411
162. 6 *Sāṃkhyatattvāvatāra* 416
162. 7 *Vaiśeṣikatattvaniścaya* 417
162. 8 *Vedāntatattvaniścava* 417
162. 9 *Mīmāṃsātattvanirnavāvatāra* 419 162.10 *Sarvajñasiddhinirdeśa* 421 162.11 *Śutilaksanānirdeśa* 422
163. *Madhyamakakārikā-Prajñāpradīpa* (Bhavya) (550) 422
164. *Madhyamakārthasaṃgraha* (Bhavya) (550) 442
165. *Madhyamakaratnapradīpa* (Bhavya) (550) 443
166. *Manimekhalai* (Cittalai Cāttanār) (550) 457

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167. *Nyāyapraveśa* (Śaṃkarasvāmin) (555) 463
168. *Abhisamayālaṃkāra-Vṛtti* (Arya Vimuktisena) (555) 470
169. *Ālambanaparīkṣā-Vyākhyā* (Dharmapāla) (560) 471
170. *Catuḥśataka-Vṛtti* (Dharmapāla) (560) 474
171. *Śataśāstra-Vṛtti* (Dharmapāla) (560) 479
172. *Triṃśikā-Commentary* (Dharmapāla) (560) 486
173. *Triṃśikā-Commentary* (Paramārtha) (560) 487
174. *Vasumitra* (560) 490
175. *Abhidharmakośa-Tattvārthaṭīkā* (Sthiramati) (560) 491
176. *Abhidharmasamuccaya-Bhāṣya* (Sthiramati) (560) 495
177. *Madhyamakakārikā-Bhāṣya* (Sthiramati) (560) 510
178. *Madhyāntavibhāgabhāṣya-Ṭīkā* (Sthiramati) (560) 510
179. *Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra-Bhāṣya* (Sthiramati) (560) 514
180. *Pañcaskandhaka-Vaibhāṣya* (Sthiramati) (560) 514
181. *Triṃśikā-Bhāṣya* (Sthiramati) (560) 523
182. *Viṃ. atikā-Bhāṣya* (Sthiramati) (560) 525
183. *Kāśyapaparivartasūtra* (Sthiramati) (560) 526
184. *Sūtra on the original cause of raising the world* (565) 532
185. *Abhidharmadīpa/Vibhāṣāprabhāvṛtti* (Vimalamitra) (580) 532
186. *Buddhabhūmivyākhyāna* (Śīlabhadra) (580) 558
187. *Bodhisattvabhūmi-Vṛtti* (Guṇaprabhā) (580) 561
188. *Pañcaskandhaka-Vivarana* (Guṇaprabhā) (580) 562
189. *Niddesa-Saddhammappajotikā* (Upasena) (580) 564
190. *Abhidharmakośa-Sphuṭārthavyākhyā* (Yaśomitra) (580) 565
191. *Īśvarasena* (580) 593
192. *Buddhabalādhānapratihāryakūrvanirdeśasūtra* (590) 593
193. *Abhidamayālaṃkāra-Vārttika* (Bhadanta Vimutisena) (590) 593
194. *Devatāsūtra* (598) 594

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ENDNOTES 595

Abbreviations

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ADV : *Abhidharmadīpa-Vibhāṣāprabhāvṛtti* (ed. P.S. Jaini). Patna 1959 AKB : Vasubandhu, *Abhidharmakośa*, ed. P. Pradhan. Patna 1967 AS : *Abhidharmasamuccaya* ASBh : Sthiramati, *Abhidharmasamuccayabhāṣya* Asl : Buddhaghosa, *Dhammasaṅgaṇī-Aṭṭhakathā* ASV : *Abhidharmasamuccayavyākhyā* Bagchi : Prabodh Chandra Bagchi, *Le canon bouddhique en Chine, les traducteurs et les traductions*. Paris 1927 ca. : around (the year ...) CSL : Paramārtha, *Chuan Shih lun* EnBud : *Encyclopedia of Buddhism* Feer : Leon Feer, *Fragments extraits du Kandjour*. AMG 5, 1883 GT : Giuseppe Tucci, *Opera Minore* (Roma 1971-72) K : *A Comparative Analytical Catalogue of the Kanjur Division of the Tibetan Tripiṭaka*, cp. Bunkyo Sakurabe. Kyoto 1930-32 Lancaster : Lewis R. Lancaster, *The Korean Buddhism Canon: a Descriptive Catalogue*. Berkeley 1979 Kosa : Vasubandhu, *Abhidharmakośa* Law : Bimala Churn Law, *Buddhaghosa*. BBRAS Monograph 1 (Bombay 1946) Ligeti : Lajor Ligeti, *Catalogue du kanjur mongol imprimé, par Rinchen*. New Delhi 1964 LVPAK : Louis de la Vallee Poussin (tr.), *Abhidharmakośa* MMK : Nāgārjuna, *Mūlamadhyamakakārikā* MPPS : *Mahāprajñāramitopadeśa* MRP : Bhavya, *Madhyamakaratnapradīpa* MSA : *Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra* MV : Asaṅga, *Madhyāntavibhāga* MVB : Vasubandhu, *Madhyāntavibhāgabhāṣya* N(anjio) : Nanjio, *A Catalogue of the Chinese Translation of the Buddhist Tripiraka* (Oxford 1883) NCat : New Catalogues Catalogorum op.cit : referred to above P(eking) : *The Tibetan Tripiṭaka, Peking Edition.* Tokyo 1962 Pati : *Paṭisambhidāmagga* PHK : Nāgārjuna, *Pratītyasamutpādahṛdayakārikā* PSAVdh : *Pratītyasamutpādādivibhaṅgadharmaparyāya* PSK : Ullangha, *Pratītyasamutpādaśāstra* Ratna : Sāramati, *Ratnagotravibhāga* SAKV : Yaśomitra, *Sphuṭārtha-Abhidharmakośavyākhyā* (ed. U. Wogihara). Tokyo 1932-36 T : *Canon de Taisho* (Tokyo 1924-35) TJ : Bhavya, *Madhyamakahṛdaya-Tarkajvālā* Toh(oku) : *Catalogue of the Tibetan Works in the Tohoku University Collection.* Sendai 1953 Vism : Buddhaghosa, *Visuddhimagga*

Chapter One: Historical Overview

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This Volume attempts to develop the development of Buddhist philosophical notions from approximately the time of Vasubandhu and his acrimonious critic Saṃghabhadra--that is from about the mid-fourth century, to the end of the sixth century A.D. It is a glorious period in Indian history generally, the time of the Gupta kings and relative peace throughout the subcontinent, though perhaps the same cannot be said of Laṅkā (until recently called Ceylon) to the south. However, even there, whatever political difficulties there may have been, this age saw in Laṅkā the two large treatises of Buddhaghosa and Buddhadatta, two scholars whose works constitute the most thorough reviews we have of Theravāda Buddhism.

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In India visits of Chinese travellers continued and increased. Perhaps most notable was Fa-hsien, who between 399 and 412 travelled through Inner Asia to Samarkand, crossed from Kashgar to Kashmir and Gandhara, visited Mathura, Varanasi, Nalanda and Kalinga, and exited by way of Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka, returning to China by way of Sumatra and the Pacific. Other Chinese translator-travellers to India in this period include Seng-chien (388-408), Chih-yen (427), Pao-Yün (427, who travelled to India with Fa-hsien), Hsiang Kung (420-479), Chü-ch'ü Ching-sheng (455), Kong Tö-che (Guṇasatya?), who travelled to China between 454 and 465). T'an Yao (472), and Ki Kia Ya (472).

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There were also a large number of Indians traveling to China who translated Buddhist works in this period. Among Indian translators of philosophical works dealt with in the present Volume, besides Buddhayaśas and Kumārajīva, many of whose translations were of works dealt with in our Volume Eight, we may note, in what is said to be relative chronological order: Buddhabhadra, born in Kashmir, who was in China at the beginning of the fifth century and who died in 429; Dharmaksema from Central India, who got as far as Cutch, modern Qizil in Chinese Turkestan and translated a large number of works, dying in 433; Guṇabhadra, also from Central India, who went to China by way of Ceylon and died in Canton in 468; Mandrasena, who came from Funan to Leang and was translating in 503; Dharmaruci, translating in 504; Saṃghabhara, born in 460, translated between 506-523, and died in 524; Gautama Prajñāruci, a Brahmin from Varanasi who was in China between 516 and 538; Bodhiruci, who was in China between 508 and 536;

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Buddhaśānta, who flourished in China between 520 and 539; Vimokṣasena, in China around 541; Upaśūnya, in China 538-565; Narendrayaśas (there are perhaps two persons of that name); Jinayaśas from Magadha; Dharmagupta of royal lineage from South India who travelled through Kashgar, Tashkent, Cutch and Turfan to China, arriving there in 590; as well as Paramārtha, for whose life and travels see the introduction to #173 below.

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As for the authors of the works summarized in this Volume, we know of the whereabouts and lives of only a few of them. From north India we can count Skandhila/Sugandhara, Śamathadeva, Buddhasena and Vimalamitra, while from the south came Buddhaghosa, Buddhadatta, Buddhapālita, Dignāga, Kambala, Guṇamati and Cattanār. Bhavya and Paramārtha came from Central India, while the Theravāda monks Mahānāma and Upasena appear to have come from, or at least spent their lives, in Laṅkā.

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The meager traditions about the dates and location of these authors provide little insight into the history of our period. We are entirely at a loss concerning the earlier part, the 4th-5th centuries. Concerning the 6th century there is more information available, largely centering on the two great Universities at Nālandā and Valabhī, the inceptions of which must be supposed to date from around 500 or perhaps a bit before.

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In Volume Eight of this *Encyclopedia* we reviewed Andre Bareau's accont of the Buddhist schools that appear to have been active during the second to the fourth centuries and in many cases before that time. Many of these persisted and appear to have thrived during our present period.

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However, Heinz Bechert points out that "(T)here is, unfortunately, still much confusion on the nature of Buddhist 'sects' or 'schools' in spite of the enormous amount of writing that has been done on Budddhist sects. This confusion is caused by confounding different types of sects. ...(A) nikāya or sect can be described as a group or community of monks that mutually acknowledge the validity of their *upasampadā* or higher ordination and therefore can join together in the performance of *vinayakarmas*, i.e., legal acts prescribed by Vinaya or Buddhist ecclesiastical law...(T)he controversies leading to the formation of these sects did not completely stop after the final codification of the various 'sectarian' recensions of the vinaya scriptures, but turned to minor matters not clearly regulated in the texts and to disputes on the interpretation of the texts. The *nikāyas* formed in this way should be termed 'sub-sects', and the three *nikāyas* in mediaeval Ceylonese Buddhism are 'sub-sects' of

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Theravāda in this sense."

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"...(O)nly a few of the sects mentioned in the context of the early doctrinal controversies succeeded in developing a consistent system of philosophy which had its impact on the progress of philosophical thought in India. Later sources usually list four schools of Buddhist thought, viz., Sarvāstivādin (or Vaibhāṣika), Sautrāntika, Śūnyavādin (or Mādhyamika) and Vijñānavādin (or Yogācāra)...

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"There should be no confusion of these philosophical schools with the earlier doctrinal and the early vinaya sects. A Sarvāstivādin, in the sense of the follower of the Sarvāstivāda philosophy, could well be a member of a rather different vinaya sect, particularly of a sect which had no philosophical tradition of its own. There is a well-known vinaya sect which adopted not only the philosophy but also the name of the Sarvāstivāda, viz. the Mūlasarvāstivādin. This sect was not a sub-sect of the Sarvāstivādin but it had a vinaya tradition of its own."

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"...The formation of Mahāyāna Buddhism was an innovation of a new kind, quite dissimilar from the formation of Buddhist sects. It was an event taking place not on the basis of the understanding of monastic discipline nor of doctrinal controversies of the traditional kind, but on a different level, viz. by a new definition of the goal of the religious life. Instead of attaining to personal liberation as a follower of the advice given by the Buddha, a Mahāyānist has decided to go along the path of a Bodhisattva, but a *bhikṣu* of Mahayana Buddhism did not at all cease to be a member of one of the *nikāyas*, because nobody could become a *bhikṣu* except by an *upasampadā* based on the vinaya tradition of one of the *nikāyas*. When Mahāyāna developed, there originated two factions in most of the ancient Buddhist *nikāyas* or sects: a mahāyānistic and a hīnayānistic faction."

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A lot of what is standardly written and supposed about the "Hīnayāna" and "Mahāyāna" contrast stems from likely confusions of the sort indicated by Bechert. In this Volume we have not attempted to wield a strong editorial pen over references to Buddhist "schools" and especially over references to these two supposed great traditions within Buddhism. In this Introduction, at any rate, we shall try to avoid making those distinctions determinative except where we are actually reporting textual references.

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The question of "schools" also has implications concerning the proper way to relate the positions of those whose works are covered in the present Volume. The "traditional" story views these works as representing differing accounts of reality that, it is implied, stood against each other as starkly alternative interpretations of the Buddha's words. This is the basis for the view, exemplified in Bechert's passage just quoted, that there are essentially four philosophical schools of Buddhism, viz., Sarvāstivāda, Sautrāntika, Yogācāra and Madhyamaka, and that they constitute the main alternative interpretations. This "traditional" story appears to have perhaps been inherited from the theories of Tibetan interpreters of Buddhism, and it certainly received its most influential authority in recent times from Th. Stcherbatsky's account, which was disseminated in English in the early 20th century before more thorough readings of the many texts relating to the question were available.

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The position that will be taken in the present Volume is that there are not just four schools of Buddhism, and indeed that the views associated with these four schools are not necessarily to be viewed as rival alternatives. The relation between Buddhist philosophers' ideas is more complex than that. While it is true that one finds occasional explicit attacks by one Buddhist philosopher against things said by other Buddhist philosophers, such passages are rather infrequent before the time of Bhavya in the latter part of the sixth century. Not that Buddhism is entirely free from intraBuddhistic squabbling. In particular it is clear that later Buddhists, who arrived at the ideal of the Bodhisattva as an even loftier aim than the mere natural final demise of an arhat, did not avoid using the terms that characterize the older understanding--terms such as Hinayāna or pratyekabuddha. The contrast between the two ideals--of Buddha vs. Bodhisattva--is, however, a separable question from that of properly understanding Buddhist philosophical theses. After all, a Bodhisattva will eventually be a Buddha, and the aim of gaining enlightenment and eventual release from rebirths remains a common and undisputed feature for all Indian Buddhism.

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A broad overview of the period this Volume covers may well pick out several themes of special importance. One is, as said above, the development of further comprehensive surveys of Abhidharmika notions, not only by Buddhaghosa and Buddhadatta in the fifth century, but also notably by Vimalamitra and Yaśomitra toward the end of the sixth. A second development, of overreaching import for the subsequent centuries of Buddhist thought in India, is to be found especially in the work of Dignāga, who for the first time and almost single-handedly provided Buddhism with a thorough, detailed, and analytic epistemology, logical theory and theory of language. A third noteworthy development must

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surely be the installation of the great Universities of Nālandā and Valabhī, where most of the figures whose writings make up Buddhist philosophical literature in the latter part of the sixth century taught, and several of whom occupied administrative positions there. A fourth aspect of the period here under review comprises the interpretations of Nāgārjuna's Mādhyamika methods provided by Buddhapālita and Bhāvaviveka (or, as we shall refer to him for brevity's sake, Bhavya). Some would say that another theme must be found in the development of Yogācāra thought, though in the period under study here only the commentaries of Sthiramati on Vasubandhu's Yogācāra works constitute clear contributions to Yogācāra literature. Whether Dignāga's or Bhavya's works are to be counted as Yogācāra is a debatable matter. We shall refer to Dignāga's position simply as that of the "Buddhist Logicians". And if one looks to eventual developments in Buddhism outside of India one will have to count the tradition stemming from the Ratnagotravibhāga and its commentaries as still a sixth feature of importance in the period here covered.

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From another, less "academic" point of view, the most important contribution of our period is the vastly increased emphasis on the notion of a Bodhisattva. As a conception of what one should aim to be in life, it increasingly appears that this Bodhisattva ideal comes to supplement that of the liberated Buddha as a state which is capable of being realized in a thinkable amount of time, and which can appeal to the humanitarian sentiments of the populace rather than the austere, otherworldly aim of complete release from the cycle of rebirths.

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Among the themes or topics listed in the last two paragraphs, five concern specific aspects of Buddhist philosophical thought and will be dealt with later in separate sections in this Introduction. Concerning the rise of the Universities, however, it seems best to turn to that now. Fortunately, there is a monograph, originally an M. A. thesis, by H. D. Sankalia which reviews in detail what is said about Nālandā (and some stray information about Valabhī) published in book form in 1934 and reprinted in 1972. While the account Sankalia gives is somewhat dated now, since there seems to be little else to go on we shall follow his lead.

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Nālandā, in Magadha, was very early associated with Buddhism, and is indeed referred to in canonical tales about the Buddha's lifetime. He is said to have visited there many times with Ananda, and Tāranātha says it was the birthplace of the monk, Śāriputta, and that King Aśoka erected a great Buddhist temple there. Tāranātha also claims that Nāgārjuna and Aryadeva (see Volume Seven of this Encyclopedia) "took interest in the educational institutions of the place". Fa-hsien mentions Nālandā (though not by name: Sankalia argues he did not visit it), and Hsüan-tsang later on confirms that it was located seven miles from Rājagṛha, not far from modern Patna in Bihar state. Both I-tsing and Hsuan-tsang agree that a temple there was built by a "akrāditya" who, Sankalia argues, was in fact Kumāragupta I, the Gupta king coins and other evidence of whom are to be found still in the region. Kumāragupta flourished in 415-455, and was followed by the subsequent Gupta monarchs in supporting the building of classrooms and living places for the monks/students, culminating in Harṣavardhana of Kanauj at the close of the sixth century, who built a brass *vihāra* there. Sankalia concludes "that there were at least six (or possibly seven) colleges at Nālandā", each with a *vihāra* built by one or another of the Gupta emperors down to Hama. It also had "a grand library". At Nālandā the study of the Vedas and Upaniṣads, along with Sāmkhya, Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika and Buddhist works was carried on, though perhaps only by advanced students.

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If the dates Sankalia argues for are right, then, Nālandā was an active center of instruction and learning at least by the middle of the fifth century. Although the dating of Buddhist authors is a chancy (and much argued) business, there are traditions associating Asaṅga and Vasubandhu, as well as Dignāga, with Nālandā. Several other authors of works summarized in this Volume appear to have been teachers at, and in several cases the Presidents of, the University. They include Gunamati, Paramārtha, and Sthiramati. Sthiramati is known to have eventually abandoned Nālandā in favor of Valabhi.

Chapter Two: Abhidharma

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The process leading to enlightenment and *nirvāṇa* receives extensive treatment by many of the authors surveyed in the following pages. The overall process, however, remains essentially unchanged from its formulation in earlier Buddhist literature, e.g., in Vasubandhu's *Abhidharmakośa*, a work which may have been composed only a little before the period surveyed in this Volume. After committing himself to the life of a seeker, a person appeals to a teacher, a "good friend" (*kalyāṇamitra*), for help in initiating meditation designed to eliminate the hindrances (sensual desire, ill-will, sloth and torpor, restlessness and worry, and doubt). By adopting vows to follow a moral way of living, by showing disinterest in attractive objects and neutrality toward unattractive ones, by developing mindfulness and discernment in the deportment of his life, he prepares himself for the practice of meditation.

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Following again his teacher's advice, the seeker at this point begins practicing entering meditation either with the aim of suppressing the five hindrances fully one by one (the gradual path, or path of serenity (*śuddhi*) or by reflecting analytically on the causes and conditions of those hindrances and thus developing insight and calm (the path known as *vipassanā* in Pāli).

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Although the requisites for enlightenment can thus briefly be described as abandonment of the five hindrances, what Abhidharma path-philosophy is largely concerned with is the advancement through several stages (basically four) of meditative concentration, each of which can be understood as the abandoning of certain factors blocking one's way together with the attainment of other factors constituting that stage's attainment. (It has to be kept in mind, in reading these texts, that the context of these discussions, and their terminology, is technical in the sense of referring to quite private experiences whose precise nature can only be understood by attaining the requisite state of meditation. Translation of technical terminology, although in many cases standard, is thus nonetheless not necessarily particularly helpful to the nonpractitioner in understanding the stage's nature, at least in the sense of the mental state experienced therein.)

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In descriptions of beginning meditation we are first confronted with 1. AUTHOR UNKNOWN, *Sarvadharmapravṛttinirdeśa* (351) Translated by Kumārajīva in 401.

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2. NAGARJUNA, *Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśaśāstra* (ca. 354) This is a commentary on the *Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā-prajñāpāramitāsūtra*, #54 of our Volume VIII. We refer to this commentary in what follows as *Upadeśa*. The *Upadeśa* was translated by Kumārajīva around 404, and constitutes Taisho 1509. Its Chinese title is *Ta tche tou louen*. It is ascribed to Nāgārjuna as early as 597 in *Li tai san pao ki*, the catalogue of the Tripitaka compiled in 597 by Fei tch'ang fang. As we have noted before many works are ascribed to Nāgārjuna, and we have tried to guess the approximate age of them (see Volume VIII under the various Nāgārjunas for more details on such works). That this is not a work of Ur-Nāgārjuna, the author of *Madhyamakakārikā*, is suggested by several points summarized by Lewis Lancaster.

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Etienne Lamotte has translated the first part of the *Upadeśa*, which consists of fifty-two chapters and constitutes an integral Indian text. The second part, in eighty-nine chapters, is not summarized here. One chapter of the second part is translated into French at the end of Lamotte's translation (cf. Volume 5, pp. 2374-2445). Von Rospatt, *The Buddhist Doctrine of Momentariness* (Stuttgart 1995) translates a number of passages; cf. p. 281 for the list.

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Kumārajīva was born in 343-344 in Cutch (Northwest India); he went to China in 401-402 at age 58 and remained there until his death, and is renowned as a great teacher of famous Chinese scholars such as Seng-chao, Tao-sthena, and Seng-jui; he was a friend of the famous Buddhist scholar Hui-yiian. He translated many Buddhist *sūtras* such as the *Vimalakīrtinirdeśa*, *Saddharmapuṇḍarīka*, *Vajracchedikā*, *Aṣṭasāhasrikā* and *Śūraṅgamasamādhi*, and also translated some philosophical texts, for example, Harivarman's *Tattvasiddhi*.

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Part One of the *Upadeśa* is translated into French by Lamotte in five volumes published between 1949 and 1980. We indicate this French

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Kumārajīva translated this work in 401 in the "3d year of Hung Shih, Later Chin dynasty (A.D.401) in Hsiao-yao Garden, Ch'ang-an" (Lancaster, p. 72). K. 168 = T.1650 = N. 164 = Bagchi's #30 on p. 192. On Kumārajīva's remarkable life cf. Bagchi, pp. 178-185.

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volumes published between 1949 and 1980. We indicate this French translation in the following summary by "F". K. Venkata Ramanan in 1966 published an English translation of selected passages rearranged topically. We have indicated these passages by "E". Venkataramanan's work also includes translations of a number of passages from the second part of the *Upadeśa*. When the text refers to itself we use the abbreviation "MPPS" for such self-reference. Numbering corresponds to that in use in F.

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I (F4-55) Question: Why did the Buddha preach the MPPS? Answer: 1.The Buddha in the *Tripitaka* preached the law of the Ājīvakas, but only in the MPPS does he speak to the Bodhisattva. 2 Besides, he enunciates the MPPS specifically for those cultivating the practice of concentration on the memory of the Buddha (*buddhānusmṛtisamādhi*). 3 provides a biography of the Buddha's life. 4-8 The MPPS is directed toward those who deny that the Buddha is omniscient; explain the Buddha's teachings to those able to understand it; refutes nay-sayers; and gives solace to those who accept his *dharma*; and is for the delight of his hearers, for whom it refutes heretics. 9 The Buddha is the doctor who cures the heretic's malady. 10 The MPPS shows the Buddha's (superhuman) body as inconceivable, immense. 11 summarizes the life of the Buddha again. 12 Some who desire to be saved seek pleasure or practise asceticism and lose the way to nirvana, for which the MPPS is a remedy. 13-15 The MPPS explains the difference in retribution between worship of the body of birth and of the body of the law; shows that the Bodhisattva does not regress; honors the *prajñāpāramitā*; and explains the triple vehicle. 16 Explanation of the highest teaching (*pāramārthika siddhānta*) from four points of view of (a) the ordinary person, (b) each individual, (c) providing antidotes; (d) the ultimate point of view.
(a) (E137-138) Real factors provide causes and conditions for existing things. A man consists of five aggregates, reborn according to karmic retribution. Good actions lead to rebirth as god or man; bad actions lead to the three lower destinies. The ordinary person is attached to the self. Which exists only from the mundane point of view, not as absolute truth. Objection: Only the absolute point of view should be taken as true,

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no other. Answer: Not precisely. The four points of view taken separately, being true Thusness, *dharmatā*, ultimate reality, do not exist from the mundane point of view but do as absolute truth. Likewise the person exists as a collection of aggregates, but not actually.
(b) (E139) In order to preach the *dharma* one must take an individual to be a seat of awareness, so that he may understand or fail to understand the *dharma*.
(c) (E139-140) Factors exist as antidotes, though not absolutely. Examples to show that a thing is a remedy or not depending on situation; e.g., the twelve causes and conditions. Objection: The Buddha said that the twelve causes and conditions were profound, difficult to understand. Then how can a confused (*mūḍha*) person be counselled to study them? Answer: A confused person has faulty views, but is capable of arriving at correct ones through consideration of the right teachings, such as dependent origination. Likewise, momentariness is a remedy for one who believes in continuity, but not as absolute truth. Why? Because conditioned factors cannot really have the three marks of birth, maintenance and destruction. If they did, they would all three have to be present at once, which is absurd. Furthermore, if momentariness were really true there could be no retribution for acts.
(d) (E72-73, 140-141) From the ultimate point of view all factors, all the subjects of discourse can neither be correctly maintained nor denied. This is recognized in the three stances reviewed in the *Arthavargīyasūtra*: the wise neither adheres to any belief nor intervenes in any scholarly quarrel; he does not espouse or deny any view, but examines it; he doubts anyone who claims to have found the truth. Question: But if all views are false, how can there be absolute truth? Answer: It is the path that transcends all linguistic expression, that terminates thinking; without support, it is both the denial and the true character of factors, without beginning or end, indestructibility, unalterability. 17 The Buddha preaches the MPPS so that great masters (whose names are provided) will have faith in the Buddhist law. 18-19 The Buddha preaches the law in two ways, one to fit the assumptions of his listeners, the other to convert them; or again, as topics of dispute and as undisputed. Of course, there are no actual topics of dispute, since factors are absolutely empty.

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20 In other sūtras the Buddha speaks of good, bad and neutral factors. Here he shows that factors are none of these. Elsewhere he addresses the foundations of mindfulness in terms of the understanding of the seeker, but here he teaches the pefection of wisdom.

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II (F56-79) (E83, 103-104, 131-133, 195-197, 200) Word by word explanation of the first sūtra of the Pañcaviṃśati.

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III (F80-114) Explanation of the sense of the first part of that sutra.

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IV (F115-161) (E147-148, 150) Names of the Buddha.

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V (F162-197) On the city called Rājagṛha.

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VI (F198-231) The great assembly of monks there, with recounting of who was in attendance, and explanation of names such as *sangha*, *arhat*, and that Ananda is not an *arhat* because of his vow.

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VII (F232-234) The Buddha is accompanied at the assembly by 500 nuns, 500 laymen and 500 laywomen.. Their status explained.

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VIII (F235-308) (E297-298, 3i2) Bodhisattvas explained. The distinction between those Bodhisattvas who are subject to regression and those that are not. How the Bodhisattva is viewed in the Abhidharma (viz., in the Vibhāṣa) and in the Mahāyāna. The 32 marks of a Bodhisattva explained.

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IX (F309-317) Explanation of the term "mahāsattva : it refers to Bodhisattvas who have taken a great vow and arrived at high status.

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X (F316-356) (E238, 246-247) Eighteen qualities of a Bodhisattva reviewed.

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XI (F357-390) (E93-96, 98-99, 100, 112, 179, 183-184, 205) Ten analogies to help understand how things said by the Buddha not to exist can nevertheless appear to us to exist: a magical creation, a mirage, the reflection of the moon in water, empty space, an echo, the city of the Gandharvas, a dream, a shadow, a reflection in a mirror, a magically appearing thing.

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XII (F391-402) Explanation of the ascription of "untrammelled awareness", "extreme patience" and "excelling in saving" to a Bodhisattva.

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XIII (F403-430) The various activities of Bodhisattvas. A list of twenty-two principal Bodhisattvas.

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XIV (F431-528) Further description of the variety of ways in which the Buddha assists beings toward liberation.

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XV (F529-616) (E20 I, 313) The ten Bodhisattvas. Why should there be more than one? In fact there are an infinite number inhabiting an infinite number of heavens, but they are all apparitions of the one

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Buddha. Doubting arguments refuted.

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XVI (F621-649) (EE169) The story of Śāriputra at the Giryagrasamāja festival. His conversion to Buddhism along with that of Maudgalyāyana. Review of all the aspects contemplated by the wise man, and all the factors which constitute the contents of their meditations: those objects which are sense-contents, the four truths, classified into groups of two, three, four, five and six.

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XVII (F650-657) (E128, 140, 169) "Prajñāpāramitā" explained.

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XVIII (F658-661) Eulogy of the virtues of giving.

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XIX (F662-691) Classification of kinds of gifts and how given.

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XX (F692-769) (E79-84, 219-224, 227-228, 230, 349) The virtue of giving and of propounding the dharma. The thing given does not exist, since there are no external objects.

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Refutation of the realist belief that external things exist. The realist argues that things really exist because they have names and because they have effects and are caused. The response is that we have names for both real and unreal things, so the fact of being named doesn't necessitate an actual thing named. Secondly, there are three kinds of things: relative existents, nominal existents, and real entities. Examples:

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Long and short are relative terms; things are not intrinsically long or short, but only in comparison with other things. Milk is a complex of four factors--color, smell, taste and touch: thus milk is not real in the way that the composing factors are real. Even color, smell and touch are merely names for what are ultimately composites of atoms; though they are "real" in contrast to other things, they are not so in contrast to atoms.

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Atomist: But the atoms at least exist! They are not composite; they are ultimately small; they have no parts.

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Refutation of the atomist: The "ultimately small" doesn't exist, being merely a way of speaking. "Large" and "small" being relative notions, nothing is intrinsically large or small. If there could be an atom, it would have to have spatial divisions; otherwise it couldn't be a component of a larger thing.

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Moreover, for those who believe in emptiness matter is a function of awareness (cittānuparivartin). Thus one can meditatively view a thing as earth, water, fire or air, as blue or yellow or absolutely empty, just as one can see the same woman as attractive or repulsive depending on how she is analyzed, or see her as empty. And since these things are known as empty they are seen as nonexistent

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The giver too is nonexistent, being a complex of causes and conditions. All distinctions are nominal only. This includes the self.

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But the believer in a self argues that a self must exist, since otherwise (1) we wouldn't have the idea of me and you as different; (2) we wouldn't find things differing in color, etc.; and (3) there would be no difference between the me and you with respect to our karmic residues and so frustration could not occur and liberation is irrelevant. Answers to (1) include the following: (a) if I only know myself as different from you, how do I know you without already knowing myself? Your reasoning is circular. (b) If the person is a composite of the five aggregates, since those five are born from causes and conditions and so empty, the person is empty too, and only supposed to exist by the influence of karmic traces. Answer to (2): it is the visual consciousness that grasps the difference between the colors of things, so the self is unnecessary.

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Answers to (3). (1) The self plays no necessary role in the causal account of karmic bondage and of liberation from it. (2) It is the psychophysical complex that is referred to in ordinary language when a "person (pudgala) is spoken of, so the self has nominal existence only and is not ultimately real.

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The six perfections related to giving.

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XXI (F770-781) (E106) Morality defined and analyzed.

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XXII (F782-852) Part One deals with the five precepts against killing, stealing, sexual perversion, lying and drinking. Part Two concerns the moral behavior of laymen and laywomen, seekers and monks.

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XXIII (F853-864) Moral virtue.

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XXIV (F865-901) (E280) Patience defined and analyzed.

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XXV (F902-926) (E90-91, 93, 107-108, 145, 211, 215-216) Dharmic patience (dharma-kṣānti) occurs in the face of extreme provocations such as adulation, flattery, violence and luxury.

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XXVI (F927-945) Energy defined and analyzed.

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XXVII (F946-984) Energy's virtues

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XXVIII (F985-1057) Meditation is necessary for the Buddhist aspirant. Explanation of the procedures to be followed in learning to meditate properly: elimination of sensual desires; overcoming various obstacles.

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XXIX (F1058-1065) (E286-287) Wisdom's virtues.

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XXX (F1066-1113) (E73, 142, 144-146, 212-213, 287) The knowledge appropriate to seekers, adepts and those who are neither, to self-enlightened ones, to Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, and to heretics. The literature of Buddhism is divided into three: Piṭaka, that is, the Buddha's

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teachings themselves; the Abhidharma; and the teaching of the emptiness of persons and of factors. A Bodhisattva knows how factors are identical and how they differ.

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XXXI (F1121-1207) The thirty-seven allies of enlightenment are reviewed and analyzed from the points of view of Abhidharma and Mahāyāna.

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Question: Since the allies of enlightenment belong to the path of seekers and self-enlightened, evhy are they discussed here under the path of the Bodhisattva?

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Answer: The Bodhisattva must follow all the paths. In fact it isn't anywhere said that the allies of enlightenment are for seeker and self-enlightened alone.

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Objection: But since the thirty-seven allies are only present for the Bodhisattva at the penultimate stage of his path, after which counselling him to accomplish the perfections and great compassion has no point, one can readily infer that the allies of enlightenment are not meant for Bodhisattvas.

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Answer: Since the Bodhisattva spends a long time in saṃsāra it is necessary for him to understand the true way and the false way, the world and liberation. Taking a great vow, he promises to practice the perfections. It is because he has not yet practiced them that he is not immediately liberated. In the Abhidharma it is (wrongly) taught that saṃsāra and nirvāṇa are different, but in the Mahāyāna it is (rightly) understood that the are the same, namely emptiness (Madhyamakakārikā XXV. 19-20 is quoted).

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The roots of the thirty-seven allies of enlightenment are ten: faith, morality, thought, energy, memory/mindfulness, concentration, wisdom, tranquility, joy, equanimity.

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The seven groups comprising the thirty-seven allies of enlightenment are analyzed successively. These seven are: four establishments of mindfulness, four right efforts, four supernatural powers, five faculties, five powers, seven aspects of enlightenment, eight members of the path.

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XXXII (F1209-1238; E190, 233, 294) Three concentrations on emptiness, signlessness, aimlessness are analyzed from the standpoint of Abhidharma and Mahāyāna. The four meditative levels are classified in Abhidharma into two basic sorts: those of worldly purity and those of transcendent purity.

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