Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c16: 8. Chalcolithic Cultures of Peninsular India (2000-900 BC)

Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c16

Language: English

8. Chalcolithic Cultures of Peninsular India (2000-900 BC)

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In this chapter our main topic of discussion will be the late Chalcolithic Cultures of India in the area extending between the Central India, Maharasthra and the Deccan. After the Harappans, we find here the emergence of at least three chalcolithic cultures which covered a period of more than thousand years. These three cultures had their typical pottery and other material remains. After a first-hand study of these sites it is generally observed that these cultures were well-developed and they had good internal connections among them, and also with other contemporary cultures of India. Not only this, to some extent the Harappan influence has also been noticed here.

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To study about these cultures, we will mainly follow Agarwal and Chakrabarti (1979:375) who have categorised these cultures in three broad groups (with sub-divisions among them) according to their chronology. These are Kayatha Culture (2000-1800 BC), Malwa Culture (1700-1400 BC) and Jorwe Culture (1400-900 BC). Under these headings, there are few sites which we would comment upon in some detail.

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Towards the end of this chapter we would also mention the chalcolithic traditions in the Deccan which arose in between the neolithic and the iron-using megalithic phases.

Kayatha Culture

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Kayatha, about 16 miles to the east of Ujjain, is the ancient Kapithaka, and the birth place of Varāhamihira. It is situated on the right bank of the river Choti Kali Sind, a tributary of the Chambal, which is itself a tributary of the Yamunā.

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Kayatha, ancient Kapithaka, was excavated by Wakankar in 1965-66. Later it was enlarged with the help of the Deccan College in 1968. As a result of three excavations, a fivefold culture sequence has been discovered. Not only this sequence is in a sense unique for understanding the various cultural and political movements in Malwa, but the earliest culture in the sequence, designated as ‘the Kayatha Culture’ after the type site, is known for the first time. This culture was not confined to Kayatha alone. Wakankar’s explorations have brought to light some 40 sites, suggesting a wide distribution of this culture. (Sankalia, 1974: 422)

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It can be dated on the basis of radiocarbon determinations to 2000-1800 BC. But according to Allchins the first period is dated by radiocarbon to be between 2400-2100 BC (Masca Correction). This culture preceded the Banas Culture as in Ahar.

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Although due to the restricted excavation at Kayatha no complete house-plans have been recovered, but the yield of minor artefacts was quite rich; their tool outfit was chalcolithic in character for they used both copper and stone tools. The tools of copper were doubtless scarce, for the metal was not easily available in desired quantities. The people however had mastered the technology of copper as is evidenced by the find of two fine copper axes. These have a sharp cutting edge and a lenticular section: other edge has been hammered and then thickened obviously for making it convenient for hafting. But their most noteworthy feature is that these have been cast in mould in sharp contrast to the similar artefacts of the later chalcolithic cultures of Central India and the Deccan which were just hammered into the desired shape after heating the metal. The moulds for the Kayatha axes may have been of terracotta but the possibility of stone moulds cannot be ruled out. A fragmentary chisel is also reported from Kayatha.

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Equally interesting is the discovery of twenty-eight copper bangles kept in thin pots. The bangles are round and solid in section and have featureless terminals. So it may be presumed that the metal was not too scarce as is usually thought. According to Sankalia, this unusually large number of metallic artefacts suggests that the Kayathans were also affluent like the Harappans. About the availability of ore, it is not certain whether native copper was available in the river beds or whether it was extracted from chalcopyrites as was probably the case with the Chalcolithic cultures of the Deccan. However, it is certain that the people of the Kayatha culture had already mastered the copper technology before their arrival at the site. (Sankalia, 1974: 428; Dhavalikar In Chakrabarti and Agarwal, 1979: 232-33).

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Of the personal ornaments, reference has already been made to copper bangles. But more interesting are two exquisite necklaces, composed respectively of 173 and 160 beads of semi-precious stones (carnelian, agate) which were found deposited in two red painted buff ware pots; these recall to the mind similar ones from Mohenjo-Daro. The beads are mostly long barrels, short bicones and oblates and are made of carnelian and agate, while a faceted crystal is also present. Also noteworthy is the discovery of a pot containing over 40,000 micro-beads of steatite. These were all strung in thread, and a number of necklaces thus made were similar to those in which other necklaces and copper bangles were found.

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Associated with copper tools was a specialised blade/flake industry. The stone used is mostly siliceous such as the fine grained chalcedony, nodules of which are present in the surrounding areas. The tool types comprise of parallel-sided blades, pen-knife blades, points, lunates with blunted back etc. This industry is later found in all other chalcolithic cultures of Central India and the Deccan. The copper-using cultures in India starting with the Harappan have always used stone blades.

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All the objects described above such as the copper axes, bangles and necklaces were found in a small area, obviously a part of a house which however was not found. The circumstances of their discovery suggest that the occupants of the house had to leave the settlement all of a sudden: a calamity so sudden and unexpected and at the same time of unimaginable magnitude, that the only course left open to them was to flee for life. (Dhavalikar In Agarwal and Chakrabarty, 1979: 233)

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Among the terracotta objects, the most important finding is one of a large number of terracotta bulls. The excavator thinks that Kayatha is the only place which has yielded so far, such a large number and such a variety of these bulls in terracotta. The inhabitants might have been Śiva-worshippers. (Sankalia, 1974: 433).

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This Kayatha culture is characterized by three distinct ceramic industries which have no parallel in the country. Of these the principal ware is a fine sturdy pottery which is dressed with a thick brown slip. The ceramic bears some resemblance with the dark slipped ware from Sothi in Rajasthan, so far as its fabric and the surface treatment is concerned. Some shapes — the deep bowl with beaded rim and the globular jar — are common in both wares. Even some Harappan elements are discernible in the Kayatha ware.

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Another important ceramic of Kayatha Culture is the buff-painted ware. The vessels of this ware have a buff surface because of the wash of that colour over which painted patterns are executed in red pigment. For preparing this red colour, the potter seems to have used haematite, chunks of which have been found at the site and a few have come from the excavated trenches as well. The shapes in this ware are few, comprising of a small or medium sized loṭā with a flaring mouth. This loṭā becomes characteristic household vessel of the Malwa and all later Indian pottery. (Dhavalikar In Agarwal and Chakrabarty, 1979: 231; Sankalia, 1974: 428)

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Another characteristic ware of the Kayatha culture is combed ware. It is a red pottery but is decorated with incised patterns. Potteries, bearing similar incised patterns on the vessels, have been reported from Sothi in Rajasthan. One sherd exactly identical with the Kayatha combed ware has been noticed in Sothi pottery.

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About the origin of this culture, Dhavalikar thinks that the affinities between the Kayatha ceramic industries with that of the Pre-Harappan Sothi culture would suggest that it was a Pre-Harappan culture already developed and flourishing somewhere in the northern parts of the sub-continent. The people of this culture appear to have been pushed out from their original habitat by the urbanized Harappans and they therefore had of necessity to migrate to new lands. They may have thus reached the Chambal Valley in Malwa. Both Dhavalikar and Sankalia have raised the same question: did the immigrants name the river Kali Sind on whose banks they settled in reviving the memory of their motherland which was lost to them? Although this is a mere hypothesis, the superior pottery, the advanced metal technology, the sophisticated ornaments — all suggest that the culture is akin to the Pre-Harappan with some Harappan elements in it. Thus, it may be that the Kayatha people, who had settled earlier in the Bikaner desert region of Rajasthan, where Pre-Harappan settlements have been discovered, later migrated to Malwa region, across southeast Rajasthan. (Dhavalikar In Agarwal and Chakrabarty, 1979: 233-34)

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Though the culture continued to survive at Ahar for a long time, its influence or domination in Malwa now waned. It disappeared at Navdatoli after Phase I and so also at Kayatha and other sites. Whereas at Kayatha the culture was succeeded, after some interval, by another from eastern Rajasthan, it is not known what happened to this culture elsewhere in other sites.

Malwa Culture

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The succeeding farming culture that flourished in Malwa in Central India has been named as the Malwa Culture. The region was justly famous in the ancient past as it is now for its fertile soil. Its chequered history bears eloquent testimony to its prosperity because time and again battles were fought for the supremacy over Malwa. It is therefore in the fitness of things that it should have attracted the early farmers of Central India whose settlements have been subjected to scientific excavation at Navdatoli, Maheswar, Eran, Mandasore, Nāgdā, etc. Not only this, even in the main Jorwe sites also such as Prakash, Nevasa, Bahal, Nasik, Chandoli and Inamgaon, traces of this culture have been unearthed.

Navdatoli

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The Malwa Culture has been well defined by the large scale excavations at Navdatoli which is by far the most extensive settlements of this culture. The site is situated on the southern bank of Narmadā just on the opposite bank of Maheswar. The extensive chalcolithic occupation at Navdatoli is represented by four mounds. The excavations (1953-54, 1957-59) have revealed two main periods. The first chalcolithic phase is further divisible into four sub-phases I-IV. The later period represents early Iron Age. According to C-14 determination the initial occupation begins around 1600 BC or may be even slightly earlier and it continued up to 1300 BC, when the site was deserted only to be occupied later in the Kuṣāṇa period. (Dhavalikar In Agarwal, 1979: 236-37; Sankalia, 1971: 42)

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The stone objects from Navdatoli have been divided into six types or groups. These are ring stones, sling stones, hammer stones, hammer stone-anvils, grinding stones and querns. Apart from this among other stone objects there are 620 balls. The stone tools which are predominant are all made on blades and over 23,000 such tools have been reported. Pen knife, blunted backed, serrated and parallel side blades, trapezes and lunates were the main tool types. The material of which these blades have been made is almost invariably milky chalcedony and very rarely carnelian, agate, jasper and quartz. (Dhavalikar In Agarwal, 1979: 240; Sankalia, 1971: 323) It is evident that each household made its own tools for agriculture etc. The chalcolithic technology was not capable of agriculturally producing much from the black cotton soil. Broad alluvial stretches were chosen and stone implements were used till the advent of the iron age.

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The large scale excavation at Navdatoli yielded a rich harvest of beads totalling 2799. Twenty-one types of materials might be broadly grouped into six categories: semi-precious stones, metals, artificial materials, bone, shell and terracotta. Thus the different materials of beads found from Navdatoli are agate, amazonite, bone, carnelian, chalcedony, copper, coral, crystal, faience, glass, gold, jasper, lapis, opal, quartz, sand stone, regular shells, shell, sand- stone, steatite, terracotta, and red glazed terracotta. Thus it is observed that beads were concentrated mostly in the IInd and IIIrd phase of proto-historic occupation at Navdatoli, and secondly the steatite contributed 56 per cent, faience 13 per cent, terracotta 11 per cent and shell 8 per cent. Thus there is an overall dominance of non-stone material.

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The lapidaries of proto-historic Navdatoli excelled in the making of beads of faience and steatite. Tiny micro-beads of steatite were fashioned probably on a thread as in the workshops of Chanhu-Daro. The thread got burnt during firing. 95 per cent of the faience beads must have been dipped in liquid glazes before firing. The coating was either a white or a bluish glaze, the latter dominating. Shell beads were found in association with scores of waste pieces of the columella of shells.

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Among the semi-precious stones, agate forms 2 per cent, with carnelian and amazonite closely following. Beads of metal like gold and copper were represented by a few specimens. Navdatoli must have been not only a bead-making centre but also a centre of trade. Rajasthan possibly supplied copper, quartz and steatite; coral and amazonite possibly came from Gujarat, sandstone from Vindhyan range, lapis from Persia etc. Jasper, agate and carnelian were available locally. For bead-making, mostly banded agate of attractive colourful scheme were chosen. Sharp drills must have been used.

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Bead-making was practised up to the early historic level; in this period, a reasonable quantity of glass slag was recovered from which the beads came. The colour of the slag is identical with some of the finished beads and as such some of these may be waste pieces. (Sankalia, 1971: 351-70)

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A large number of terracotta objects were recovered from Navdatoli. The categories of objects common to different levels were discs, skin, rubbers, lamps, ear-studs, balls or marbles, stoppers, whorls, toys and figurines. In addition to this, terracotta rings, decorated pieces, cakes, and sharpeners were also found. (Sankalia, 1971: 373)

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Objects of three metals — copper, iron and lead were found. Those of iron belonged to the early historical period while lead entirely to proto-historic levels and copper mostly to the same. But tools of copper were also used albeit on a restricted scale for the simple reason that the metal was scarce. The copper objects comprised of tools, weapons and ornaments; those of lead were fragments, whereas those of iron comprised of tools and weapons and objects of household use.

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The copper objects, a large number of them in the Phase III of the proto-historic period, could be grouped under tools and weapons like celts, chisels, arrowheads and sword. The celts are flat, and have a convex cutting edge. One of them however is a shouldered celt. Some specimens have shallow groups of circles which were deliberately made. Copper was also used for ornamental purpose such as beads etc. and for light use like poker pointed rods, point-cum-engraver, fish-hook, nails and fragments. (Sankalia, 1971: 390-402)

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K.T.M. Hegde analysed an axe, a chisel and a bangle obtained from Navdatoli. There was no evidence of copper smelting, metallurgical furnace or slag in the area. Hegde suggested that some itinerant metal-working tribe had brought the metallic ingots from the Aravalli area and processed the end artefacts.

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Elemental analysis showed 91.6-93.2 per cent copper and 3.1-4.4 per cent tin. This amount of tin could not come as chance impurity, and deliberate alloying must have been done to improve casting property, hardness and malleability of the low-tin-bronze.

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In both the metallic artefacts as well as in a sample of Khetri (Rajasthan) ore, the following trace elements were detected: Pb, Ni, Co, Bi, Fe, Mn, Zn, Al, Co, Mo, V, Gd and As. On the other hand several elements found in the Khetri ore such as W, Mg, P, Si, Ca and Sb were not detected in the Navdatoli samples. Hegde’s conclusion that the source of the copper artefacts was from the Aravalli (Khetri) deposits cannot be unequivocally supported.

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The Navdatoli axe has a smooth surface finish, free from casting fins. This seems to be cast in a well-ventilated closed mould as revealed from the absence of porosity, cracks or cuprous oxide globules. There were small grey globules of lead in the alloy.

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The microstructure of the metal revealed equiaxial grains and twinning of the grains. The recrystallised grains prove that after casting, the axe was heated above the recrystallisation temperature, about 500°C. Twinning of the grains indicates that it was subjected to intermittent anneals. These thermal and mechanical treatments were given to the object to produce its smooth surface finish and bevell the cutting edge. Absence of strain lines in the microstructure of the butt end of the axe indicates that this portion of the axe was finally annealed. Although the blade end of this Navdatoli axe was not examined, Hegde showed that in a similar bronze axe from Somnath, the cutting edge was finally forged and work hardened while the body was left in an annealed condition.

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The study shows that the metallurgical knowledge of the smiths was advanced and better than that of the Aharian copper-smiths who did not alloy tin with copper, and thus could not produce bronze, and whose moulds were crude and unventillated. (Hegde In Sankalia, Deo and Ansari, 1971: 449-56) At Navdatoli, tin was alloyed up to 3 per cent and lead up to 2 per cent. No arsenical copper was produced.

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The pottery of the Malwa Culture is extremely rich in form and the painted ornament. According to Sankalia, among all the painted pottery found in India so far, that at Navdatoli has given the largest repertory of designs. The repertory has more than six hundred motifs. Mainly there are four main potteries of this site. The earliest is characterized by the white painted black- and red-ware belonging to the Ahar Culture of south-east Rajasthan. Next comes a black-on-red painted pottery and in the final phase of occupation a coarse red-ware occurs in association with the Lustrous Red Ware which is characteristic of the post-Harappan Culture of Gujarat. But during all these phases, the black-on-red painted pottery, i.e., Malwa ware occurs abundantly.

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This Malwa ware occurs at Malwa sites in great profusion, so much so that at Navdatoli, nearly three-fourths of the pottery yield is this ware. The fossil forms in the ware comprise a water vessel, the typical Indian *loṭā* channel spouted cups and pedestalled goblets. The excavator thinks that the channel spouted cups appear to have been copied from a metal prototype which must be very similar to that from the Khurdi copper hoard in Rajasthan. The drinking goblets or champagne glasses have turned up only from Navdatoli and not from any other site of Malwa Culture. Thus, on the basis of this evidence, Sankalia suggests a foreign (West Asian) contact or influence with this culture. However an indigenous development from the pinched lip to the channel spout through the short channel cannot be ruled out. The idea of a direct influence from Iran is not warranted and not suggested even by Sankalia.

Eran

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On the basis of C-14 determination, Eran, situated on the river bank of Bina, a tributary of Betwa river, has been suggested to be the earliest home of the black painted red ware or the black-on-red ware, known hitherto as the Malwa ware. The site is located 300 km north-east of Navdatoli and at Tripuri near Jabalpur on the Narmada river. The C-14 determination indicates that the Chalcolithic Culture at this site extended from c. 1700-1170 BC. (Allchins, 1983: 269)

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The Chalcolithic deposit here is said to be divisible into three phases: early, middle and late on the basis of pottery. While the black painted red, grey and white painted black- and red-wares occurred throughout the three phases, a ware with deep red slip and shining surface appeared in Phase II and the channel spouted vase appeared in Phase III.

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As the excavation was small and not of a horizontal nature, so the findings were not also large. The plan of houses at Eran has got some resemblance with that of Navdatoli and Inamgaon. But due to the lack of any detail report it became difficult to know about their daily belongings. How far this culture was developed and what type of minerals and metals they were habituated to use, is still an enigma to us. But on the basis of pottery and their shapes, we can venture to say that they had some connection with the Inamgaon and Navdatoli people.

Nāgdā

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Nāgdā on Chambal was another important settlement. Like Kayatha it has thick debris of the Chalcolithic period. The various pottery shapes and designs are typically ‘Malwa’. Nāgdā like Eran was fortified. According to Sankalia fuller details about this is generally available from the excavations at Navdatoli. (Sankalia, 1974: 434) The use of copper was limited but the chalcedony blade industry was fairly well established.

Prakash

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Prakash is situated on the Shahada Taluk of Dhulia district in Maharashtra state. The mound overlooks the confluence of the rivers Tapti and Gomai. (Thapar, 1964-65)

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The excavation has revealed the following cultural sequence. Period I (Chalcolithic) 1700-1300 with sub-period IA-1700-1500 BC and IB 1500-1300 BC Period II (Early Iron Age) c. 600-100 BC, Period III (Early Historical) middle of the second century BC to the end of sixth century AD and Period IV (Historical) about the end of sixth century AD to the eleventh century AD. At present, our period of interest lies on the Period I and its sub-divisions.

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The pottery from Prakash falls into four major groups, each of which forms a diagnostic trait in the cultural assemblage of the period to which it belongs. Of these the first two are of special interest. The six principal industries are pale grey ware with a burnished surface, black painted red pottery of the Malwa ware, black painted red pottery of Jorwe ware, the Lustrous red ware, other decorated ware, showing distinctive incised and applied designs of varying complexity, and coarse wares, largely burnished varying from drab-grey to light brown in colour. All of these wares show similarities with the pottery of the comparable period found at some of the excavated sites in Central and Western India. A solitary sherd of the white painted black and red ware of the Ahar fabric is particularly noteworthy for a possible inter-relationship. Even a small influence from Rangpur in Saurashtra or from some intermediary site is suggested by a small quantity of Lustrous Red Ware, which is also a matter of importance.

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The excavation yielded a good number of stone objects including artefacts.

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The raw material employed for their manufacture comprised of chalcedony, agate, carnelian, rock crystal, quartz and jasper. The stone objects of interest are stone balls, saddle querns, mullers, etc.

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Though the excavation was limited in its strength, still it yielded a total of one hundred and thirtythree beads including sixteen from Period I and forty-seven from Period II. The excavator thinks that the presence of a few unfinished specimens in various stages however, indicates that the beads were manufactured locally. The materials used for these beads include: semi-precious stones like quartz, rock crystal, carnelian, agate and jasper, coral, shell, glass, paste, bone and terracotta quartz; agate and jasper seem to have been sparingly employed. Amongst the remaining materials, terracotta, glass and shell show a fairly sizeable percentage.

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Carnelian accounts for the largest number of beads (28% of total) and is found in all the periods starting from I or chalcolithic. In Phase I, the inhabitants were essentially farmers using stone tools, blades and microliths and very little copper or bronze. However they had leisure for arts and workmanship for producing beads of carnelian, coral, paste, shell (amulets) and bone styluses.

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Rock crystal and quartz were used more frequently in the Phase II or Early Iron Age in this site. Glass and terracotta beads were used more in Phase IV. (Thapar, 1964-65: 10-12, 109-11)

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In the field of ornaments, mention may be made of total number of 248 bangle-fragments, mostly of shell and glass which were recovered from the excavation. Other materials represented are copper and iron, though very few in number. Of the forty-five glass bangles recovered from the excavation; two came from Period II, and four from Period III. The occurrence of monochrome bangles in the earliest levels of Period II is noteworthy. Shell bangles totalling 198 in number were distributed over all the periods, which indicates its popularity in the society. The occurrence of shell bangles in Chalcolithic assemblage is also attested at Navdatoli, Nevasa and Nagda, but curiously enough is not observed at the southern Deccan sites of Brahmagiri and Maski; probably the Gujarat tradition did not permeate down deep south.

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Among the miscellaneous objects of bone, ivory and semi-precious stone, finds included bone stylus, awls or borers variously from Period I, II, III. A unique perfume casket of bone from Period II, an ivory comb, a carnelian stick with a square section from Period II deserve mention. The well-known pully-shaped ear-ornaments made of jasper, glass or crystal, black jasper, accounted for as many as five out of total yield of eight, the remaining three being one each of red jasper, crystal and glass.

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Copper Objects in Prakash

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Phase I in Prakash ending in 1300 BC is nominally called ‘Chalcolithic’ in view of the find of a solitary shapeless bit of copper. The use of metal at Prakash was noticeable only six centuries later (Phase II) when use of copper and its alloys and of iron objects proceeded together. During this stage (600 BC onwards), we find also objects of lead, bronze, brass and leaded bronze and brass.

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None of the copper/copper alloys objects were cast. The presence of sulphur/sulphide in certain objects showed that smelting of copper sulphide minerals was imperfect. Analysis of certain objects are provided in the Table 8.1.

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Item No. 5 is a bangle made of leaded brass. Lead particles have been microscopically observed to be uniformly distributed. Unevenly distributed phases are probably oxides of Fe and Al. There is the evidence of cold-working after re-crystallisation. For making such bangles, the metal may have been first formed into a plate, cut into a strip, and then given finishing operations to obtain the final shape. Item No. 6 is a bangle of leaded bronze which is in stressed condition although it has been re-crystallised prior to this. Items 7-9 are bells made of bronze. Existence of sulphur and Cu₂O and other oxides indicates that smelting had not been perfect. Item no. 11 is a coil-like ring made of brass. There is a random distribution of very fine particles which may be oxide grains, or minute quantity of lead. The metal has undergone permanent deformation but is now in the stress-free condition. It might have been annealed after hot or cold working.

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The fact that none of the metals — Sn, Pb or Zn — bear any constant weight ratio with respect to Cu proves that the high figures were on account of deliberate alloying of reasonable pure copper (vide object no. 2) with metallic samples of Sn, Pb and Zn. At least four different samples, enriched with four metallic elements, must have been used for the alloying process. It is quite likely that Pb and Zn were produced as separate metals in some smelter area such Zawar, Rajasthan. Item No. 5 contains very high (nearly 26) percentage of zinc and indicates conscious production and use of zinc in the pre-Christian era.

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From Period III in Prakash, two lead objects were obtained. These were basically the same type, the spool of coiled strip, possibly used for distending the ear-lobe. For the preparation of the spool, the strip was probably hammered to a chanelled section and closely wound.

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On the basis of a very careful record of pottery, Period I at Prakash is divided into IA and IB, and it may be said that the first inhabitants of Prakash were a people from Malwa. The assemblage of pots and pans, various types of narrow high-necked water pots which are witnessed at Prakash show resemblance with those of Navdatoli. The coarse sturdy red ware is similarly decorated with incised and applique figures, which is a characteristic feature of Navdatoli.

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Table 8.1

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Chemical and Metallurgical Analysis of Some Copper Objects from Prakash (600 BC)

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| Object No. | Description | Period | Chemical analysis per cent component | Metallographic observation |
| 1. | antimony-rod | II | Cu 95.1, Pb 2.2 | Twinned recrystallised grains; random distribution of lead particles |
| 2. | antimony-rod | III | Cu 98.5 | |
| 3. | antimony-rod | IV | Cu 95.6, Sn 1.5, Pb 1.2 | |
| 4. | bangle | III | Cu 63.5, Zn 25.9, Pb 8.3 oxide * 1.2 | Single phase of brass, distributed lead particles, evidence of cold-working after recrystallisation |
| 5. | bangle | II | Cu 85.1, Sn 9.1, Pb 1.5 | Single phase; twinning strain lines and bent twins showing permanent deformation after recrystallisation |
| 6. | bell | II/III | Cu 61.3, Sn 19.4, Pb 5.9 oxide * 2.7, S 0.3 | |
| 7. | bell | III | Cu 66.1, Sn 20.2, Pb 3.5 | |
| 8. | bell | III | Cu 58.9, Sn 19.0, oxide 1.3, S 0.2 | |
| 9. | ring (coil) | III | Cu 77.9, Zn 17.8, oxide 1.7 | Even distribution of very fine inclusions |
| 10. | Channel tube | II | Cu 66.6, Sn 4.2, oxide 6.3, S 1.2 | |

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*Oxide mainly SiO₂, Fe₂O₃ and Al₂O₃

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It is found that towards the close or middle phase of Period I at Prakash, arrived the Jorwe people with their characteristic pottery, and chronologically this Jorwe intrusion may be placed around c. 1500-1300 BC. Sankalia thinks that it is conceivable that the movement of people and cultural influence was gradual by stages, and this movement ultimately grasped the whole site.

Some General Observations on Malwa Culture

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We have discussed the principal sites of Malwa culture viz., Navdatoli and Prakash. There are distinct evidences of few more sites of this type in Maharashtra. Let us make some general observations about those sites including the Malwa itself.

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Now it is widely accepted that around 1600 BC, the Malwa Culture people, after establishing themselves in the Narmadā Valley, began to spread out from their habitat in Central India. After getting no opening in the north because of the Vindhyan barrier they began to move southwards in the northern Deccan, where they flourished for two to three centuries. Their occupations at Prakash, Dāimābād and Inamgaon were quite extensive, whereas in the Pravara-Godāvarī and Bhima Valleys their habitations were very thinly spread.

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That the people of Malwa Culture lived in large rectangular houses is clear from the Inamgaon evidence. They also built pit houses. This Malwa Culture is characterised by a painted ceramic which is rather thick in section and has a coarse, gritty fabric. It is wheel-turned and is treated with a thick orange to pink slip, over which the painted ornament is executed in dark brown or black. Although the Malwa ware, so characteristic of the Central Indian sites, is present in the Deccan, we find that its fabric in the Deccan is somewhat different.

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Generally the tools were of stone and copper. A majority of the tools are of stone of silicious variety such as chalcedony and agate and are made on blade flake. Copper was used for making tools such as knives, chisels, fish-hooks, axes etc. and also for making ornament like bangles and beads. Two copper objects, the knife blade and the pin from Daimabad need a special mention. The former has parallels from Harappan sites whereas the latter may be compared with a Harappan specimen from Chanhu-Daro. The mixed economy of the Chalcolithic farmers of the Malwa Culture was based on farming, hunting and fishing.

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Evidence from Daimabad and Inamgaon throws a welcome light on the religious beliefs of the Malwa people. The evidence is furnished by the recent discovery of a copper bronze hoard from Daimabad which consists of a bull chariot driven by a man, an elephant, a rhino and a buffalo. Dhavalikar thinks that all the objects from the hoard were probably used in some ritual procession and the man driving the chariot may be identified as Paśupati. At first there was a controversy regarding these bronze objects, the main point being whether these materials were from Late-Harappan level or later than that. Dhavalikar and several other archaeologists from Deccan College, have confirmed that these were from Late-Harappan level. The chemical composition also confirms this view; there is the presence of arsenic in those objects as in Harappan bronze objects. The Malwa people in the Deccan had faith in life after death as is testified to by their burials at Dāimābād and Ināmgāon. At Ināmgāon two twin burials of children were exposed. One of them was in a pit dwelling. This tradition was adopted from the neighbouring Jorwe Culture. (Agarwal and Chakrabarti, 1979: 248-50)

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It is generally admitted that the authors of the Kayatha Culture were the pioneering colonizers of Central India; their culture does not seem to have evolved on the soil of Malwa but had been earlier developed elsewhere. Their affinities with the Pre-Harappan Culture of Rajasthan has been suggested; the people of the Ahar Culture had settled at Kayatha and this indicates the link between the cultures of Kayatha and the Banas Valley in southeast Rajasthan.

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The painted pottery of the Malwa Culture can be said to be derived from the red painted buff ware of the Kayatha Culture and the same holds good so far as the technology of copper and the specialized blade-flake industry are concerned.

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Dhavalikar suggests that by the middle of the second millennium BC some influences from Western Asia began to infiltrate through the north-western regions of the sub-continent. It is probably these people who introduced the West Asian elements in the Malwa Culture and it was only by assimilating such influences that the culture was enriched. However, he admits that the pottery cultures of Central and Western India and the Deccan owe a great deal to the Harappans, at least for their painted black-on-red pottery. Chakrabarti however strongly disagrees with the views of Sankalia and Dhavalikar. The suggested West Asiatic analogies ‘are too general to be of any use in a valid and meaningful comparison’. (Chakrabarti, 1977: 25; Agarwal, 1984: 243-44)

Jorwe Culture

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The Jorwe Culture flourished in the semi-arid zone of the Deccan plateau. The cradle of this culture was Pravara-Godāvari Valley from where they spread towards the north in the Tapti Valley and towards the south in the Bhima Valley. Thus, their inhabitations are found on the bank of a major river or its tributary. The distributional pattern of the Jorwe settlements indicate that there were three main groups of concentration in the Tapti, Godāvari and the Bhima Valley, and each of these regions had at least one representative large site. Thus we have Prakash in the Tapti Valley, Daimabad in the Godāvarī Valley and Inamgaon in the Bhima Valley. Apart from this, a large number of Jorwe sites have been brought to light through excavation, i.e., Nevasa, Bahal, Nasik, Chandoli, Songaon and Ināmgāon which are all located in Maharashtra. The Jorwe painted pottery found at Navdatoli in Central India and as far down south as T. Nasirpur near Mysore in Karnataka indicates the cultural contact between the Jorwe people with the Malwa people in the north and the neolithic farmers in the south. (Agarwal and Chakrabarti, 1979: 251-52)

Jorwe

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The site Jorwe is a small village on the north or the left bank of the Pravara river. It is about 5 miles due east of Sangamner which is a Taluk place of some importance in Ahmadnagar district.

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The affinity of Jorwe painted pottery with Nasik and Nevasa ware suggests that the Jorwe Culture may be at least contemporary with these two sites. Its microlith industry exhibits features which are again identical with those at Navdatoli. Here too the industry belongs definitely to a proto-historic period and is associated with a richer painted pottery complex and a little copper or bronze. It would therefore not be unjustified if the Jorwe Culture is assigned provisionally to a copper or Early Bronze period. (Sankalia and Deo, 1955: 150)

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Six flat celts of low grade bronze have been discovered in a painted pot at Jorwe. All the axes were covered with a fine, thin, green patina. Microscopic examination and chemical analysis of this piece showed that the axe was cast from molten metal. It has 1.78 per cent of tin and 98.04 per cent of copper. Therefore it is concluded that the axe is low grade alloy of bronze. Though the outside surface is slightly oxidized and has a thin greenish patina, the freshly cut surface is reddish yellow. The Jorwe axes have thickness comparable to that of the Indus Valley samples. The copper bangle found is made of pure copper and ring-like in shape. It is of single type nearly round with overlapping ends, made out of a solid cylindrical rod 12 mm in diameter and 32.2 mm long. (Sankalia and Deo, 1955: 157-60)

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Only one bead was found. It is of smoky chalcedony of long tubular shape with the outer surface well-polished, length 21 mm, diameter 5 mm.

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The main bulk of the pottery collection from Jorwe consists of sherds — mostly shoulder pieces — too fragmentary to indicate the shape that were employed in the various classes of the Jorwe ware. Barring a few very large storage jars, very small pots and lamps and dishes which are hand-made, the pottery is wheel-made. An examination of the core colours revealed that at least three different kinds of clay were used — red brown, grey and black which — under conditions of thorough oxidization burnt red. These clays appear to be alluvial and have a natural admixture of fine sand and therefore require no tempering material. Nearly all the pottery of Jorwe is made of local clay, its three kinds being available in abundance in the vicinity of Jorwe and in the middle and western parts of the northern half of the Ahmadnagar District. This tract of land lies in the valley of the Pravara. The soil along the banks of these rivers, particularly those of the Pravara, is extremely rich and clayey and resolves itself in three varieties: *kāli* or black, *tambat* or red and *barad* or grey, all noted for their more or less ferruginous character. In such favourable condition Jorwe appears to have developed as a centre of potters' craft in remote times. (Sankalia and Deo, 1955: 160-62)

Nevasa

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Jorwe and Nevasa would seem to be essentially one culture site. Both are situated on the Pravara, as were Daimabad and several others known from surface finds only. The sites of Nevasa and Jorwe still remain the type sites. The evidences about the pottery repertoire, lamps and terracottas as amplified in Chandoli, Songaon and Ināmgāon tell us about the settlement pattern as well as food habits of the people. At Nevasa the principal occupation was probably on the southern bank, overlooking the river. Excavation in 1959-60 have confirmed the existence of five phases. Evidence of big structure, huge storage jars have also been found. As at present we do not have the actual excavation report of Nevasa, so it is not possible for us to say much about the minerals and metals that have been revealed from there. But as Jorwe and Nevasa were twin sites of Jorwe Culture so, on the basis of Jorwe report we can fairly guess something about the cultures and minerals/metals of this site. Agarwal, on the basis of radio-carbon dates, thinks that the flourishing period of this culture seems to be 1300-1000 BC.

Nasik

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It is an ancient town, situated on both the banks of Godavari. This Nasik town is also the headquarters of the district of the same name in Maharashtra.

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Excavation here has mainly revealed four periods of occupation, among which Period I is Chalcolithic or Early Bronze Age, II is Early Historic Period, III is Roman Contact and IV is Early Muslim-Mughal-Maratha period. Now among these four phases, Period I is our point of interest which is dated 1500- Varieties of beads were found but the yield of beads at Nasik was not much. In all 160 beads were found in various phases of excavation. Out of these 53.1 per cent are made of terracotta. Next to it came crystal and then jasper. Other material and their numbers are agate-1, amethyst-1, blood stone-2, bone-8, carnelian-6, crystal-15, glass-7, gold 1, jasper-9, lapis lazuli-2, opal-3, quartz-8, shell-5, soapstone 1 and terracotta-85. The absence of unfinished beads or core lumps of different materials shows that Nasik was not a bead industry site at any time.

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The remarkable feature of the terracotta beads is the range of variety in the basically areca-nut shape. These beads are found over a wide stretch of time at various sites from proto-historic times at Mohenjo-Daro to the Marāṭhā period at Nasik. Probably nowhere else except at Kosam in U.P. such a minute differentiation in the areca-nut shape is found as at Nasik.

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Though carnelian and agate are found in the Deccan, the principal source is a village called Limodra near Ratanpura in the Rajpipla state of Gujarat from where the stones are sent for cutting and polishing to the lapidaries of Cambay. Cambay and Broach are well-known centres of bead industry since early historic times. So it is quite possibly that beads of carnelian, agate, jasper and blood-stone came to Nasik from Gujarat. This is further corroborated by the absence of unfinished beads or large cores of these stones at Nasik. The shapes of the carnelian beads of Nasik are common and the etched bead is exactly similar to one found at Taxila. In this context this is to be remembered that layers of Period II yielded 69.3 per cent of the total number of beads. (Sankalia and Deo, 1955: 86-93)

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Bangles found at Nasik were either of shell or of glass. Out of the fiftysix specimens, thirtyseven were of conch-shell and rest of glass. These bangles are of both varieties — plain and decorated. Out of the nineteen fragmentary glass bangle pieces, sixteen came from stratified layers. All these were recovered from the two top layers in all the trenches, and hence can be ascribed to Period IV. Though bangles were known in Period II, not a single piece of glass bangle was found in this period. A single fragment of a black glass ring was found, but it could be ascribed to Period III. Besides bangles of glass, thirtythree other objects of glass consisting of discs, pieces of highly disintegrated glass and fragments were found. Among these, nearly half of the glass objects belong to Period II and nearly half out of these to sub-period A of the same. One of the weathered glass object has been carefully examined; the sample assays about 80.99 per cent silica, the soda lime silicates having been more or less completely altered as a result of weathering. Part of the silica is now present as chalcedony and opal.

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Seven glass discs have also been recovered.

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A variety of terracotta objects was obtained from excavation at Nasik. These include skin-rubbers, toys, figures, stoppers, wheels, crucible, stūpas and tiles. Most of these belonged to Period II. Among all these things our point of interest is terracotta crucible. Four terracotta crucibles with a blackish glossy enamel over both the inner and the outer surface were found. Out of the four, two are smaller and intact, and the other two bigger but broken. One belongs to Period IIA, one to IIB and the other two to Periods II-IV.

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Besides a few coins, other objects of copper were Kohl sticks, a copper dish, a bangle, a ring and an unidentifiable object, probably a handle. The inhabitants of Nasik were not much accustomed with the use of copper during the advent of the iron age.

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Comparatively a large number of iron objects were recovered. The objects that have been recovered from here are of domestic and non-domestic use. The objects are arrowheads, caltrops, choppers, tang fragments, axe blade, drill, chisel, cup, rings, nails and indeterminate. Nearly ninety per cent of these came from the two phases of Period II and quite a large number were heavily encrusted. According to the excavator, objects like caltrops, arrowheads, choppers, spearheads, axe drill should normally indicate that the occupants were persons who were concerned either with the preparation of tools and weapons (as ironsmiths) or with fighting (as soldiers).

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Besides various types of shells, six objects made out of shell were recovered. About the bone objects, only a few were found and most of them were antimony rods. Only a single object of ivory was found and that is a dice. Steatite objects were also found; out of six, two are fragmentary.

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Very few coins were found. Out of eight from the excavation, three are blurred and of little value. Of the rest, three belongs to the early historic period and the rest to the late historic. In most of the cases the material used was copper, only in one exception it was lead.

Chandoli

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The village of Chandoli lies on the right bank of the river Ghod in the Poona district of the State of Maharashtra.

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In assigning Chandoli its due place in the sequence of the Chalcolithic, the ceramic evidences from Navdatoli in Central India and Nevasa and Dāimābād in the Deccan have to be considered. So far as the relative chronology is concerned, Chandoli may be taken to be later than the earlier phases of Navdatoli and possibly a little earlier than Nevasa. Thus on the basis of C-14 determination of Jorwe fabric and cream slipped ware of Navdatoli, the date of Chandoli might range between 1400 and 1600 BC or later. This was corroborated by the carbon fourteen date of Chandoli which falls near about 1300 BC. (Deo and Ansari, 1965: 24-25)

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The seventynine beads from Chandoli were made of ten materials, i.e., agate 12, carnelian 6, jasper 13, slatestone 2, steatite 1, shell 26, copper 9, glass 3 and terracotta 6. So it is to be noticed that faience, the most common material in vogue in the proto-historic horizons is conspicuous by its absence at Chandoli whereas steatite is represented by a single specimen. This may however appear strange as Chandoli is a part and parcel of the Deccan and Central Indian Chalcolithic, and in both these regions these are the most common bead materials.

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On the other hand, shell accounts for the maximum number of beads. The waste pieces of shells and shell beads in different stages of manufacture suggest that though shells were imported, beads were made locally. From the size and thickness of the beads it has been concluded that Chandoli managed to import sea shells from coastal regions and then process locally. So far as the semi-precious stones are concerned, the order of preference was banded agate, red jasper and carnelian. This dearth of ornaments was relieved by the find of the remains of a necklace of copper beads, nine in number, small barrel in shape and woven in a thread, the remains of which were visibly jutting out from a group of three beads of this necklace. The rest of the collection of the beads shows stereotype typology. Long barrels, tubes, small cylinders, short truncated barrels, globular, biconical and discs are the shapes represented. Star beads, collard barrels and discs are absent here. There was also the absence of spacers and pendants in the proto-historic level of Chandoli. As no glass or glaze was associated with proto-historic levels, it may be said that the Chandoli folks of this period were not aware of the technique of glazing. (Deo and Ansari, 1965: 107-10)

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Copper objects found at Chandoli are not many but display a fair variety. The twenty-four objects include tools, weapons and ornaments. These are chisels, celt, dagger with antennae and bangle ring, beads, rod and anklet. Among all these things, the most remarkable find in copper is the dagger or spear blade with an antennae hilt, because earlier this type of dagger was found from the Indo-Gangetic level in an unstratified context, whereas at Chandoli the sample has been obtained from a stratified level (~ 1330 BC).

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Among the copper objects found at Chandoli, only two — a spearhead and an axe — have been chemically analysed. These two objects assay respectively 96.39 and 95.11 per cent Cu; 1.23 and 1.81 Fe; 1.55 and 1.68 Pb; 0.41 and 0.62 Zn; and 0.31 and 0.26 per cent Ni. The materials were probably not deliberately alloyed but made out of multi-metallic Cu-Pb-Zn complex ore. Metallographic studies showed globular inclusions of cuprous oxide and lead metal.

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The metal is porous due to unsound casting technique. The absence of coring and the presence of equiaxial grains indicate that the metal is homogeneous and was very slowly cooled after casting. The twinning that is observed near the porosity holes is probably due to the pressure applied by the gases, trapped within the porosity holes. The technique of venting the mould to allow for the free escape of the evolved gases was evidently not employed in the production of this axe. Anyhow, the celts, the anklets, the bangles and the rings mostly show preparation by hammering. (K.T.M. Hegde In Chalcolithic Chandoli by Deo and Ansari, 1965: 185-86)

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The beads seem to have been fashioned out of thin copper sheet by turning it around a rod, while the dagger is one whole piece. On the other hand the antennae shows distinct traces of its being cut out from the tang. The chisel however seems to have been hammered to a rectangular body out of a circular rod as the overlapping side edges indicate. (Deo and Ansari, 1965: 113-16, 141 and 185-86)

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The terracotta objects of Chandoli comprises of lamps, sharpeners, discs, wheels, cakes, stopper, toy animal, stands and theriomorphic figure, whereas everything have some definite purpose, except the theriomorphic figure. It is made of a very fine clay which is well fired. This material is suggestive of some alien influence.

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