Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c29: 21. The Future of the Past

Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c29

Language: English

v1.c29.s1 What Next? Required More Analytical Investigations — 13 parts
v1.c29.s2 No Magic Solution from Scientific Investigations — 11 parts
v1.c29.s3 The Literary Evidences — 6 parts
v1.c29.s4 The Past has a Future — 2 parts
v1.c29.s5 References — 72 parts

21. The Future of the Past

v1.c29.1

We have been investigating the past of the Indian traditions in minerals and metals; the present investigations are incomplete and to a certain extent inconclusive and therefore must be continued in the future. The tentative conclusions that we have reached in the previous twenty chapters may be very briefly summarised before we critically survey the future requirements and possible trends of further research.

v1.c29.2

1. There is no acceptable proof that any foreign invading group, such as the mythical Aryans, brought from outside to India any material culture such as those related to copper, iron or PGW.

v1.c29.3

2. The evidence of the Chalcolithic culture in the Pre-Harappan Mehrgarh precludes the possibility or necessity of any (notion of) elaborate technology transfer from Iran to the Harappan India.

v1.c29.4

3. Rajasthan in India developed indigenous copper-making tradition even in the Pre-Harappan context and subsequently produced lead, zinc and silver in the pre-Christian era. The earliest C-14 dated subsurface mine so far noted is from Rajpura-Dariba (1200 BC).

v1.c29.5

4. Post-Harappan chalcolithic traditions grew independently and indigenously in the eastern part of the sub-continent and in the peninsular India showing distinctly different trends in alloying.

v1.c29.6

5. The two above-mentioned zones and the Gaṅgā-Yamunā doab area around Atrañjikhera evolved three independent and indigenous Iron Age traditions around 1200 BC. The diffusionist theory stating that this new technology diffused into India from the land of Hittites through ‘Aryan intrusion’ seems to be far-fetched.

v1.c29.7

6. The primacy of India in the areas of carburised iron, laminated iron sheets, forge-welding of wrought iron (as in Delhi Iron Pillar), wootz, steel etc. can no longer be questioned.

v1.c29.8

7. India was the first country to produce distilled zinc and high zinc brass. The technology of reduction-distillation of zinc from its ore diffused from India to England during the first half of the eighteenth century AD.

v1.c29.9

8. In the ancient world, diamond mining was done principally in India. The variegated and sophisticated gem-industry in India has been discussed in the chapters 15, 16, of Vol. I and extended discussions are to be found in chapter 7 of Vol. II.

v1.c29.10

9. The uninterrupted Indian tradition of making icons, specially the multi-metallic ones, bespeaks of a rich culture with aesthetic as well as scientific components.

v1.c29.11

10. In support of our claim that we have not been chauvinistic we have to state the following. Evidences and arguments have been provided to show that many references to the gems and artefacts available in the Indian epics correspond to dates much later than those claimed for the events.

v1.c29.12

11. India imported many materials and technologies from outside: lapis lazuli, turquoise, emerald (possible import following earlier traditions related to beryl), advanced techniques of statuary, coin-casting, gem-incrustations, cementation precipitation of copper from mine-water using iron powder etc.

What Next? Required More Analytical Investigations

v1.c29.s1.1

It must be emphasized that the conclusions reached and stated above (1-11) are tentative, and we would not be upset if new findings alter some or all the conclusions. After all, history means re-interpretation of the past which implies that new facts about the past may be discovered and taken note of.

v1.c29.s1.2

Whatever analytical work has been done so far regarding the ancient Indian artefacts is small compared to how much more can and should be done. Thousands of samples have remained untouched, and we do not know even their elemental compositions. Very few icons have been scanned metallographically, and phase analyses of most of the artefacts and residues such as slags are yet to be undertaken.

v1.c29.s1.3

Fortunately the recent trend of research is encouraging and we may cite some examples which are worthy of emulation. Craddock (1981: 20) analysed 121 Tibetan and Himalayan icons/metalworks by atomic absorption spectrophotometer which permitted him to assay 13 elements in each sample down to 10 ppm level. These analyses had a precision of ± 1 per cent for major elements and ± 20 per cent for the trace elements. Though the sensitivity of this technique is high, it necessitates dissolution and a separate analytical scrutiny for each element to be determined.

v1.c29.s1.4

Nieuwenhuysen et al. (1984: 105) preferred the non-destructive procedure employing scanning electron microprobe which allowed the selection of the sample area to be anlaysed through the use of light microscopy, secondary electrons and back-scattered electrons. Subsequently, by analysing the scanning electron beam induced X-ray fluorescence with an energy dispersive detection system (EDAX), the simultaneous detection of a large number of elements was made for 23 Himalayan metal statues in the Museum of Antwerp.

v1.c29.s1.5

Transmission and scanning electron microscopy combined with diffraction study and EDAX facilities permitted us to study heterogeneity, elemental composition, grain size and grain phase composition of ancient zinc slag in a comprehensive manner. (Biswas et al., 1984: 236-37) Using a fine electron probe (~ 50 nm diameter) we could scan a grain as small as 0.5 µm and quantitatively analyse ten elements therein; we could also report the presence of more than a dozen specific phases in the lead-zinc bearing slag. Freestone and Middleton (1987) have shown how analytical SEM combined with DTA, electron petrography and thermodynamics of phase diagrams can yield valuable informations about silicate and carbonate-based artefacts, like ancient pottery and porcelain and archaeological residues like the zinc slag of Zawar Mines.

v1.c29.s1.6

We have also demonstrated (Biswas, 1989: 20-21) that selective area electron diffraction (SAED) pattern analysis in transmission electron microscopy (TEM) reveals the X-ray amorphous phases and explained how simultaneous EDAX studies with secondary as well as back-scattered electrons permitted us to quantitatively determine as many as 14 elements in a narrow zone of 0.1 µm. These techniques have tremendous possibilities in the analysis of archaeological samples. The family of photo-electron spectroscopy (PES) techniques such as ESCA or electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis involves the short escape depth of the excited electrons, and therefore can provide special information about a very thin surface layer (such as in gilded icons) as contraposed to the information of the bulk. Electron energy loss spectroscopy or EELS is ideally suited for the study of low atomic number elements in artefacts and archaeological residues.

v1.c29.s1.7

Neutron activation analysis is another non-destructive technique for assaying trace elements which is based on the radio-activity of neutron-irradiated samples (and the standards for each element). The energies and the spectra of the emitted gamma rays are utilised to assay in terms of a set of chosen elements. Iyer *et al.* (1973) estimated Na, Mn, La, Sc and Cr in neutron-irradiated samples to characterise Indian potsherds obtained from different geographical localities. Bhoraskar *et al.* (1985) estimated the relative activities of Cu, Al, Mn, Mg and Si in the neutron-irradiated iron samples from five megalithic sites and the seventh century BC smelting site of Naikund, Maharashtra. Since the activity ratios were similar, they concluded that the Naikund smelter was the source of the artefacts found in the five different places.

v1.c29.s1.8

Mossbauer spectroscopy is applicable to ferrugenous archaeological materials such as iron artefacts (Rai and Rajan *et al.*, 1985), NBP ware slip (Rai and Roy, 1980-81) etc. The latter has been shown to contain amorphous orthopyroxene and bears a Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺ ratio around 4.5.

v1.c29.s1.9

Raj and Sundaram (1990: 27) carried out a few evaluations on some famous Indian bronze icons using high resolution radiography with sensitivity levels of 30 µm, and confirmed that these castings do not contain even minute defects at the most intricate and difficult to cast portions. They have recommended the following sophisticated techniques for detailed evaluation of Indian icons, the Delhi Iron Pillar, Wootz steel etc:

v1.c29.s1.10

*In situ* metallography for micro-structure, with quantitative image analysis for phase contents and slag distribution, microphotography and laser contouring for precise dimensional appreciation, high-sensitivity X-radiography, ultrasonic testing, emf and electrical conductivity measurements for volume evaluation/characterisation; X-ray fluorescence and neutron activation analysis for chemical composition; structure-property correlation studies, fractal analysis on wootz, micromorphology of wootz crucible material.

v1.c29.s1.11

The last few items as stated above were suggested towards development of high-strength superplastic high-carbon steels — some success has been achieved in this regard by some American scientists while trying to replicate wootz — and of high performance ceramic materials resembling wootz crucibles.

v1.c29.s1.12

To the above list of techniques as given by Raj and Sundaram (1990: 27) we would like to add the suggestion for the various categories of analytical electron microscopy (diffraction, transmission and scanning) techniques such as Convergent beam diffraction (CBD), Electron energy loss spectroscopy using plasmon peaks (EELS-PL), High resolution electron microscopy-lattice imaging (HREM), Energy-dispersive X-ray micro-analysis (EDAX) etc.

v1.c29.s1.13

We should also record the great necessity for replication experiments. There are great questions and theories as to how the artefacts were made, using what manufacturing conditions. The theories should be tested through actual experimental efforts based on the hypothesized procedures. We have mentioned such replication experiments related to copper-making, high iron copper, NBPW and its glaze etc. The results of such experiments would be very instructive though not always conclusive.

No Magic Solution from Scientific Investigations

v1.c29.s2.1

It must be noted that although scientific investigations should continue in the field of archaeo-materials, “the natural scientists do not provide any magic answer to archaeological or historical problems” (Agrawal, D.P. and Chakrabarti, D.K., 1979: 390) This point needs some elaboration.

v1.c29.s2.2

Firstly, the scientific method itself may not be free of controversy. D.P. Agrawal (1984: 268-69) has explained that there are three major uncertainties about C-14 dating:

v1.c29.s2.3

(a) Uncertainty about the half-life of C-14 which is taken as 5730 years; the earlier figure was 5568 years;

v1.c29.s2.4

(b) The ratio of C¹⁴: C¹² in the atmosphere is taken as 1/(8 x 10¹¹) but this might not have remained constant over the ages; the C-14 dates of ancient sites have been computed on the basis of ‘constancy’ of the said ratio and thus errors might be committed;

v1.c29.s2.5

v1.c29.s2.6

Reviewing the C-14 dates obtained from the different Mature-Harappan sites, Allchins (1983: 217-19) concluded that ‘there is still plenty of room for uncertainty’.

v1.c29.s2.7

Secondly, the value of the scientific data on an archaeological sample depends on the authenticity of the sample, i.e., how carefully it was collected and labelled. Numismatists have often complained (Gupta, P.L., 1987-88: 86; Lahiri, A.N., 1990: 213) that while they have unearthed many missing dates and episodes of history, ‘the archaeologist very rarely provides necessary details of the coins he digs up’. As a result the numismatists are sometimes not in a position to help the archaeologists properly. Thus the onus for co-ordination is very much on the archaeologists who should provide ‘standard’ samples of known date to the scientists so that more reliable C-14 datings may be compiled by the latter.

v1.c29.s2.8

The issue of ore-artefact correlation through the ascertainment of trace element compositions may be recalled. This approach may be pursued but we have pointed out in our chapter 10 the hazards and pitfalls. The ore used from one locality may not have consistent composition, and the ancient smelting process, which is not fully knowable at present, would certainly have considerable effect on the trace element composition as proven by recent smelting experiments. (Tylecote *et al.*, 1977) Lead isotope ratio correlation between ore and artefact has been successful in one case. (Gale *et al.*, 1982) Reporting failure in another case, Craddock (1985: 59) has rightly questioned that lead in the artefact could come not only from the copper ore (as presumed) but also from the flux and deliberate addition of lead during smelting. Correlation in the case of alloy artefacts is even more severe; the origin of iron in brass icon for example could be from copper or zinc or even some iron rod which might have been used to stir and mix the molten metals.

v1.c29.s2.9

We do not discourage attempts for correlation or scientific measurements; as a matter of fact more analysis of varied nature are necessary. We are simply cautioning the archaeo-metallurgists that they should not accept one piece of data as conclusive but rather consider the entire spectrum of evidences to elicit some tentative conclusions.

v1.c29.s2.10

In this context we fully endorse the suggestions of several archaeologists and scholars such as D.P. Agrawal *et al.* (1979: 390), R.S. Sharma (1990: 7) etc. that there should be “total retrieval of all the things that are dug in the course of excavations; not even the soil is to be lost”. The idea is that this should be followed by total analysis. If immediate analysis is not possible then the excavated materials should be stored stratigraphically ‘to facilitate future studies by researchers’.

v1.c29.s2.11

Multiplicity of analytical techniques and data may at times be bewildering but not necessarily dismaying. Two different categories of evidences may turn out to be contradictory, but further scientific and logical analysis are likely to show the unacceptability of one kind of evidence and plausibility of the other. The total approach as enunciated above should also lead us to undertake hinterland or horizontal archaeology along with the conventional vertical excavation at a particular site. The tradition of sharing artefacts, samples and pertinent informations with fellow-scholars is not too good in India and must be improved.

The Literary Evidences

v1.c29.s3.1

There are different categories of evidences related to an archaeo-historical topic; a single category should be neither given exclusive importance nor altogether ignored, since what matters is the sum of the evidences, and their internal consistency.

v1.c29.s3.2

Agrawal *et al.* (1979: 391-92) have rightly criticised the old-style historical research divorced from natural science and addicted to the stock-in-trade cliches of ethnic or linguistic labels (e.g. Aryan invasion) but they overstepped their position by under-estimating the mass of literary data: "Most of our literary data are non-secular, chronologically and geographically ill-defined and reflect the world-view of the contemporary literate and ruling groups, and thus are hardly suitable for the writing of any (?) material history of the people". We are not so convinced that the use of the word 'any' in the previous sentence is justified. Indian literary data have other dimensions apart from the religious and dynastic world-views; in the ten chapters of our Vol. II we would discuss the huge and pertinent information that is available in the Indian literature regarding minerals and metals in ancient India.

v1.c29.s3.3

There is no question of accepting or using the literary data blindly. The Hastināpura archaeological evidence for example rules out any possibility that the material splendour described in the epic *Mahābhārata* could belong to 1000 BC Hastināpura. On the other hand, as pointed out by D.K. Ganguly (1990), many archaeological, numismatic and epigraphic data have been given widely divergent interpretations by different scholars. Mortimer Wheeler used his imperfect knowledge of the *Ṛgveda* to suggest the wild theory of racial (Aryan) intrusion causing the downfall of Harappan civilization. Many scholars including ourselves (Biswas, 1990) have exposed the 'Aryan myth', and have shown how the *Ṛgvedic* evidence illustrates the indigenous growth of a material civilization. Thus the literary sources may be used but with great caution.

v1.c29.s3.4

We would demonstrate in Volume II the powerful correlations of the literary evidences (on minerals and metals in ancient India) in the texts of Pāṇini, Kautilya, *Ratnaśāstras* and *Rasaśāstras* with the other categories of evidences of contemporary dates. When there is little or no contradiction, the huge amount of additional information from the literary sources gains the stature of plausibility and even serves as a tentative guide for further investigations. Mehta (1990) has illustrated how some Purāṇic texts and even oral and folk traditions have suggested archaeological probes and then received corroboration from the results of these probes.

v1.c29.s3.5

In the last chapter 10 of volume II we would not only comment on the correlations of the literary evidences with the archaeological data and other historical facts, but also deliberate on the philosophy of science in ancient India related to minerals, metals and other materials. Whereas the archaeo-material samples are mute, the literary evidences tell us about the state-of-art, the status of concepts and philosophy, the irrational and rational trends, existing side by side and competing with each other, and so on.

v1.c29.s3.6

Thus we cannot accept the scornful remarks of Agrawal et al. (1979: 391-92) that literary evidences are unsuitable for writing of ‘any’ material history. The readers may therefore consider the materials in our Volumes I and II conjointly, the concluding remarks being presented in the terminal chapters of each section: this chapter 21 of Volume I and chapter 10 of Volume II.

The Past has a Future

v1.c29.s4.1

The studies on the ancient material culture have bright possibilities. The investigations on ancient Indian wootz are opening up possibilities for the discoveries of super-plastic ultra-high carbon steel and special refractory crucible. The application of natural science methodologies would unfold new vista of Indian history. We are likely to discover the different facets of the growth of our material culture and its nexus with society. The identification of the irrational and anti-science trends in our culture would caution us against the pitfalls which may await us in the future. We may discover the dynamics governing the growth of science and scientific attitude in a developing nation such as ours.

v1.c29.s4.2

In the above senses, our past has a future!

References

v1.c29.s5.1

Agrawal, D.P., 1984, *The Archaeology of India*, Select Book Service Syndicate, New Delhi.

v1.c29.s5.2

Agrawal, D.P., and Chakrabarti, D.K., 1979, “Archaeology in India — A Professional Assessment”, In *Essays in Indian Protohistory*, edited by D.P. Agrawal and D.K. Chakrabarti, B.R. Publishing Corporation, Delhi, pp. 388-92.

v1.c29.s5.3

Allchin, Bridget and Raymond, 1983, *The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan*, Select Book Service Syndicate, New Delhi.

v1.c29.s5.4

Bhoraskar, V.N., Mahajan, S.Y., Jayanthakumar, S.S., and Gogate, V.D., 1985, “Analysis of Ancient Iron Objects with 14 MeV Neutron Activation Analysis”, In *Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, Letters*, 1985, 95, 2, pp. 73-80.

v1.c29.s5.5

Biswas, A.K., 1989, “Chemistry in Mineral Processing”, In *Frontiers in Applied Chemistry*, edited by A.K. Biswas, Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi and Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 11-52.

v1.c29.s5.6

——, 1990, “The Aryan Myth”, In *Historical Archaeology of India*, edited by Amita Ray and Samir Mukherjee, Books and Books, New Delhi, pp. 29-47.

v1.c29.s5.7

Biswas, A.K., Gangopadhyaya, A. and Ramachandran, T.R., 1984, “Phase Studies on Zinc Residues of Ancient Indian Origin”, In *Transactions of the Indian Institute of Metals*, Vol. 37, No. 3, June 1984, pp. 234-41.

v1.c29.s5.8

Craddock, P.T., 1981, “The Copper Alloys of Tibet and their Background”, In *Aspects of Tibetan Metallurgy* edited by Z.A. Oddy and W. Zwalf, Occasional Paper No. 15, British Museum, pp. 1-31.

v1.c29.s5.9

——, 1985, “Three Thousand Years of Copper Alloys: From the Bronze Age to the Industrial Revolution”, In Applications of Science in Examination of Works of Art, edited by P.A. England and L.V. Zelst, Boston Museum of Fine Arts, pp. 59-67.

v1.c29.s5.10

Freestone, I.C. and Middleton, A.P., 1987, “Mineralogical Applications of the Analytical SEM in Archaeology”, In Mineralogical Magazine, March 1987, 51, pp. 21-31.

v1.c29.s5.11

Gale, N.H. and Stos-Gale, Z.A., 1982, “Bronze Age Copper Sources in the Mediterranean, A New Approach”, In Science 216, pp. 11-19.

v1.c29.s5.12

Ganguly, D.K., 1990, “Some Disquieting Features of Indian Archaeology”, In Historical Archaeology of India, edited by Amita Ray and Samir Mukherjee, Books and Books, New Delhi, pp. 349-68.

v1.c29.s5.13

Gupta, P.L., 1987-88, “Numismatics and Archaeology”, In Purātattva, 18, pp. 85-88.

v1.c29.s5.14

Iyer, R.K., Rao, N.J., Krishnamoorthy, K.R., Sankar Das, M., and Paramasivan, S., 1973, “Study of Trace Element Distribution in Indian Potsherds by Neutron Activation Analysis”, In Radiocarbon and Indian Archaeology, edited by D.P. Agrawal and A. Ghosh, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bombay, pp. 406-18.

v1.c29.s5.15

Lahiri, A.N., 1990, “What the Numismatist Expects from Archaeologists”, In Historical Archaeology of India, edited by Amita Ray and Samir Mukherjee, Books and Books, New Delhi, pp. 209-15.

v1.c29.s5.16

Lal, B.B., 1953, “Archaeological Chemistry and Scientific Studies”, In Ancient India, 9, pp. 199-206.

v1.c29.s5.17

Mehta, R.N., 1990, “History and Archaeology: A Perspective of Western India”, In Historical Archaeology of India, edited by Amita Ray and Samir Mukherjee, Books and Books, New Delhi, pp. 91-99.

v1.c29.s5.18

Nieuwenhuysen, P. and Adams, F., 1984, “Elemental Analysis of Himalayan Metal Statues”, In Historical Metallurgy, 18, 2, pp. 105-08.

v1.c29.s5.19

Rai, S., Rajan, N. and Singh, M., 1985, “Some Aspects of Iron Age in Ancient India: An Archaeo-Technological Study”, In Bulletin of the Metals Museum of the Japan Institute of Metals, 10, pp. 35-39.

v1.c29.s5.20

Rai, S., and Roy, T.N., 1981-82, “Mossbauer Studies of Black Slipped and Northern Black Polished Wares”, In Purātattva, 12, pp. 165-66.

v1.c29.s5.21

Raj, Baldev and Sundaram, C.V., 1990, Ancient Indian Metallurgical Accomplishments, Souvenir on 28th National Metallurgists’ Day and International Symposium, Tiruchirapalli, The Indian Institute of Metals, November 1990, pp. 21-28.

v1.c29.s5.22

Sharma, R.S., 1990, “Keynote Address”, In Historical Archaeology of India, edited by Amita Ray and Samir Mukherjee, Books and Books, New Delhi, pp. 1-11.

v1.c29.s5.23

Tylecote, R.F., Ghaznavi, H.G. and Boydell, P.J., 1977, “Partitioning of Trace Elements during the Smelting of Copper”, In Journal of Archaeological Science, 4, pp. 305-33.

v1.c29.s5.24

Ill. 1.1 Four steatite seals from Mohenjo-Daro. One has tree divinity, devotee, sacrificial bull and seven sages (saptarṣi). The other is Paśupati in Yoga posture.

v1.c29.s5.25

Ill. 1.2 (Left) jewels from Harappa. Necklace of gold, semiprecious stones and vitreous paste. Gold bracelet. Double-coil ornament. Setting of the red cone-shaped stone with the central hinge. (Right) series of pierced pieces for jewellery of jade, semi-precious stones, terracotta, thin enamel (with trefoil motif) and bronze. Mohenjo-Daro.

v1.c29.s5.26

Ill. 1.3 Male torso from Harappa of red sandstone.

v1.c29.s5.27

Ill. 1.4 Male bust of calcareous marble (or of steatite or limestone or alabaster?), Mohenjo-Daro. King-priest, cloak covered with sacred trefoils. Elongated face and stylized beard.

v1.c29.s5.28

Ill. 1.5 Dancing Girl. Mohenjo-Daro. Thick-lipped, snub-nosed aboriginal from Southern Baluchistan with bangles, armlet and stringed necklace with three cowrie shell pendants. Bronze statuette cast by the cire perdue method.

v1.c29.s5.29

Ill. 1.6 Dancing Girl. Mohenjo-Daro. back side of Ill.1.5

v1.c29.s5.30

Ill. 1.7 Lothal. Copper and bronze bangles, rings and spacer beads.

v1.c29.s5.31

Ill. 1.8 Lothal. Necklace of micro-beads of gold.

v1.c29.s5.32

Ill. 1.9 Lothal. Beads of semi-precious stones, agate, carnelian, steatite and faience.

v1.c29.s5.33

Ill. 1.10 Brass Object part of a chariot in submerged Dwarka circa 1500 BC. Analyses Cu 73.71%, Zn 10.68, Pb 1.32, Fe 0.43. Dwarka, Lothal and Atrañjikhera show earliest brass in India.

v1.c29.s5.34

Ill. 1.11 Chariot. Daimābād. Bronze. The animals in the chariot look like bull-horses or unicorns. The chariot has two solid wheels moving along with the axle driven by a Proto-Australoid man (priest?).

v1.c29.s5.35

Ill. 1.12 Rhinoceros. Daimābād Bronze. Standing on two horizontal bars over two sets of wheels. Mouth is longish resembling the snout of a boar.

v1.c29.s5.36

Ill. 1.13 Typical copper objects from the Mature-Harappan levels of Kālībaṅgan.

v1.c29.s5.37

Ill. 1.14 Copper Hoard Implements. Chisels, Harpoons, Swords, etc. from Gaṅgā-Yamunā Doab.

v1.c29.s5.38

Ill. 1.15 The Lion Capital of Sārnāth. Polished Sandstone. Aśoka’s Reign. Ca 272-232 BC.

v1.c29.s5.39

Ill. 1.16 Yakṣī and Yakṣa from Bharhut second century BC. Sandstone railing.

v1.c29.s5.40

Ill. 1.17 Gems from Taxila, 1945 hoard. 1-3: gold ornaments. 4: amethyst bead. 5: crystal bead.

v1.c29.s5.41

Ill. 1.18 Silver bent-bar coins from the Bhir Mound, Taxila. 1945 hoard.

v1.c29.s5.42

Ill. 1.19 Gold Beads from Taxila, Bhir Mound, 1945 hoard.

v1.c29.s5.43

Ill. 1.20 Prince with a bow. (Front and Back). Nāgārjunakoṇḍā. Ikṣvāku Period. Third century AD. Suggestive of the Sātavāhana prince, a ‘friend’ of Nāgārjuna, the first commentator on distilled zinc and brass.

v1.c29.s5.44

Ill. 1.21 Dharmacakra. Chausa. Kuṣāṇa period, second century AD, Dharmacakra or the Buddhist triune or triratna concept of religious doctrine, law and order. The wheel has sixteen spokes with a plain felly and supported by two crocodiles with Śalabhañjikās or female nature spirits in their jaws. Cast bronze.

v1.c29.s5.45

Ill. 1.22 Fourth and fifth century AD Gupta Era gold coins showing horse-sacrifice, the king hunting, reclining, under an umbrella, with battle axe, playing the lyre, riding an elephant and hunting a lion, riding a horse and hunting a rhinoceros. The last four depict goddesses: Lakṣmī with cornucopia, with a dancing peacock and Gaṅgā on the crocodile.

v1.c29.s5.46

Ill. 1.23 Zawarmala Mine. Double arches made by fire-setting. The lower set is of later origin resulting from retreat working.

v1.c29.s5.47

Ills. 1.24, 1.25 The Delhi Iron Pillar (early 5th century AD) installed by Candragupta Vikramāditya II, as per the Sanskrit inscription on the body. The corrosion-resistance of the forge-welded wrought iron structure is partly due to its composition (low C and Mn, high P).

v1.c29.s5.48

Ill. 1.26 Copper Refining Furnace at Khetri

v1.c29.s5.49

Ill. 1.27 Ewer, A Bidriware, inlaid with silver and brass, inscribed on the rim. The base metal is high-zinc-low-copper alloy. The black patina is due to KNO₃ — oxidation of copper-rich phase. The design is cut out of sheet silver with brass wire being used to indicate details. The inscription suggests that the ewer was made for Timur in 1406 or 1407.

v1.c29.s5.50

Ill. 1.28 Huqqa base, a Bidriware inlaid with silver and brass. Second half of 17th century. Silver has been used for the flowers and brass for the leaves and stems.

v1.c29.s5.51

Ill. 1.29 Vṛntāka-Mūṣā, brinjal-like Zinc (ore) reduction-distillation crucible from Zawar. Slag in broken Zinc distillation retorts.

v1.c29.s5.52

Ill. 1.30 The upper part of Gupta Period Jivantasvāmi. Composition Cu 73.4%, Sn 5.5%, Zn 3.6%, Pb 9.8%, Fe 4.9%. Metallography shows lead at the grain boundary. The attractive image has triple-folded neck, the broad shoulders, the armlet and its beaded band, circular ornamental Gavākṣa motif, circular Tilaka mark on the forehead, broad necklace, inlaid eyes, the ringlets of hair on the shoulders, the four-sided tall crown marked by caitya window ornament in front.

v1.c29.s5.53

Ill. 1.31 Yakṣī Ambikā, From Akoṭa. Maitraka, sixth century AD. Analysis : copper 76.7%, Sn 1.6%, Zn 16.3%, Pb 4.0%.

v1.c29.s5.54

Ill. 1.32 Tritīrtha image of Pārśvanātha. From Akoṭa, Maitraka, 7th century AD. Analysis : copper 80.8%., Sn 5.3%, Zn 7.4%, Pb 2.2% and Fe 1.0%.

v1.c29.s5.55

Ill. 1.33 Fly-whisk bearer (camaradharini). Fr om Akoṭa. Maitraka, seventh century AD. Analysis: copper 73.2%, Sn 2.2%, Zn 10.7%, Pb 11.3% and Fe 1.4%. Metallography reveals lead precipitation, annealing below the recrystallisation temperature and heavy cold working.

v1.c29.s5.56

Ill. 1.34 Tritīrthika of Pārśvanātha. Akoṭa. Early Solaṅki period circa 950 AD. An inscription on the back tells us that this brass image was installed by one Regata in c. 900 AD and his mother, Mālā whose images are placed on a lower level on the pedestal.

v1.c29.s5.57

Ill. 1.35 Buddha. Uttar Pradesh, Gilt, 6th century AD.

v1.c29.s5.58

Ill. 1.36 Avalokiteśvara. Nālandā, Gilt, 9th century AD. Devapāla Period.

v1.c29.s5.59

Ill. 1.37 Tārā. Kurkihar. Devapāla period (825-830 AD). Tārā is the embodiment of Divine Grace and the feminine counterpart of the Bodhisattva. This is one of the masterpieces amongst the eastern Indian bronzes, well-known for its sheer grace and elegance.

v1.c29.s5.60

Ill. 1.38 Bodhisattva Loknātha. Kurkihar. Rāmapāla period (1072-1125 AD). Lotus-bedecked bejewelled gilt image. A girdle with pearl festoons in the waist, a necklace bracelet, arm-bands with a lion-face ornament and a beaded sacred thread.

v1.c29.s5.61

Ill. 1.39 Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara with Goddesses. Kashmir 980-1003 AD. Bronze. Represents the flourishing period of Tāntric religion.

v1.c29.s5.62

Ill. 1.40 Mañjuśrī. Western Tibet. While the body of the deity assays 65.5%. Cu, 30.4C% Zn and only 0.25% As, the lion assays 76% Cu, 13.9% Zn and 6.80% As. The base 90.1% Cu, 0.4% Zn and 7.40% As; the surface contains even higher percentage of As (14.0%) on account of inverse seggregation and renders ‘silvery’ whiteness to the base supporting a ‘golden’ statue.

v1.c29.s5.63

Ill. 1.41 Yaśodā and Kṛṣṇa. Karnataka; Vijayanagar period; circa 14th century; copper.

v1.c29.s5.64

Ill. 1.42 Lakṣaṇā Devī. Brahmaur, situated in the Chamba area (south of Kashmir), valley of the Buddhal, a tributary of the Ravi. Dated 700-750 AD. It reminds us of Mahiṣāsurmardinī, a concept which developed during the post-Greek Kuṣāṇa period. The ornaments indicate different traditions mingling into a martial spirit in the Western Himalayas.

Linked texts (9)

Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra — Kauṭilya, Sanskrit
Aṣṭādhyāyī — Pāṇini, Sanskrit
Harappā
Mahābhārata — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Ṛgvedasaṃhitā — Sanskrit
Rasaśāstra
Hastināpura
Atranjikhera
Naikund