Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v2.c43: 7. A Millennium of Ratnaśāstra (Gemmology) Literature in India

Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v2.c43

Language: English

v2.c43.s1 Categorisation of Gems — 3 parts
v2.c43.s2 The Scope of Ratnaśāstra (Gemmology) — 7 parts
v2.c43.s3 Item-wise Discussion on Gems with Decreasing Hardness — 13 parts
v2.c43.s4 Conclusion — 6 parts
v2.c43.s5 References — 28 parts

7. A Millennium of Ratnaśāstra (Gemmology) Literature in India

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INDIA has always been a land of precious gems. Harappan sites, specially Mohenjo-Daro, have yielded, on archaeological excavations, a bewildering variety of gems of different types and diverse origins. After the collapse of the Harappan civilization and eastward migration of population from the valley of the (drying up) Sarasvatī river, Indian society took more than a millennium to re-organise itself in the sub-continent.

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The first millennium BC in Northern India started with the second phase of urbanisation, and during the middle of this period, the contacts with the South India, Aechemenid empire in Persia and Afghanistan resulted in exploitation of internal mineral resources, import of gem minerals and their processing. The previous chapters contain references to the gem minerals mentioned in the Vedic and post-Vedic literatures, Aṣṭādhyāyī, Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra, the epics, the Buddhist and Jaina canonical texts, etc. Gemmology as a subject was however developed only in the post-Christian era.

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Some Key Indian texts containing references on gemmology or ratnaśāstra have been listed in Table 7.1. Some of the dates given in the table are approximate. The rise of monarchial powers, urbanisation and international trade resulted in widespread imports and exports of gem minerals. Many battles and conquests took place for acquisition of fertile lands as well as mines of precious metals, ores, and gem minerals.

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The second century AD Tamil text Silappadikaram was one of the early literatures which recorded the grandeur of the gem markets in India and the Indo-Roman trade related to gems. During and after the ascendency of the Gupta Period, outstanding Sanskrit literatures on gemmology such as Brhat Samhitā (Br. Sam.), Ratnaparīkṣā (RP), Agastimata (AM) etc. were published. Some Prākṛt literatures like Aṅgavijjā are also worthy of notice. One millennium of Indian studies on gems culminated in the thirteenth-fourteenth centuries AD compendium texts such as Rasaratnasamuccaya (RRS), Rayaṇaparikkhā (RYP). In the nineteenth century, S.M. Tagore published Maṇimālā (MM), a beautiful collection of extracts from the earlier Sanskrit texts related to Ratnaśāstra.

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Table 7. 1 Some Indian Texts Containing References to Gemmology (Ratnaśāstra)

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Categorisation of Gems

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Kautilīya Arthaśāstra of the pre-Christian era presented a list of gems which has been mentioned by us earlier in chapter 5. The principal categories stated therein are colourless quartz (sphaṭika), red ruby (padmarāga), blue sapphire (indranīla), green beryl (vaidūrya) and yellow topaz (puṣparāga), apart from several minor ones. Diamond (vajra), pearl (muktā) and coral (pravāla) were considered separately.

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Over the centuries, the pattern of categorisation of gems did not alter very much. The thirteenth century text RRS (4.4-4.7) listed five principal gems or pañca-ratna: vajra, padmarāga, indranīla, puṣparāga and marakata (the last one is emerald, a deeper green variety of beryl or vaidūrya). During the Gupta era, the Br. Sam. (80.2-5) listed 22 gems of which nine were principal ones (navaratna) representing nine planets (navagraha).

Ancient Categorisation Viewed in Terms of the Modern Science

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It is obvious that gems have been prized principally in terms of their lustre and colour. The ancient gemmologists realised that different minerals might have similar colour, and therefore identification of gem minerals involved at least one more parameter. Hardness of minerals was a very valuable guide in identification of gems, specially in view of the fact that the modern indices of evaluation such as specific gravity, refractive index, X-ray diffraction pattern, etc. were not known in the ancient days.

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Table 7.2 provides the list of principal gems which were known and used in the ancient world. These gem minerals have been arranged in the decreasing order of hardness (Moh’s Scale). Energetic chemical bonds, often of the covalent type, result in hardness, which in turn provides the necessary durability of gem minerals. Such materials may have high refractive index and lustre but are usually colourless when completely devoid of impurities. Table 7.2 shows how trace quantities of idiochromatic transition elements such as Fe, Cr, Mn, Ni, Co get into the hard but colourless networks and alter their colour drastically. Nassau (1983: 23 and 333-36) has explained that not less than 13 out of the possible 15 causes attribute colours to minerals and gemstones.

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Naturally, different categories of gems may, and do turn out to have similar colours, and in such cases, determination of hardness of the sample by scratch test has been a very useful exercise in the identification of the gem. Gemmology has always involved the art and science of imitation, and detection of clever imitations. Coloured glass was invented in India to imitate beryl and other precious stones (Pliny 37.26) and therefore it became a nuisance in the gem Table 7. 2 Gem Categories of Importance in the Ancient World

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| Name English / Sanskrit | Colour | Hardness (Moh’s Scale) | Reasons for Non-white Colour |
| Lapis Lazuli/Ultramarine/rājāvartal lajhward (Glass has hardness 5-5-1/2) | Deep azure blue | 5-½ | The constituent minerals are Sodium-Calcium-Aluminium silicates with sulphate and polysulphide (S₃) anions. The 19 outer electrons of S₃ unit undergo transitions within the molecular orbitals. These produce absorption band in the yellow range and hence intense blue colour. Less sulphur in the mineral system gives green colour which makes the gem less worthy. |
| Pearl/muktā | Usually white | 3-4 | Iron, manganese etc. possibly complexed with organic matter, so that the colour is perishable on heat. |
| Coral/pravāla/ vidruma | red, black etc. | 3-4 | Iron, manganese etc. possibly complexed with organic matter, so that the colour is perishable on heat. |

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industry. However this could be easily detected since the material glass has a low hardness of 5. On the other hand, distinguishing between zircon (7-1/2) and garnet (7-1/4) of similar colour and little difference in hardness required careful streak tests.

The Scope of Ratnaśāstra (Gemmology)

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AM (3-4) outlined the scope of the Ratnaśāstra texts:

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उत्पत्तिम् आकरान् वर्णान् जातिदोषगुणाम् स्तथा
मूल्यम् माण्डलिकम् चैव ग्राहकं हस्तसंज्ञया
*utpattim ākaran varṇān jātidoṣaguṇām stathā*
*mūlyam māṇḍalikam caiva grāhakam hastasamjñayā*

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The theory of origin (utpatti) of the gems was shrouded in the extravagant emphasis on a myth which we would discuss later. The texts discussed ākaras or the mine-sites. The colour and ‘castes’ (categories) of individual gems were mentioned. The defects of gems and the qualities of excellent gems were specifically discussed. In order to be acceptable, the gems must have well-defined and uniform colour, lustre and geometrically defined crystal shapes. There must be appropriate directionality of radiance when a gem is held against the sun (AM, 213).

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RRS (4.33) mentioned five typical doṣas or defects of gems:

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ग्रासः त्रासश्च बिन्दुश्च रेखा च जलगर्भता
*grāsaḥ trāsaśca binduśca rekhā ca jalagarbhatā*

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Grāsa means black spot, bindu black spot due to erosion, rekhā line and discolouration, jalagarbhatā refers to bubbles. Trāsa means grain boundaries; ML (2.4.423) defines this term as bhinnabhrāntikara, creating an illusion of being broken. Satrāsa means a gem with fractures.

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Many Ratnaśāstra texts discuss the norms of price fixation (mūlya) of gems. However, Agastimata (61-75) is the only text which discusses the qualifications of an expert of gems or a gemmologist, titled maṇḍalika, and the various hand-signs (hastasamgā) by which he negotiates transactions with the grāhaka or the customer, thereby crossing language barrier.

Item-wise Discussion on Gems with Decreasing Hardness

Diamond (10)

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Diamond (vajra, later also known as bhidura and hīraka, hīrā) was known as the hardest gem or mineral. Its property became proverbial in Bhavabhūti’s *Uttara Rāmacarita* (2.7): *vajrādapi kaṭhorāṇi* . . . ‘something tougher or harder than even diamond’. Apart from its gem quality, diamond was used as an abrasive. It was mentioned in the *Maṇilakṣaṇa* chapter of the *Skanda Purāṇa* (*SP*, 23.79) that diamond cannot be scratched by any other gem.

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Various texts (*AS*, 2.11; *Bṛ. Saṃ.*, 79.10) referred to streams, mines and placer deposits as the sources of diamond: *srotaḥ khaniḥ prakīrṇakam*.

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All the manuals listed eight sources of diamond, but as Finot suggested, several of these were trading places and not actual mining areas. The bank of the Veṇā (Wainganga near Nagpur) had diamond mines; the place seems to be Wairagadh formerly known as Vajragṛha. This place, the area of Vidarbha, had been mentioned by Kauṭilya as Sabhārāṣṭra. Kosala or South Kosala meant the Bundelkhand area around Pannā; the diamond field of this area tempted many invaders such as the Kuṣāṇa King, Kaniṣka. Mataṅga is the tract between Kṛṣṇā and Godāvarī, including the area of the Golconda mines. Kaliṅga included the Mahānadī alluvium in the Sambhalpur district of Orissa. (Shastri, 1969:325-27)

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Good diamonds were supposed to be *ujjala* or bright, *adoṣa* flawless, *amala vāritara* free from impurities and transparent like water. Rain-bow like colour, *ambudendradhanuḥ* was a desirable property (*RRS*, 4.27). Ibn al-Afkānī, an Arab gemmologist, commented: “Indians prefer white and yellow diamonds because of the red rays, that emanate from them when viewed against the sun, and the spectrum resembling the rainbow”. (quoted by Sarma, 1984:48)

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Śilappadikaram was probably the first text classifying diamond into four ‘castes’: brāhmaṇa, white and light yellow; kṣatriya red; vaiśya dark yellow or smoky and śūdra, black or impure. This casteist slant in gemmology persisted for more than a millennium.

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Another mehtod of categorisation was in terms of the crystalline properties. Pure diamond crystal was known to be octahedral, with eight symmetric facets (*samaphalaka*), twelve sharp edges (*dhārā*), six prominent solid angles (*koṇa*):

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षट कोणा अष्ट फलका द्वादश धारा: सन्ति वज्रे च . . .।
. . . समफलकम् उच्चकोणं सुतीक्ष्णधारं च वारितरम् अमलम।।
*ṣaṭa koṇa aṣṭa phalakā dvādaśa dhārāḥ santi vajre ca . . .*
*. . . samaphalakam ucchakoṇam sutīkṣṇadhāraṃ ca*
*vāritaram amalam ॥*
(*RYP*, 23-24)

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Defective diamonds apart from having flaws such as crow’s foot (*kākapada*), spot (*vindu*), streak or line (*rekhā*), impurities (*samala*), etc. may also be geometrically defective (RYP, 25; AM, 27). Such defective samples may be barley-shaped (yavākāra), broken (sphuṭita) such that these have unequal solid angles (hinādhikakoṇam), sometimes only one solid angle (ekaśṛṅgam) or even roudness (vartulam). On this consideration, RRS (4.26-28) classified diamond gems into three genders or categories — masculine, feminine and neutral. The samples with well-defined facets, edges and angles are ‘masculine’. The feminine samples are concave, flat or cylindrical. The neutral (napuṃsaka) samples are spherical or blunt at the tips and slightly heavy.

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RRS typified most of the Ratnaśāstra texts while endorsing sex- and caste-based chauvinism. It not only divided diamond (and most other gem categories) into ‘castes’ (based on colour) and ‘genders’ (based on geometrical features) but also recommended that persons of specific caste and gender should use diamonds of the corresponding type only. It went further, and noted with an air of conclusion that categorisation of all objects into castes and genders is of universal applicability.

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स्त्री पुं नपुंसकं वज्रं योज्यं स्त्रीपुन्नपुंसके
श्वेतादिवर्णभेदेन . . . स्व स्व वर्णफलप्रदम्
. . . पदार्थेषु अखिलेषु अपि।।
strī pum napuṃsakaṃ vajraṃ yojyaṃ stripunnapuṃsake |
śvetādivarṇabhedena . . . sva sva varṇaphalapradam
. . . padārtheṣu akhileṣu api ||
(RRS, 4.29-31)

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Pricing (mūlyam) of diamond and other gems was elaborately discussed in most of the Ratnaśāstra texts (AM, 49-52; Br. Saṃ. 79.12-16; RP, 39; Finot, xxx). From the data, it appears that price of diamond (in kārṣāpaṇas) per unit mass (in taṇḍulas) varied approximately with the square of the mass. With a tenfold increase in mass (from 2 to 20 taṇḍula or 4 carats) price per unit mass increased 100 times (200 to 2 lakh kārṣāpaṇas). Thus absolute price increased proportionately with the cubic power of the mass of the diamond sample. The price came down with various kinds of defects which were listed.

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While Br. Saṃ. and RP fixed the price of diamond on the basis of weight only, AM (42 and 49-52) suggested that volume should also be considered. Ideally, a piece of diamond having the volume of a barley grain should have the weight of a grain of rice (AM, 42). Evidently, specific gravity was recognised as an important consideration. AM and subsequent literatures (GP, 68.38 and 47; MM, 139) have created confusion by commenting that lighter diamonds are necessarily better and hence more valuable. Agastimata or AM (49-52) suggested that the specific gravity of diamond could vary within the range — 75 + 25 per cent; this is ‘pure imagination’ in the words of Finot. The comment in *AM* 50: *tripādam tarate toye*, i.e., a diamond floats on water when it weighs three quarters less than the ideal mass for the same volume’, is very useful since it implies *Agastimata’s* opinion that diamond is four times denser than water, or that its specific gravity is 4.0 (the true value is 3.52). When it is stated that heavier pieces are impure and hence less valuable, what is implied is contamination of diamond with a heavy mineral such as zircon (sp. gr. average 4.68). That a diamond piece having lower weight per unit volume or specific gravily should fetch more price (*AM*, 49-52) was a preposterous suggestion, because such a piece would also be grossly impure. (Sarma, 1984: 50-53) The text in *AM*, 50, quoted before, was seriously misunderstood, and *Garuḍa Purāṇa* (68.38) even commented that a good piece of diamond should float in water!

Corundum, Ruby and Sapphire (9)

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It has been indicated in Table 7.2 that pure corundum (*kuruvinda*) is colourless, and specific lattice substitutions in Al₂O₃ induce specific colour and produce gems such as red ruby or *padmarāga*, blue sapphire or *indranīla*, etc. These three minerals have high hardness (9), and only diamond is harder than them (*AM*, 238). Kauṭilya mentioned the use of *kuruvinda* as an abrasive (AS, 2.14.48).

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Buddhabhaṭṭa made an interesting statement that ruby and sapphire cannot be scratched by any mineral other than diamond and corundum (*RP*, 137); similar statements have been repeated in *GP*, 1.70.27 and *MM*, 213:

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कुरुविन्दं तथा वज्रं विमुच्य अन्येन केनचित्।
न शक्यं लेखनं कर्तुं पद्मराग इन्द्रनीलयोः।।
*kuruvindaṃ tathā vajraṃ vimucya anyena kenacit*
*na śakyaṃ lekhanam karttuṃ padmarāga indranilayoḥ*

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Sarma (1984: 51-52) has expressed surprise in the above statements since ruby and sapphire have the same Al₂O₃ lattice as corundum, and are supposed to have similar hardness. However trace substitution by low energy oxides of Cr, Fe etc. might lower surface free energy and hardness of Al₂O₃ by a small amount, and this may be detectable when pure corundum powder is mounted on a grinding wheel. Bauer (1968: 282) has reported slight differences in hardness values of the varieties of corundum, and the fact that ruby is slightly softer than sapphire.

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*Padmarāga* or red ruby used to come to the ancient India from the gem-beds of Sri Lanka. The valley of the river *Rāvaṇagaṅgā*, overgrown with Areca-palms was strewn with varieties of ruby (*GP*, 1.70.3-17). *Padmarāga* was also known as *māṇikya* and *cunni* (from *cūrṇikā*, small pieces). Best ruby has been described as red like lotus (*padmarāga*), transparent, brilliant, heavy and clear. *Agastimata*, 213 classified ruby on the basis of the amount of radiance emitted above, below and on sides, when held against the sun. If the radiance spreaded all around, indicating lack of crystallinity, then the piece was considered to be spurious (*RYP*, 68).

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Ruby was known to exist in different shades of red. *Padmarāga* was the red variety with a tinge of white, *nilagandhi* red with a blue or black tint, *saugandhika* yellowish red. The last one was probably known in the West as the orange *padparadsca* (a corrupt form of the word *padmarāga*), the yellowish aurora-red gem from Sri Lanka. (Herbert Smith, Gemstones pp. 289-90) Dull-hued red variety ‘with its lustre remaining within’ was sometimes called *kuruvinda* (*GP*, 1.70.13). Crimson-yellow variety was known as *karundaka* or *kaurandaka* (*MM*, 407; *GP*, 1.74.2). A transparent variety slightly red and yellow was known as *kāṣāyaka* (*RP*, 218; *GP*, 1.74.3). A red variety which appeared to be smeared with milk (*dugdhaliptasma*) was defined as *laśunapadam*, like *laśuna* or garlic (*NRP*, 115).

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Rose-red balas-ruby belongs to an altogether different category. It is not Al₂O₃ but a spinel or mixed oxide, MgAl₂O₄. It is softer than ruby, its hardness being eight in the Moh’s Scale. Like Al₂O₃, it is colourless when pure, chromium substitution making it red. Spinels come in a wide variety of colours, but here we are concerned with rose-red spinels which have been known as balas-rubies or *rubis balais*. Spinels are abundant in the ruby mines of Badakshan. In the thirteenth century AD, Marco Polo collected spinels with rubies in the province of Balascia on the Upper Oxus, which is identical with the Badakshan of the present-day. Bauer writes (1968: 298) that the term ‘balas-ruby’ is derived from the place-name Balascia. However, we propose that both these names were derived from the Sanskrit term *bālasūryaka*, the crimson-coloured morning sun. Kautilya mentioned *bālasūryaka* as a variety of *padmarāga* or ruby (*AS*, 2.11.29). Thus it is quite likely that ever since Kautilya’s time, the Indians were familiar with the spinel ruby mines of Badakshan. These mines remained famous for more than a millennium. In 1315, Thakkar Pheru wrote:

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अतितेजः अग्निवर्ण लालं बंदखसाण देशे
*atitejaḥ agnivarnam lālam bandamkhasāṇa deśe*
(*RYP*, 104)

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At that time, spinel ruby was known as *lāl*. At times, ruby (9), spinel ruby (8), hyacinth variety of zircon (7-1/2) and hessonite variety of garnet (7-1/4), appeared to have similar reddish yellow colour, but these could be easily distinguished from one another by scratch tests since their hardness values (given in parenthesis) are different.

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*Indranīla* or sapphire was known to the Indians as a different category of gem-mineral (*AS*, 2.11.31), but we know now, that this is blue corundum (vide Table 7.2). According to Buddhabhatta (*RP*, 195-196; also supported in *GP*, 1.72.17-18 and *MM*, 405), a sapphire in which the colours of the rainbow sparkle is an *indranīla*, and the one which turns the milk in a bowl blue, is a *mahānīla*. The Agastimata however labels the second variety as *indranīla* (*AM*, 268), the sapphires from Sri Lanka *mahānīla* and the rest of the sapphires from other sources as plain *nīlas*. Utpala, mentioned in *Arthaśāstra* and *Maṇimālā*, is greenish blue and could be aquamarine rather than sapphire.

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The *Ratnaśāstra* texts described *indranīla* occurring in different shades of blue, and we know today that sapphire can be deep-blue, the most admired tone being ‘intense cornflower-blue’. Sapphire could be whitish blue leuco-sapphire or *somānaka* (*RP*, 219; *GP*, 1.74.3) or possess a yellowish tinge (‘Oriental topaz’). We have already mentioned that sapphire is slightly harder than ruby (Bauer, 1968: 282). The word ‘sapphire’ came from the old Arabic (also Hebrew) ‘sapeer’ meaning ‘to scratch’, something which is hard. Its hardness enabled it to be distinguished from less hard blue gems like aquamarine, lapis lazuli, and blue-coloured materials like quartz, glass or marble (*GP*, 1.72.14). Garuda Purāṇa mentioned various defects (grain boundary, holes etc.) of some sapphire samples, their occasional contamination with mica and moderate thermal resistance (*GP*, 1.72.6 and 11). The Indians received the best variety of sapphire from the Padmākara province of Sri Lanka (*MM*, 397), which must have been around the modern Ratnapura on the Kaluganga.

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Like blue to yellow transition, sapphire was known to have blue to red transition also, and such reddish blue coloured corundum samples could be called either sapphire or ruby. As a matter of fact, the Arabs guessed (without any scientific knowledge) that sapphires and rubies belonged to a transitional single group of gem mineral, and they called this *Yāqūt* which, according to Al-Afkānī, occurred in seven varieties. (Sarma, 1984:61; Wiedemann, 836-40) Both ruby and sapphire crystals, specially the dark coloured ones, are dichroic, i.e., appearing differently coloured when viewed through mutually perpendicular axes. The famous ‘Sapphire Marveilleux’ appears blue by day and red amethystine by night (*Maṇimālā*, p. 459). Sapphire with a dash of red has been known as *tittibha* (*MM*, 423) A deep blue gem dashed with red was known as *nīlāṅga* or violet-ruby (*Maṇimālā*, part 2, pp. 514-15).

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Asterias or star Sapphire is a special variety which when viewed against light appears like a six-rayed chatoyant star. This is due to the reflection of light from the surface of a multitude or microscopically small tubular cavities or rifts enclosed in the crystal, and grouped into three sets, each of which is parallel to a face of the hexagonal prism. (Bauer, 1968: 284) This variety of *indranīla* was mentioned by Kauṭilya as *śravanmadhya* (AS, 2.11.31) which has been interpreted by one Sanskrit commentator as streaming interior or ‘having rays shooting like flowing water’.

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Most *Ratnaśāstra* texts have discussed the pricing pattern of rubies and sapphires. Sapphire was considered to have different shades of colour which were equated to ‘castes’, e.g., whitish blue (brāhmaṇa), reddish blue (kṣatriya), yellowish-blue (vaiśya) and black-blue (śūdra) etc. (RYP, 82).

Gem Minerals Containing Beryllium

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We would now discuss the family of gem minerals containing beryllium, variously coloured, specially green and blue, and having similar hardness. In terms of chemical composition, a sharp distinction has to be made between chrysoberyl (hardness 8-1/2) BeAl₂O₄, a mixed oxide, and beryl (hardness 7-3/4) Be₃Al₂Si₆O₁₈ a cyclo-silicate. The difference in their hardness could be easily tested using another gem, topaz having an intermediate hardness of eight. In absolutely pure form, both chrysoberyl and beryl are colourless. Their colours in the gem form arise on account of lattice substitutions by other elements as specified in Table 7.2. Due to chromium and iron, chrysoberyl samples assume green and yellow colour respectively, the more usual green colour often merging into golden yellow.

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Milky white or greenish white cloudy chrysoberyl samples (not the clear and transparent ones) exhibt chatoyancy. Extending across the curved surface of such stones is a silvery line or streak of light, when viewed in a strong light. These samples are called chrysoberyl or oriental cat’s eye. The phenomenon of chatoyancy is due to the existence in immense numbers of microscopically small cavities arranged in a particular direction or a bundle of microscopic channels running parallel to a single direction. When viewed at right angles to this direction, a band of light is visible running across this bundle. The stone is usually cut along this direction so that maximum number of light-reflecting cavities are close to or on the surface producing maximum chatoyancy.

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Quartz cat’s eye samples (hardness 7) show similar chatoyancy or a wave of milky light reflected from the surface, the effect in this case arising due to the presence of large number of fibres of asbestos aligned in a specific direction.

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Beryl, *vaidūrya* in Sanskrit, has a hardness (7-3/4) different from those of chrysoberyl (8-1/2) and quartz (7), and the modern literature does not indicate that chatoyancy is observed in any beryl sample. However, green chrysoberyl sometimes looks like green beryl, and since the former gem exhibits chatoyancy effect occasionally, the Indian word *vaidūrya* has in some instances been used (unfortunately) to indicate cat's eye gem also. We would like to elaborate this point with some details.

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Pāṇini referred to *vaidūrya* coming from Vidura. Later Patañjali, the commentator of *Aṣṭādhyāyī*, explained that the gem actually came from the Vālavāya mountains, and was only processed in the town of Vidura (which must have been located somewhere in South India). Centuries later, Buddhabhatta wrote about Koṅgavālikasīmanta near the Vidura mountain as the source of beryl or *vaidūrya* (RP, 199):

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अविदूरे विदुरस्य गिरेः उत्तुंगरोधसः।
कोंगबालिकसीमन्ते मणेः तस्याकरः अभवत्।।
*avidūre vidūrasya gireḥ uttuṅgarodhasaḥ |*
*koṅgabālikasīmante maṇeḥ tasyākaraḥ abhavat ||*

v2.c43.s3.t3.7

Sarma (1984: 68) opined that the etymological link between Vidura and *vaidūrya* was ‘a fiction invented by the grammarians’, but we do not agree with him, since Patañjali’s explanation has been clear enough. Patañjali’s *vālavāya* (mountain) is similar to Buddhabhatta’s *vālika*.

v2.c43.s3.t3.8

It is well-known that Koṅga kingdom once governed the beryl mine of Coimbatore of the Salem district from which beryl gems were supplied to the Romans. Alfred Master has suggested (‘Indo-Aryan and Dravidian’, In *Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies*, Vol. XI, 1943-46, pp. 297-307) that the *veluriya*, the Pāli word was actually a Dravidian word preceding Pāṇini’s *vaidūrya*, and both were the adjectival forms of *Velur* (or modern Belur), which is in the heart of the beryl mines of Coimbatore. The AD 500 inscription of the Gaṅga king Durvinita mentions both Vēḷur as well as the Punnāṭa kingdom described by Ptolemy as ‘Punnāṭa in which is the beryl’. Vēḷur might have been known to Pāṇini as Vidur (‘the far away city’) where the beryl gem from the nearby mountains were processed.

v2.c43.s3.t3.9

Thus, the identity of *vaidūrya* with beryl is well-established. It was known to be quite different from cat’s eye. Kauṭilya listed beryl *vaidūrya* and cat’s eye *mārjāraksaka* as distinctly separate gem (AS, 2.11.30 and 39). Kauṭilya never mentioned *marakata* (emerald, the darker green variety of *vaidūrya* or beryl) which used to be imported to India from Egypt probably after his era. In the post-Christian era, we find *vaidūrya* and *marakata* being mentioned together to mean the same family of green gem.

v2.c43.s3.t3.10

Probably Buddhabhatta’s writing had created for the first time the confusion vis-a-vis beryl and cat’s eye. He wrote (RP, 200) :

v2.c43.s3.t3.11

वैदूर्यरत्नमयो विविध अवभासा:
तस्मात् स्फुलिंगानि वहा इव सम्भवन्ति
vaidūryaratnamayo vividh avabhāsāḥ
tasmāt sphuliṅgāni vahā iva sambhavanti

v2.c43.s3.t3.12

According to this text, vaidūrya is many-hued and one variety appears to have specks of fire on the surface. Finot translated this as “comme un jaillissement d’étincelles” indicating chatoyancy, and equated vaidūrya with cat’s eye. Buddhabhaṭṭa’s description indeed reminds one of chrysoberyl cat’s eye. Possibly, he made the mistake of using the term vaidūrya in a wide sense. This is obvious when he refers to a wide range of colour for vaidūrya: the conventional green (RP, 203), blue as well as golden red (RP, 202 and 208). Finot was certainly wrong (1898 : xlv-xlvii, and 43-45; also Agastimata Appendix 9 quoted by Finot in p. 135) in equating vaidūrya with cat’s eye. At any rate, this confusion had started with Buddhabhaṭṭa, and as Sarma (1984: 68) pointed out, Māgha made a similar mistake in using the word vaidūrya to indicate bidālakṣaṇa or chatoyancy of cat’s eye (Śiśupālavadha, 3.45). RRS, 4.57 description of vaidūrya is actually that of cat’s eye. As we have indicated earlier, the confusion arose probably due to greenish chrysoberyl cat’s eye and beryl occurring at times in the same matrix.

v2.c43.s3.t3.13

The confusion was however not perpetuated. Kālidāsa gave the right description of vaidūrya by referring to its long columnal (ratnaśalākā) grass-green crystals (Kumārasambhava, 1.24). Chrysoberyl was rightly recognised as a separate mineral karketana, by Buddhabhaṭṭa himself rudhira hemamadhuprakāśam (RP, 222; also 221-30). This gem was known to be ‘uniformly coloured, light-red like copper or yellow like honey’ (MM, 426). Garuda Purāṇa describes it as possessing ‘burning fiery brilliance of honey, shedding brilliant rays as if heated in fire’ (GP, 1.75.2 and 4) which reminds us of Buddhabhaṭṭa’s Sphuliṅga bahā (RP, 200), a description wrongly assigned to beryl (it could represent golden beryl, a gem softer than chrysoberyl but occurring with beryl). Pāribhadra, ‘a transparent water-green gem’ was equated by Tagore (Manimālā, part 2, p. 509) to aquamarine, a variety of beryl; it could be chrysoberyl also.

v2.c43.s3.t3.14

We have earlier described the modern scientific observations on milky white chrysoberyl cat’s eye and quartz cat’s eye. These were known to Kauṭilya as mārjāraksaka (AS, 2.11.39) and in Navaratnaparīkṣā as laśuna or garlic-like appearing as dugdhaliptasma or smeared with milk:

v2.c43.s3.t3.15

दुग्धलिप्तस्मम् यत् तु लशुनपदम् उच्यते

v2.c43.s3.t3.16

dugdhaliptasmam yat tu laśunapadam ucyate (NRP, 115 in Finot, p. 160)

v2.c43.s3.t3.17

Pheru described the chatoyancy of this gem accurately by comparing it with a human body that has horripilation pulaka or has the hair erect and aligned:

v2.c43.s3.t3.18

लशुनक: बिडालाक्ष: सपुलकम्। laśunakah biḍālākṣaḥ sapulakam । (RYP, 93)

v2.c43.s3.t3.19

The one which is cat’s eye with horripilations.

v2.c43.s3.t3.20

Thus we cannot agree with Finot that vaidūrya is cat’s eye and lahśuniyā or laśunaka its synonym. As a matter of fact, Alfred Master (quoted by Sarma, 1984: 67) has proved on the basis of a number of Pāli, Prākrt and Sanskrit passages that vaidūrya has the clear sense of beryl (‘Indo-Aryan and Dravidian’ by Master, In Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol. XI, 1943-46, pp. 297-307). Occasional identifications of vaidūrya with cat’s eye (such as in Maṇimālā, 226, 228) have been erroneous and unfortunate.

Vaidūrya and Marakata

v2.c43.s3.t4.1

Kautilya was the first to describe the vaidūrya gem:

v2.c43.s3.t4.2

वैदूर्य उत्पलवर्ण: शिरीषपुष्पक उदकवर्ण वंशराग: शुकपत्रवर्ण: vaidūrya utpalavarṇaḥ śirīṣapuṣpaka udakavarṇa vaṁśarāgaḥ śukapatravarṇaḥ (AS 2.11.30)

v2.c43.s3.t4.3

Beryl is of the colour of the blue lotus, of the śirīṣa flower, of the colour of water, green bamboo, parrot’s wing.

v2.c43.s3.t4.4

While describing beryl as many-hued, Buddhabhaṭṭa emphasized that its principal colours resembled the neck of the peacock and greenness of bamboo (RP, 203) : śikhi-kantha nila veṇudala prakāśa.

v2.c43.s3.t4.5

Agastīya Ratnaparīkṣā, 78 mentions

v2.c43.s3.t4.6

शुकपत्र वंशपत्र शैवालहरिता दूर्वापत्रनिभा खद्योत पृष्ठ संकाशा śukapatra vaṁśapatra śaivālaharitā dūrvāpatranibhā khadyota prstha saṁkāśā

v2.c43.s3.t4.7

Similar description has been provided in GP, 1.73.6-7. In chapter 6, we have presented extracts from the Mahābhārata which describe the nature of colour of the light and deep green blue beryl-cum-emerald-cum-aquamarine, which belong to the same family.

v2.c43.s3.t4.8

The family of beryl is a cyclosilicate Be₃Al₂Si₆O₁₈ which crystallises in the hexagonal system, sometimes occurring as long six-sided prisms, terminated by a basal plane (vide Kālidāsa’s long grass-green *ratnaśalākā* mentioned before). In pure form, beryl is colourless. Lattice sustitution by a very small quantity of chromium (in the form of Cr³⁺) makes the crystal light grass-green (typical *vaidūrya* of the early Sanskrit literature). Larger proportion of chromium (typically 0.2 per cent or above) results in intense green colour: ‘beautiful and deep emerald-green to grass-green, unrivalled in depth and brilliancy and comparable to the fresh green of a meadow in spring’. (Bauer, 1968: 308) This variety is well-known as emerald or *marakata* which was not mentioned by Kautilya, and the best samples were imported later to India probably from Ethiopia, Egypt, and during the Muslim period, from Turkey. Lattice substitution by iron to the extent of 1/2 to 2 per cent makes the crystal light blue, and such natural crystals have been known as aquamarine or *pāribhadra*. Greenish blue *utpalavarna* in *AS*, 2.11.30 an *indīvara śyamavapu utpala* in *Manimālā* (p. 510) is likely to be aquamarine. Ancient India was famous for the light-green as well as light blue beryl/aquamarine, the best supplies originating from Paddur, Kangayam and several other sites in the Coimbatore district. Beryl is also known to occur in yellowish green and pure golden yellow colour.

v2.c43.s3.t4.9

*Marakata* or emerald became popular in India only after Kauṭilya’s era. Buddhist monks and nuns were asked not to use shoes ornamented with, and bowls set with *vaidūrya*:

v2.c43.s3.t4.10

न वेलुरियमया पादुका धरितव्वा
*na veluriyamayā pādukā dharitavvā*
(*Mahāvagga*, 5.8.3)
न वेलुरियमया पठ्ठो धारेतव्वो
*na veluriyamayā paṭhtho dhāretavvo*
(*Cullavagga*, 5.9.1)

v2.c43.s3.t4.11

These were texts dated around 300 BC, in which *marakata* did not appear.

v2.c43.s3.t4.12

Evidently *marakata* or emerald was imported to India during the onset of the Christian era.

v2.c43.s3.t4.13

Though the occurrence of emerald in Ethiopia had been known to the ancients, the locality became completely forgotten. The earliest known emerald locality is in upper Egypt, not far from the coast of the Red Sea. The ancient mines discovered by Cailliaud in AD 1819 have been dated as early as 1650 BC; these are located in a depression of the long range of mountains which borders the west coast of the Red Sea. The mines are in Jebel (Mountain) Sikait (also Sakketto, from Sanskrit Saikat?) and Jebel Sabara (Zabara or Varvara in Sanskrit). Pliny mentioned the rocks about Coptos, as containing the celebrated mines of the old. These mines, known as Cleopatra’s emerald mines, located a little south of latitude 25°N, were close to the sea-coast as well as the desert and known as such by the Indian traders. The name marakata bears the imprint of maru (desert) and kata (from Pliny’s ‘Coptos’ or saikata meaning sea-coast or the mountain Sakketto?). In the justification of our hypothesis regarding the origin of word marakata, let us quote some Ratnaśāstra texts. Buddhabhaṭṭa wrote (RP, 150):

v2.c43.s3.t4.14

तद् वर्वरालयम् अतीत्य मरोः समीपे
स्थानम् क्षितेः उप पयोनिधि तीर देशे
तत् प्रत्ययान् मरकत आकरताम् जगाम।।
tad varvarālayam atitya maroḥ samīpe
sthānam ksiteḥ upa payonidhitīra deśe
tat pratyayān marakata ākaratām jagāma ||

v2.c43.s3.t4.15

The location of the marakata mine (ākara) past the sea-coast (tīradeśe) mountain Varvara and near the desert (maroḥ samīpe) has been strongly suggested. Agastimata (287) writes:

v2.c43.s3.t4.16

विषमस्थाने उदधेः तीरसन्निधौ धरणीन्द्र गिरिः तत्र
viṣamasthāne udadheḥ tīrasannidhau dharaṇīndra giriḥ tatra

v2.c43.s3.t4.17

and Ratnasaṃgraha (13) mentions:

v2.c43.s3.t4.18

म्लेच्छदेशे महाशैले शुकपक्षनिभ मरकत
mlecchadeśe mahāśaile śukapaksanibha marakata

v2.c43.s3.t4.19

as the source of marakata.

v2.c43.s3.t4.20

The Mahābhārata (12.46.33) has used another name for emerald, and that is masāragalu, masāra or masāraka. Monier-Williams explains in his Sanskrit Dictionary that Egypt was named as Misar or Misar in Sanskrit, and galu means a gem. Therefore masāragalu may be interpreted as the gem from Egypt, and that is consistent with the etymological origin of marakata explained earlier. The fourth century AD Prākṛt text Aṅgavijjā (58.20) mentions veruliya, maragata as well as masārakalla.

v2.c43.s3.t4.21

Emerald has few more name-equivalents in Sanskrit: harinmaṇi (green gem), garuḍodgāra, gārutmata, pannā, etc. The last three may be briefly explained. Ratnaparīkṣā and Agastimata narrated the myth or the folklore that gems had been derived from the body of the slain demon Bala: diamond from his bones, pearl from the blood, sapphire from the eyes, emerald from the bile, etc. The mythical bird Garuda had taken the green bile of the demon in its mouth and then vomitted it (hence the name gārutmata and garuḍodgāra) ‘on a mountain on the sea-coast near a desert beyond Barbara country’. We have earlier quoted the original Sanskrit text (RP, 150). Agastimata (285) mentioned Garuḍa as the king of the serpent-demon: pannagādhipaḥ. Panna also means something fallen down or dropped. Thus, the dropped bile of the serpent-demon or emerald also came to be known as pannā. It is an open question whether the location of the famous diamond mine in Bundelkhand was named Pānnā because it also yielded some emerald or pānnā. The Sanskrit word marakata was the origin of smaragdos in Greek, smaragdus in Latin, esmeralda in Spanish and emerald in English.

v2.c43.s3.t4.22

However, the Egyptian emerald had been known in Europe from a very early date. Herodotus mentioned the emerald colum in the temple of Hercules in Tyre ‘emitting a splendid light in night’. Plato mentioned the use of emerald. Aristotle’s disciple Theophrastus wrote that ‘smaragdos assimilates the colour of water into which it is thrown to its own colour’. Caesar and Cleopatra met in a hall of tortoise-shell, studded with emerald and topaz gems, Egypt having mines for both. Emperor Nero used to watch the feats of the gladiators, through an eye-glass of emerald. With the onset of the Indo-Roman trade during the first century BC, the Indians, long used to light-green vaidūrya or beryl gems, started importing and using the intense green-coloured gem of the same family viz., marakata or emerald. Some emerald might have been imported from Turuṣka or Turkey (MM, 357) during the Muslim period. The name tārkṣya stood for emerald (RRS, 4.5); Garuḍa was the son of Tṛkṣa.

v2.c43.s3.t4.23

The Ratnaśāstra texts such as RP, 152; MM, 377-379; GP, 1.71.12-17 described the colour and hue of the best quality emerald, and quite naturally used many of the adjectives and similies applied to beryl and aquamarine:

v2.c43.s3.t4.24

The peacock’s tail, the wing of the nīlakaṇṭha, parrot’s wing, moss, fresh grass, glow-worm’s back, the śirīṣa flower and so on. Agastimata (299) referred to the important property of emerald ‘spreading its green colour all around (pārśvarañjana) when viewed against light’:

v2.c43.s3.t4.25

कृत्वा करतले चैव भास्कराभिमुखं धृतम्।
रञ्जयेत् आत्मपार्श्व च महामरकतम् स्मृतम्।।
kṛtvā karatale caiva bhāskarābhimukhaṃ dhṛtam ।
rañjayet ātmapārśva ca mahāmarakatam smṛtam ।।

v2.c43.s3.t4.26

Buddhabhaṭṭa wrote (RP, 158-159): ‘When sun’s rays fall on it, shoots diffusion of light all around . . . infused light makes it appear like a green meadow: सवितुः करसम्पर्कात् च्छूर्यति सर्वाश्रयम् दीप्त्या . . . . . . अचिरप्रभा समद्युति नवाशद्वल सन्निभ भाति savituh karasamparkāt cchuryati sarvāśrayam dīptyā . . . . . . aciraprabhā samadyuti navaśādvala sannibha bhāti

v2.c43.s3.t4.27

Maṇimālā recorded (362-364) certain outstanding statements about emerald which ‘illumines a place when exposed to the sun; which is not extremely green, yet the splendour of which looks like the lightning’s play among fresh grass’ (MM, 362-363) and lastly ‘the sight of which instills the liveliest pleasure into the mind’: यश्च मनसः प्रसादं विदधाति निरीक्षित मतिमां च तत् मरकतम् महागुणम् इति रत्नविद्यां मनोवृत्तिः yaśca manasaḥ prasādaṃ vidadhāti nirīkṣita matimāṃ ca tat marakatam mahāguṇam iti ratnavidyāṃ manovṛttiḥ (MM, 364; also RP, 160 and GP, 1.71.12-15)

v2.c43.s3.t4.28

Garuda Purāṇa’s detailed description of marakata gems (GP, 1.71.1-29) clearly includes the characteristics of light green vaidūrya, bright marakata and bluish-green pannā, all belonging to the same family.

v2.c43.s3.t4.29

Perfect emerald gems were known to be rare, and the expression ‘an emerald without any flaw’ became proverbial. Defective pieces of emerald were sometimes encrusted with śilājatu (bitumen), stained and sand-grained (RP, 163). Bhallātaka and putrikā were common imitations, usually lighter, and losing brilliance on exposure and when rubbed (RP, 165-167; GP, 1.71.20-22). Fake emeralds were known to be softer and to be easily tarnished on application of lime which contrarily brightened real emeralds (MM, 382-83).

v2.c43.s3.t4.30

An emerald ‘endowed with virtues’ was known to ‘fetch more price than a ruby of equal weight’. As a corollary, the depreciation in the value of an emerald had to be more than that of ruby (RP, 173-74; GP, 1.71.28-29).

v2.c43.s3.t4.31

Skanda Purāṇa categorised the emeralds as those with quality and those with defects. The emeralds ‘with quality’ were further subdivided: गाढं दुर्वदालनिभं शलक्षणं उल्लसितं स्मृतम् पेशलं कलिमाग्राभं पित्तं शुकगरुत्प्रभम् मुग्धं तु तुलसी श्यामं पृथकं पद्मपत्रवत् gāḍham durvādalanibham ślakṣṇam ullasitam smṛtam

v2.c43.s3.t4.32

peśalam kalimāgrābham pittam śukagarūtprabham
mugdham tu tulasi śyāmam pṛthakam padmapatravat
(SP, 23.135)

v2.c43.s3.t4.33

That which resembles the green grass is called gāda; the pretty small one is called ullasita. That similar to the petals on top of a bud is called peśala; the one which reflects the feather of a parrot is called pittam. The mugdha variety is like tulasi (leaf) and pṛthaka resembles lotus

v2.c43.s3.t4.34

Skanda Purāṇa referred to the vaidūrya (beryl) mines in Ilāvṛta and on the Western parts of Mahāmeru. More specifically the mines were said to be located in:

v2.c43.s3.t4.35

गोरक्षे मागधे देशे पारसीके च सिंहले
मलये च त्रिकुटे च द्वीपान्तर महीषु च
gorakṣe māgadhe deśe pārasīke ca siṃhale
malaye ca trikuṭe ca dvīpāntara mahīṣu ca

v2.c43.s3.t4.36

Gorakṣa, Magadha country, in Persia, Siṃhala, Malaya and Trikuṭa mountain and in areas in distant islands.

v2.c43.s3.t4.37

The vaidūrya processed and set in jewellery by an expert artisan and that set by an inexperienced artisan naturally differed in containing defects and therefore in prices. (GP, 73.14)

Topaz (8) Puṣparāga or Puṣyarāga

v2.c43.s3.t5.1

Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra (2.11.30) mentioned puṣyarāga as a gem, yellow like turmeric. Buddhabhaṭṭa mentioned the same name adding that the gem came from the Himālayas. Navaratnaparīkṣā described the gem (NRP, 159):

v2.c43.s3.t5.2

ईषत् पीतम् पविच्छायम् स्वच्छं कान्त्या मनोहरम्
पुष्यरागम् इति ख्यातम् रत्नम् रत्नपरीक्षकैः।।
īṣat pitam pavicchāyam svaccham kāntyā manoharam
puṣyarāgam iti khyātam ratnam ratnaparīkskaiḥ ||

v2.c43.s3.t5.3

faintly yellow, bright lustre, transparent, excellent appearance.

v2.c43.s3.t5.4

Manimālā quoted passages in which the gem is called puṣparāga and compared with śanapuspa or śana flower (MM, 392-94; see also ARP, 87). Br. Saṃ. (80.5) and GP (1.74.1) also used the name puṣparāga. The latter text namely GP also preferred to categorise a large number of yellowish gems, such as those from the ruby-sapphire family, under the category of puṣparāga or topaz. Evidently this is not scientific.

v2.c43.s3.t5.5

Pure topaz (hardness eight) is colourless [Al(F,OH)]₂ SiO₄, which could acquire many colours such as blue, red, yellow, etc. Ferrous oxide, lime, alkali, water etc. contribute to the colours. In the Indian context, we are concerned with saffron-yellow ‘Indian topaz’ which came from Sri Lanka and possibly from the Himālayas as well.

v2.c43.s3.t5.6

Topaz was found in the former times in Abyssinia and in the same district of Egypt in which emerald occurred, and it is likely that the two minerals were imported together to India. The stone was called in Hebrew pittdoh, which was possibly derived from the Sanskrit pīta or yellow. The modern name ‘topaz’ was derived from the Greek topazion which meant ‘to seek’. An island in the Red Sea, usually covered by mist, was named Topazion and the yellow mineral found in this island was also given the same name. Pliny confused the nomenclature by calling this not-so-hard yellow mineral (actually peridot) as ‘topazion’ and labelling the actual hard topaz found in Abyssinia and Egypt as chrysolite. Topaz or puṣparāga was known in the Muslim period as pokhrāj. Yellow corundum and yellow quartz were recognised (through their different values of hardness) as ‘false topaz’.

Zircon, Garnet and Tourmaline

v2.c43.s3.t6.1

These three gem-minerals were known in the ancient world but were often confused with each other on account of their similar hardness and due to their occurrence in a wide range of colours, often resembling each other (vide Table 7.2).

v2.c43.s3.t6.2

Zircon (hardness 7-1/2) is the orthosilicate of zirconium, ZrSiO₄. Pure zircon is colourless, little iron giving it a colour which is brownish shade of orange, a mixture of red and yellow. Strongly reddish-yellow variety of zircon is known as hyacinth; this contains more iron in the ferric form. Pale straw-yellow or colourless zircon known as jargon contains iron in the ferrous form. Inter-conversion between hyacinth and jargon is possible by heating under oxidising or reducing atmosphere.

v2.c43.s3.t6.3

Hyacinth has been often confused with hessonite or cinnamon-stone variety of garnet, Garnet family of minerals has the general formula R₂²⁺R₂³⁺(SiO₄)₃ where R²⁺ and R³⁺ could be any bivalent and trivalent metallic cation respectively. Naturally, a wide range of minerals of diverse colour are possible in the garnet family, and actually exist in nature. Hessonite is calcium-aluminium garnet with some replacements by Fe²⁺ and Fe³⁺. In colour, hessonite resembles cinnamon and the seed of pomegranate or ‘grenat’ (from which the name ‘garnet’ has been derived). A deeper red variety of garnet, now known as ‘almandine’, was christened by Pliny as *carbunculus alabandicus* (from Alabanda in Asia Minor) or *carbunculus* (the name was loosely used to represent diverse red stones).

v2.c43.s3.t6.4

Hessonite and hyacinth are so much alike that lot of hessonite, though inferior in brilliance and luster, were bought and sold in the European market as the coveted hyacinth. Similarly, the lighter variety of zircon or jargon from Matura in Sri Lanka often passed as ‘Matura diamond’ on account of its transparency, brilliance and high refractive index.

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The varieties of zircon can be distinguished from other gems through their remarkably high specific gravity (4.61-4.82) and characteristic hardness 7-1/2 which is slightly more than that of garnet (hardness 7-1/4 and sp. gr. 3.6-3.7) and much less than that of diamond (hardness 10 and sp. gr. 3.52). We have mentioned earlier that the heavier or ‘Matura variety of diamond’ was considered to be impure or fake diamond (AM, 49-52); this came from the gem gravel of Sri Lanka as jargon.

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The name zircon came either from jargon (‘the worthless diamond’) or Arabic *zargun* (zar — gold and gun — colour in Persian). The Indian *Ratnaśāstra* texts referred to light yellow jargon as well as reddish-yellow hyacinth variety of Zircon.

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In the pre-Christian era, Kauṭilya mentioned, but did not describe *gomeda* or zircon, excepting bracketing it with *gomūtra* or cow-urine (AS, 2.11.30 and 39). Agastiya *Ratnaparīkṣā* made a complete series of descriptive statements about *gomeda* or zircon (ARP, 82-86; repeated later in *RRS*, 4.54) :

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Linked texts (26)

Garuḍapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra — Kauṭilya, Sanskrit
Bṛhatsaṃhitā — Varāhamihira, Sanskrit
Rasaratnasamuccaya — Vāgbhaṭa (alchemist), Sanskrit
Cullavagga — Pāli
Mahāvagga — Pāli
Śiśupālavadha — Māgha, Sanskrit
Kumārasaṃbhava — Kālidāsa, Sanskrit
Nirukta — Yāska, Sanskrit
Mahābhārata — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Raghuvaṃśa — Kālidāsa, Sanskrit
Ṛgvedasaṃhitā — Sanskrit
Aṣṭādhyāyī — Pāṇini, Sanskrit
Rājanighaṇṭu (Nighaṇṭurāja, Abhidhānacūḍāmaṇi) — Narahari Paṇḍita, Sanskrit
Vṛddhayavanajātaka — Mīnarāja, Sanskrit
Āyāraṃga — Sudharman, Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit
Cilappatikāram — Iḷaṅkō Aṭikaḷ, Tamil
Naturalis historia — C. Plinius Secundus, Latin
Tibetan translation ('Chi med mdzod) — Classical Tibetan
Kāmasūtra — Vātsyāyana Mallanāga, Sanskrit
Mohenjo-daro
Skandapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Uttararāmacarita — Bhavabhūti, Sanskrit
Aṃgavijjā — Māhārāṣṭrī Prakrit
Mānasollāsa (Abhilaṣitārthacintāmaṇi) — Someśvara III, Sanskrit
Ratnaparīkṣā of Ṭhakkura Pheru — Ṭhakkura Pheru, Apabhraṃśa