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Bharatiya Jyotihshastra (History of Indian Astronomy), translated by R. V. Vaidya v1.c5: Author's Preface

Bhāratīya Jyotiḥśāstra (History of Indian Astronomy), translated by R. V. Vaidya v1.c5

Language
English

Author's Preface

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The subject matter of this book has been presented in broad outline in the Introduction and a detailed idea of the subjects dealt with can be obtained from the table of contents and the subject-index at the end. I do not consider it necessary to dilate here on the utility of the book. If it be asked why the science of astronomy came into being at all, I have nothing more to say than that the science owes its origin to the natural curiosity of man. This science must have attracted the attention of man from times immemorial; in fact, one may safely say that it is the very first science evolved by man. This being so, I do not think that any apology is required for undertaking the survey and discussion of the growth of this science in our country.

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The present work has no parallel in Sanskrit literature. Our people are not much inclined to assess the merit of different works in the light of chronological sequence; an author born a couple of centuries ago is, in their eyes, almost on a par with one who flourished a thousand years ago. Again, they are not disposed to trace the history of any science nor have they developed the habit of recording the lives of ordinary men. These appear to be some of the reasons why the like of this book was never produced in the past.

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I propose to relate here in brief how the opportunity arose for writing this book. About the Śaka year 1802 I began to take interest in the question of the Sāyaṇa Pañcāṅga and eventually in Indian astronomy. As I went on dipping into old works I was led to estimate that comparative worth, to determine the chronological order of their compilation and to study the various stages in the growth of astronomy; and I began to feel that a work of this nature would be a welcome addition to our literature. In Śaka 1806 a vigorous movement for calendar reform had been launched in this province. As a result of this the DAKṢIṆĀ PRIZE COMMITTEE of Poona published an advertisement in December 1884 for a book devoted to the consideration of the chaotic condition of our Pañcāṅgas in the light of the history of our astronomy. As I had a liking for the proposed subject I was naturally prompted to undertake the work. The prize announced for the work was Rs. 450 and the time limit prescribed for it was the end of the year 1886. But by that time I could not procure the necessary material, particularly the ancient works and it was not possible for me to begin the writing. A request was then made to the Dakṣiṇā Prize Committee to extend the time limit, which was granted. But even then nearly six months passed simply in collecting the necessary information. At last I set my hand to the task of writing in November 1887 and submitted Part I to the Committee in the beginning of 1888. Writing and the search for more material went on pari passu, though not without impediments. At long last I managed to present the whole work to the Committee in three instalments, by the end of October 1888. The contents of the work would have amounted to 425 printed pages of a book of this size and they included the treatment of many more subjects and in much greater detail than what the Committee had expected of me. The work was approved by the Committee and I received the full prize in 1891. Later I began to think of publishing the book; but how could I undertake such an expensive project? A few days later the proprietors of the Aryabhusan Press agreed to shoulder the responsibility. By this time, however, an advertisement for a treatise on Pañcāṅga was published by the Gaikwad Government, for which a prize of 1000 Gaikwadi rupees was announced; accordingly I sent to the Gaikwad Govt. the relevant part of the book in the beginning of the Śaka year 1815, i.e. in 1893 A.D. A number of people had been suggesting to me that the book should be published but to my mind it was not yet complete ; some new matter that had come to hand was to be inserted at the proper places and some more was still to be collected. Moreover, I intended to await the decision of the Gaikwad Govt. about the work already submitted.* I came over to Poona in July 1894. Many people urged me to publish the book and therefore, the proprietor of the Aryabhushian Press, commenced the printing in March 1895. While the book was in press, I went on reading old books not seen before and collecting still more information, as can be seen from the footnotes appearing at several pages of the book.

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A part of the matter originally submitted to the Dakṣiṇā Prize Committee has been abridged and at times even omitted, so that the original volume which covered 425 pages has now been reduced by 40 pages ; still, the present work has grown into a volume of 524 pages. This amounts to an addition of 140 pages to the original, not to mention the index which is altogether new.

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Our people have not even a faint idea at present about the wealth of astronomical knowledge and astronomical literature in our country. The knowledge of the ordinary man is confined to the names of an astronomer or two like Bhāskarācārya and at the most the titles of a few works on astronomy. This work, however, contains an account of a host of astronomers and their works; even the mere enumeration of their names covers two long lists at the beginning of the indices. The reader cannot but be astounded to see this marvellous wealth of knowledge, and as he reads the history of the growth of astronomy he will come to realize the great calibre of our ancestors from their extra-ordinary efforts, researches and curiosity and his heart will be overwhelmed with delight.

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It is needless to say that being scientific the present work will not be readily intelligible to all and sundry like works of fiction. It cannot, however, be said that every section of the book will be found unintelligible. Supposing the book is divided into sections of eight pages, then every such section contains something or other equally intelligible to all readers. The reader should, therefore, not despair if some passage is found to be abstruse, but should proceed with the reading. I am sure that no reader would be found who is unable to understand even a single page of this work. One reader may understand one subject, another may understand some other. One reader may find a particular part interesting and useful while another may be able to appreciate something else. The headings printed on the left side of the page at several places would give a glimpse into the subjects under discussion. Those headings and the table of contents or a glance at the subject-index at the end will enable the reader to find out any passage or subject that he likes. At some places technical terms have been used and if their meaning is not clear they may be looked up in the Index at the end for the page numbers for which their definitions, meanings or explanations can be found. Some of the terms have been explained in my book “Jyotirvilāsa”. I was particularly keen on brevity in order that the volume may not run into great length. This has led to the introduction of lengthy compound words at some places in the book ; but these can be easily understood from the context.

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∗ The decision has been recently announced. My work has been approved and the prize awarded to me.

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According to some the book has become voluminous, while others think that it has become too concise. On reading the advertisement of my book, a notable gentleman wrote to me that the proposed subjects would require at least 1000 pages. As there is truth in both the views I have chosen to adopt the *via media*. Condensation of material cannot go beyond what is already done. On the other hand, if expansion is allowed, every page of the book can grow into four pages. Brevity could no doubt be achieved by omitting some of the subjects. But in view of the fact that opportunities for the publication of a work of this nature are few and far between, I have included in this book all available information on various subjects, that seemed noteworthy in my opinion.

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It is not claimed that the work is complete as it is. It has nothing to say about the astronomical references occurring in *Vālmīki’s Rāmāyaṇa*. Nor does it contain anything about the astronomical references from any of the eighteen *Purāṇas*. Some people suggested the inclusion of all these. But how much can I do single handed? Again there are still several works on astronomy which I have not seen. At present the *Ānandāśrama* of Poona alone has about 500 books on the subject. I have seen all of them; still many of them have not been taken into account in this book. The ‘Aufrecht’ catalogue, referred to in this book contains the titles of about 2000 books on astronomy. How to procure them and when to read them? Nevertheless my work contains all important information found in astronomical books, as also all astronomical information available from other works. Fortunately our country can proudly boast of several learned scholars at present who are far superior to me in capability. Any of them may take up the work where I leave it. I shall feel satisfied if my labours prove useful to them at least to some extent.

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Some had suggested to me that I should deal with such problems as the problems of divine incarnations like *Rāma* and *Paraśurāma* in this work; but so far I have not found reliable data that would lead up to the determination of such dates, nor do I think that they would ever be found. But one must not anticipate too much; for as the poet says, the world is wide and time is endless. The trend of my views on this question can be obtained after going through the book in its entirety. The conclusion of Part I is an attempt to determine the probable periods during which particular periods were compiled.

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The question as to what subjects have been or ought to have been dealt with in this book seems to have evoked quite a variety of beliefs that this work contains tables for computing *almanacs*, that it contains different methods of calculating planet’s places on the basis of any *Siddhānta* work, that it explains the theory underlying all these methods, that it also gives a method for independently computing an accurate almanac like the one computed with the help of the Nautical Almanac, that it also includes choice *Jātaka* works which would enable one to cast correct horoscopes. In short, some people seemed to believe that this work contained the very quintessence of *Jyotiṣa śāstra*—both astronomy and astrology. It is needless to say that it is impossible to incorporate all these subjects in this work. But I am glad to note that such beliefs clearly reflect a strong desire for knowledge on the part of our people.

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It has already been pointed out that there is no work like this in Sanskrit literature. Some information can be found in English scattered at several places; but if it is collected together it will not amount even to one fourth of the present work.

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The conclusion will show that several articles have been written in English by scholars of repute. No one had, however, treated the subject in such a comprehensive manner. It is also obvious that it was never before treated from the Indian point of view.

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Every statement about the contents of old works made in this book without citing some authority is based on my reading of these works; and I have most of such important works on astronomy in my possession. Every conclusion purporting to be the result of mathematical calculation, has been arrived at from careful calculations personally made by me and I am sure that they are correct; still as it is human to err, some errors might have crept in through oversight. In certain cases the necessary works were not available to me for reading and I had to rely on their authors and works while writing about their contents; in all such cases I have cited the authority for my statements at the proper places. Again, where extracts have been taken from other books bodily or in a summarized form I have cited chapter and verse for every quotation. Except for this, not a single line of this book is based or borrowed from any other book or its translation.

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Members of the Dakṣiṇā Prize Committee had made a few suggestions to me for the improvement of the original work. All of them except the one for abridgement have been carried out. At some places in the original work I had severely criticized European scholars. The Committee suggested that all such severity should be entirely dispensed with. Accordingly, I have toned down all such passages, though I have maintained the main points of criticism. I cannot, however help observing here that even some of our eminent scholars look upon the verdict of Europeans as gospel truth, howsoever absurd it may be. This indicates lack of confidence in one’s capability and scholarship.

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Rao Bahadur M. G. Ranade suggested that controversial matters like the views of European scholars and my criticism of them should be expunged from this book and reserved for discussion in some English journals, so that the book may not become voluminous. Accordingly, I did discuss some of the questions in English journals; still I did not feel it proper to remove the relevant portions from this book. It will be found useful by some readers at least if not all. If fortunately, this work is translated into English, this detailed exposition of my views will come to the notice of European scholars and receive proper consideration from them. A European scholar has written to me that parts of this work will have to be specially translated, if an English translation of the whole is not soon forthcoming.

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I want to urge my readers in all earnestness to keep a sharp look out for ancient works. I shall feel highly grateful and equally so, our country, if any one informs me of the discovery of some works not yet seen by me. Not much account could be given in this book in respect of works compiled in such regions as Telāṅgānā, Drāvid and Bengal. It is desirable that people should get as much information as possible about the more importance of such works as also about works like Nāḍigranthas. Again, the descendants of many of the authors mentioned in these pages might be still living; and if they impart some more information to me it will no doubt, prove useful.

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As regards publicity of old works, it has been noticed that the Telāṅgānā and Dravidian works are not widely known in other provinces. This seems to be due to the difference of script in which they are written. The works produced in Bengal are also not available in this province. Even then, looking to the difficulties of travel and communication in ancient times, one is really surprised to see how voluminous works could reach even the remote corners of India, how works like Grahalāghava, so frequently mentioned in this book, gained currency all over the country in a very short period of time, and how even mediocre works have been popularised. This wide-spread currency of books seems to be due to the fact that astronomers used to be patronised not only by Hindu Kings but also by Muslim Emperors. Moreover, it appears that most of them could count upon liberal reception from the Vidyāpītha (Academy) at Varanasi.

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It is true that the number of works on astronomy is enormous. As however ours is a very extensive country, a multiple of works devoted to the same subject of every day use were compiled in different provinces. Again, some works, specially the Karaṇa works, became obsolete and useless in course of time, which also gave rise to different works in different ages; further, several people appear to have compiled several works on the same subject because it depends more or less on the ingenuity of the author or whether his work would be found to be perspicuous or not. These are some of the reasons for the multiplicity of astronomical works and their wide-spread currency.

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The Vedic mantras or Sanskrit verses have been frequently quoted in this book. If a full translation of all these is given, it would mean an increase in size. It has, therefore, been given, not in all cases but only where it was very necessary to do so. At some places only a gist of the quotations is given, and at places where even that is not given, it can be gathered from the context to a certain extent. In giving the meaning of Vedic mantras, the original text has been followed. Words that must be taken as understood for proper construction of the passage have been given in square brackets and equivalents of words or phrases in parenthesis*. Nothing has been added that is not in the original. The printing of Vedic mantras or Sanskrit verses is faultless on the whole. It was, however, impossible for me personally to write out the whole press copy. Consequently some errors might still have remained, if these were not noticed while correcting proofs; but I could not help it.

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Biographical sketches of astronomers have been given in the Madhyamādhikāra (Chapter on mean motions); these mainly deal with authors who compiled works on astronomy. If any of them happen to be compilers also of works on Saṃhitā and Jātaka, such works have been taken into account at the same place. As for the authors who have compiled no astronomical works but only works on Saṃhitā or Jātaka, their lives have been given in the sections devoted to these Skandhas (branches).

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The life of each astronomer, as a rule, contains information on mostly the following points — his date, place, works compiled, commentaries on the works and an estimate of his capabilities. If any of his ancestors or descendants also happened to be authors, they are also taken into account. In addition to this, the remarkable feature of his life, if any, has been mentioned in the contents. The contents give a list of works or their authors along with the Śaka year which indicates the year of compilation unless the words birth Śaka are added.

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∗ This distinction could not be scrupulously observed in the English translation—Translator.

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I am of opinion that the ‘anusvāra’ (a dot denoting the nasal sound) need not be added to the last letters of the words ‘jethe’, ‘tethe’, ‘kothe’ etc. and I also hold some independent views on the question of orthography. My views have been followed in certain cases; but the copyists, proof correctors and even the compositors have become so very familiar with the rule of the terminal dot, that the ‘anusvāra’s’ have found their way into this book, even though eliminated in the press copy.

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It is my opinion that the names of ancient authors should not be mentioned in the honorific plural and this rule has been generally observed. As even the Almighty is spoken of in the singular, I do not think that the plural form e.g., “Bhāskarācārya Mhaṇatāt” implies any greater respect for the author. It can safely be said that there is no honorific plural either in Sanskrit or even in English. It is at present customary, however, to use the plural form while speaking of certain personages living or recently deceased. I have generally retained only this, lest a breach of the formality should jar on the ears of my readers.

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As we are these days more familiar with the Christian era than the Śaka era, it is more convenient to discuss the dates of events in terms of Christian era. Our astronomical works, however, invariably use the Śaka era. Let the work belong to any part of India whatsoever, it is bound to use the Śaka year, even if it is not in use in every day life there. I have accordingly used the Śaka era almost everywhere in the book. However, the year indicated as B. S. (before Śaka) can safely pass for B. C., because the difference of 78 years is negligible where dates of very remote antiquity are concerned. Everywhere in this book the Śaka figure indicates the expired year unless it is specifically stated to be current. The planetary positions should be taken as Nirayaṇa or as calculated by the Graha-lāghava system unless the word Sāyaṇa is specifically used. Words like Sūrya-Siddhānta, Ārya-Siddhānta, and Brahma-Siddhānta used without qualification, should be taken to mean the current or later Sūrya-Siddhānta, the first Ārya-Siddhānta and the Brahmagupta-Siddhānta respectively.

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It goes without saying that the index is very covenient for the purpose of reference. But experience alone can show how difficult it is to prepare an index. As it would have a long time to prepare it single handed, I have myself prepared only the subject index. In preparing the remaining indices I received considerable help from the present students of the Poona Training College. But as the work has passed through many hands and the lists were copied out five times before their final printing, some errors of omission and commission may have crept in at places; but no one could help it. It is the practice of our writers to include their works on Arithmetic and Algebra among those on astronomy and the practice has been adopted in preparing the index; similarly, the names of almanacs, Sanskrit and Marathi works and their authors have been included in the Sanskrit list. The letter Ṭi (denoting Ṭip or footnote) has been left out at places before the page numbers in the index.

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It would be difficult for the readers fully to realise what pains were taken to procure old works while writing this book, what people were coaxed and cajoled and in what way, how speedily the work of reading was done, and what mental and physical strain I had to undergo on the whole, while writing the present work and getting it printed. The pleasure of the pursuit was the only true reward of these labours.

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The sale of the book is bound to be poor because it is scientific and of course I could not have shouldered the expensive and risky work of printing. But Mr. Hari Narayan Gokhale, a proprietor of the Aryabhushan Press, Poona, who is my former playmate and a fellow townman undertook the work and completed it with success. He has thus obliged me as well as the whole of Maharashtra. If he had not been pressing me to get the book printed and continued to press me to finish it soon while the printing was in progress, it would never have seen the light of the day, for it would never have really reached completion to my satisfaction till the end of my life. Had the whole manuscripts been ready at the outset, the publisher would have printed it within two months; but the publication was so long delayed, because my reading went on ceaselessly at the same time. The publication of a work of this kind must inevitably take a long time. Still, whatever work could be accomplished so far, has been brought to completion as far as possible. I shall feel much obliged if any defects found in this work are brought to my notice or suggestions made in regard to its contents.

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I have received help from several people in several ways from the day I started writing till this day of publication. Even if I merely mention their names and the kind of help offered it would easily cover a page or two; instead of doing this I wish to express my gratitude to all of them most sincerely even though in a general way.

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It was a convention with the ancient writers on astronomy to give a brief account of themselves. I could write the major portion of the book because of this convention. Now I propose to follow suit and give a brief account of myself before I conclude the preface; I was born on Tuesday, the 14th-cum-15th lunar day (tithi) of the bright half of Āṣaḍha, Śaka 1775 (according to Grahalāghava Pañcāṅga) i.e. on 20/21 July 1853, at the village of Murud, in Dapoli Taluk, District Ratnagiri, my birth ascendant being Gemini. My ancestral line from father backwards runs thus; Balakrishna, Ramachandra, Ballala and Shankar, and my mother's name was Durga. I am a Chitpavana Brahmana of Nityundan 'gotra', Hiraṇyakeśī branch. The original surname of our family was Vaiśāmpāyana. This family has inherited the priesthood and religious leadership of the village of Murud which was founded by a saint some centuries ago; our original ancestor was his disciple and this vocation was conferred on him by the saint. About two years of my childhood were spent in elementary education at the village school and later in a local Government Marathi school, from April 1862 to October 1868. These very years were partly devoted to some study of Sanskrit and reciting of the Vedas. Part of the next two years passed in working as a candidate at Dapoli Court and a part in learning English. I was a student in the Poona Training College for three years from November 1870, when I obtained a first class certificate in the final examination of the third year. While studying at the Training College, I attended an English school one hour every day for two years. In 1874 I passed the Matriculation Examination, but I could not join College owing to several difficulties. I worked as the Head Master of the Marathi School at Revadanda from February 1874 to February 1880, and later on as Head Master of the Marathi School No. 1 at Thana up to August 1882. Afterwards I worked as an Assistant teacher at the English school at Barsi till the end of October 1889 and as an Assistant at the Dhulia Training School till the end of June 1894. Since then, I have been working as an Assistant Teacher at the Poona Training College. I wrote and published the following Marathi books in the years noted against them:

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(i) Vidyārthi Buddhi Vardhinī (1876). (ii) Sṛṣṭa Camatkāra (1882). (iii) Jyotirvilāsa (1892). (iv) Dharma Mīmāmsā (1895) and the Indian Calendar written in collaboration with Sewell has been recently published. I have also written a book entitled “Bhāratīya Prācīna Bhūvarṇana”; but since, it is not yet complete as it ought to be, it has not yet been published. That ours is not a family of Jośis, (astronomers or astrologers) is evident from the above account. My natural aptitude for learning and the habit of reading newspapers led me to take interest in the Sāyaṇa controversy and eventually to the study of astronomy. Whatever knowledge of these subjects I possess, is wholly self acquired. Some people appear to think that I have some knowledge of astronomy that is not accessible to others; but my knowledge is so meagre that any intelligent man can acquire so much within six months if he has a fair knowledge of Marathi, Sanskrit and English, an aptitude for Mathematics and an inquiring mind. Many persons approached me with a request to teach them astronomy—it matters little that their enthusiasm was short lived. So vast are the treasures of astronomical knowledge, which, for various reasons, lie beyond the reach of my power of understanding, that my own knowledge is next to nothing in comparison. May Savitā (the Sun god) the self existant and stimulator of intelligence, inspire all of us to acquire knowledge.

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Poona, Saturday the 31st October, 1896, Sāyaṇa Amānta Kārtika, Kṛṣṇa 10 Śaka 1818.

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A History of Indian Astronomy —Ancient and Modern INTRODUCTION

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If on an autumn or winter night we sit in an open on a vast plain outside, we are naturally tempted to gaze at the heavens above. Thousands of tiny glowing stars would appear twinkling all around in the sky, some of them very small and some large. A closer look would then reveal that these shining articles are not stationary. Some of them would appear to be coming up from below, while some others going down on the other side. While we keep continually gazing at them some large bright star is suddenly noticed rising on the horizon; and while we are looking at it in wonder, all of a sudden, some bright shining light at the lowest part of the sky appearing to touch the earth attracts our attention. The light gradually brightens in splendour and the stars on that side of the sky begin to fade out.

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After a short while, the reddish disc of the moon is seen making its appearance which is indeed a most delightful sight of the night. As the moon slowly rises higher up in the sky, it spreads its most enchanting light on the earth, and a number of stars fade out one by one in the brilliancy of that light. While we are thus feasting our eyes, we may perhaps see a sudden flash of light and some star may appear to drop down from the sky. Sometimes we may be startled to see half a dozen such stars, small or large, dropping down from the heavens within a short interval of time.

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The human mind is naturally attracted to such normal phenomena and the wonders of the sky being far more gorgeous and captivating than those of the earth, they attract one's attention to them all the more powerfully. People, who are somewhat indifferent to their worldly affairs for some reason or other, are more likely to be attracted by the wonders of the sky. Leave alone those who habitually and naturally take interest in such heavenly things, but a class of people may be found even among the common mass who can claim a fair knowledge of the stars, such as the cowherds who keep all night vigil in the open for protecting their cattle, or the peasants who get up early morning and attend to their work in open fields, or our sea-faring fishermen who seek guidance from the stars while navigating at night. Others too have a nodding acquaintance with the stars. In fact very few people would be found in our country who do not possess any elementary knowledge of the sky.

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The sun and the moon rise and set regularly everyday. The seasons like summer, the monsoon, and other seasons also recur in their regular order. Today, however, we are not struck with wonder at these phenomena because of our familiarity with them; but the primitive man at the beginning must have been overwhelmed with wonder at the regular recurrence of these phenomena, and his inclination must have been drawn to the study of the earliest times. The sun rises in the morning. It slowly comes up. After some time it reaches the highest point in the heavens, and then goes down slowly and the rays of the sun gradually lose intensity of heat till such time as the sun vanishes. Then follows the darkness which continues for a long time. Next day, the sun rises again almost at the same point and not in any direction at random. The observer then wonders, "Is it yesterday's sun which has risen today or is there a new sun rising every day ? If it be the same sun where did it dwell at night ? Why does it not rise in any direction at random ? Why are its hot rays vary in intensity ? The sky appears to touch the horizon at the place where the sun rises; then how it is that the sun comes above out of that very place ? If there be an ocean in the east and an ocean in the west, the sun appears to be emerging from one and plunging into the other; does it really sink in the ocean ?" We do not attach any importance to such thoughts today ; but in the beginning human mind must have been haunted by these thoughts and much time must have elapsed before any of these problems could have been finally solved. The knowledge of human being grows by tradition and the experience of the past and this proves useful to the posterity. Even in modern times, year after year rolls by till we come across a new discovery, which might eventually seem to be trivial but at the time of ts invention it is taken as an established truth.

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It is then obvious that at the beginning of civilization considerable time must have elapsed before the truth about even the most common place experiences came to be definitely known.

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The questions above about the sun as having disturbed the primitive mind is not merely a figment of fancy. Evidence of such primitive thought is found in the Jain literature which shows that the Jains believed in the existence of two suns. The Purāṇas too have postulated twelve different suns for the twelve months of the year. The twelve Ādityas of the Vedic literature are also well known. Although these notions appear today to be fantastic, it is clear that there was a time when people really cherished such beliefs. For instance the following verse from the Rigveda would show that the sun was supposed to have actually sunk itself in ocean before rising the next day.

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यद्देवा यतयो यथा भुवनान्यपिन्वत् ॥ अत्रा समुद्र आगूल्हमासूर्य मजभर्तन ॥
ऋ. सं. १०. ७२. ७.

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"Oh gods ! you draw out the sun (for the purpose of rising up again in the morning) which was sunk in the ocean."

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The following mantra from Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa may similarly be cited :

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य उद्वान्महतोर्णवाद्भाजमानःसलिलस्य मध्यात् ।
समा वृषभो रोहिताक्षःसूर्यो विपश्चिन्मनसा पुनातु ॥

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"May the resplendent sun, that comes up from the centre of the expanse of water of the vast ocean, purify me."

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The sun rises in the morning. It reaches the highest point at noon and sets in the evening. As if it crosses the whole sky in three strides. This phenomenon has been described at various places in the Vedic literature. That the sun transfers its heat and puts it into Agni (fire) at night is also described a many places.

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अग्निंवावादित्यः सायंविशति ॥ तस्मादग्निंरूर्वान्नक्तं ददृशे ॥
तैत्ति. ब्राह्मण २ १ २ ८.

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“The sun enters *Agni* in the evening. Hence *Agni* is visible at night even from a distance.”

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In this verse the sun is said to be entering *Agni* at night. The primitive man’s attention must have been drawn to the moon just as much as to the sun or even more. Unlike the sun, the moon does not rise regularly at night. Sometimes when it rises at sunset the moon appears full in size, and then, a days pass on the moon rises later and later every day and gradually grows smaller in size. It also rapidly changes its position among the stars.

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It slowly approaches the sun and a day comes when it becomes completely invisible and then after a day or two, the moon makes its appearance in the west after sunset on the other side of the sun; but at that time, it appears only in the form of a crescent, as if it were newly born. It is well known that on this day even now we find that people joyfully offer her the frills of their garments and pray to her for new garments and long life, chanting all the while the following *Mantra* which is found in all the four Vedas.

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नबो नबो भवति जायमानोऽह्नां केतुरुषसामेत्यग्रं ।।
भागं देवेभ्यो विदधात्यायनःप्रचंद्रमास्तिरते दीर्घमायुः ।।
ऋ. सं. १०. ८५. १९.

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The moon gradually increases in size as days pass and again becomes full some day. Many descriptions of the moon’s waxing and waning are found in ancient and modern works. And what is more, the digits of the moon, the dark spots on her face, her soft and serene appearance and her refreshing light, have provided an outstanding theme for poetic imagination in all countries at all times.

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The moon becomes full after 29 or 30 days, and it becomes full again and again after the same number of days. The primitive man must have adopted the day (i.e. a day and night together) as the natural unit of time, after observing that the period between two successive sunrises is almost the same. Similarly, after observing the rule about the full moon stated above, he must have adopted the period between the consecutive full moons as the second but a longer unit of measuring time. This period seems to have received the same term as that given to the moon in many languages. In the Vedic literature, the moon is named as *māsa*. As an example the following lines may be seen :—

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Ṛk Saṃhitā and Atharva Saṃhitā—

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सूर्यामासामिथ उच्चरातः । ऋ. सं. १०. ६८. १०. अथ. सं. २०. १६. १०.

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Ṛk Saṃhitā—

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सूर्यामासा विचरंता दिवि । ऋ. सं. १०. ६२. १२.

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That the name *māsa* originally given to the moon was later applied to the above mentioned period is well known.

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After these two units, the day and the month, were firmly established, man must have observed that the rains, winter and summer recur after some definite period of time. It was also observed that the rains and other seasons recur after twelve months, where a ‘month’ denotes the period indicated by the full-moons. This (long) period of twelve months appears to have been called in the Vedas—Śarad, Hemanta etc. after the seasons in the Ṛk Saṃhitā. The term Śarad in the sense of a year, occurs there more than twenty times and the term Hima more than ten times. These words are found in many places in other parts of the Rigveda as well. The very word Varṣa meaning ‘a year’ also signifies a particular season.

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शतंजीबशरदो वर्धमानः शतं हेमंतांछतमुबसंतान् ।।
ऋ. सं. १०. १६१. ४. अथ. सं. २०. ६६. ४.

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“Do live and grow for a hundred autumns (i. e. years), for a hundred winters and for a hundred springs.”—Ṛk Saṃhitā and Atharva Saṃhitā.

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The words Śarad, Hemanta and Vasanta all meaning a year occur together in the above verse. Even the term Samvatsara is very often found to have been used in the sense of a ‘year.’

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Any way the year is the third natural unit of time, but longer than the day and the month. So far we have had a glimpse of the origin of the three units of time. An attempt to describe in detail the gradual development of the basic astronomical concepts would involve a long exposition. This however is not necessary at this stage. The main features of this development are going to be described in detail later on.

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Just as the observation of the sun and other heavenly bodies creates a sense of wonder, even so their regularity and other characteristics strike one as most surprising and inspire a feeling of reverence for them. It is but natural that one should be led to infer that these celestial phenomena are controlled by some eternal truth and that the magnitude of that truth is simply too great to be described. The following verses from Rigveda are worthy of note in this context:—

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सत्येनोत्तभिता भूमिः सूर्येणोत्तभिता द्यौः ।।
ऋतेनादित्यास्तिष्ठन्ति दिवि सोमो अधि श्रितः ।।
ऋ. सं १०. ८५. १. अथ. सं. १४. १. १.

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“The transcendental truth supports the universe, the sun is supporting the sky; the twelve suns remain supported by truth and so remain the moon in the sky.”—Ṛk Saṃhitā and Atharva Saṃhitā.

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Even today we hear many people remark that all have discarded truth in this sinful Kaliyuga, but the sun and the moon have not.

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Some celestial phenomena are joyful to watch, some are amazing while some others are even frightening. When the eclipses, shooting stars and comets inspire a sense of awe and even fear in many a mind even in the present times, it is quite obvious that in the beginning these phenomena would have been regarded by the human being as extremely frightful and portentous of divine wrath. Many of us must have read how Christopher Columbus told the inhabitants of an island that because the god Sun was displeased with them he would hide himself on a particular day and how those people were frightened to see the prediction come true. Again it is a historical fact that the war, which had continued for five years between the people of Lydia and Media, about the year 584 B.C., came to an end by the mutual signing of a peace pact, because a total solar eclipse had occurred during the year and both the fighting parties were struck with horror to see the day suddenly turning into night.

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It is also known to many of us that the Mahābhārata gives a description of how the two eclipses of the sun and the moon had occurred in the same month just before the terrific battle between the Kauravas and Pāṇḍavas was fought resulting in a tremendous loss of life. Similarly, in the Purāṇas we come across descriptions of shooting stars and meteors and appearances of comets preceding such calamities.

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The natural units of reckoning time, i.e., the day, the month and the year which guide human activities, depend upon celestial phenomena. The knowledge about seasons which is necessary for agriculture depends upon the sun. That the rains are caused by the sun and the tides by the moon, and that it being felt that the wrath of Almighty is foreshadowed by some particular positions of the heavenly bodies, tend to show that curiosity must have aroused in human mind towards astronomical knowledge right from the creation of the human race. Again, certain ideas must have planted themselves in the human mind from very ancient times ; for instance, it might have been thought that since agriculture and other vocations of life are carried on when the sun and the moon occupy certain positions in the sky, it is quite possible that they would have been thought to prove beneficial when performed while the luminaries are in a typical position ; as for example, the fields may yield a bumper crop if the seed is sown when the moon is conjoined with a particular star and on the other hand crops are destroyed if sown when it is conjoined with another particular star ; some religious rites if performed when the sun turns from south to north or vice versa (that is on solstitial days) give beneficial or harmful results as the case may be. If marriages and such other rites are performed at certain auspicious moments they turn out to be beneficial ; when two planets were observed as passing very close to each other in the sky, they came to be interpreted as ‘fighting with each other’ and then one of them (the fainter of the two in luminosity) was regarded as having been defeated and this fight was supposed to be indicative of victory or defeat of a certain king on the earth ; it was also surmised as to what particular rites, if performed would nullify the malefic effects indicated by the appearance of eclipses, meteors or comets. Furthermore, it was but natural that ideas and convictions should have gradually begun to crop up in human mind that if the heavenly bodies have such a close association with the wordly affairs and their good or evil results, they must be affecting the individual life as well and then the people must have attempted to foretell what benefic or malefic effects would be experienced by any individual in his life, because the sun, the moon and the planets were occupying certain positions in the sky at the time of his birth and would be subsequently occupying other positions.

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The quest of knowledge regarding such matters led to the creation of three branches. The following questions, for instance, are associated with Mathematics (Gaṇita): Finding out the number of days in a month, the number of months in a year and the number of days in a year; when will the winter solstice or the summer solstice occur after a particular day; what position in the sky will a particular planet be occupying on a certain day; when will an eclipse take place, and so on. These questions are related to Mathematics. The knowledge of the effects of eclipses, comets, planetary conflicts on the world and the knowledge as to what days are auspicious or otherwise for the performance of marriages and other rites—these questions form the second branch; and the third branch comprises the knowledge which enables one to judge the benefic or malefic effects that would be produced by a particular position of planets at birth or later on in the life of an individual. These are said to be the ‘Three Branches’ (Triskandha) of astronomy.

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All the ancient and modern works in astronomy hold that the science is divided into these three branches. The first is called Gaṇita, the second Saṁhitā, and the third Horā or Jātaka. The Gaṇita branch is also known as Siddhānta.

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Nārada observes :

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सिद्धांतसंहिताहोरारूपं स्कंधत्रयात्मकं । वेदस्य निर्मलं चक्षुर्ज्योतिःशास्त्रमनुत्तमं ॥
नारदसंहिता. १. ४.

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“The excellent science of astronomy comprising Siddhānta, Saṁhitā and Horā as its three branches (Sections) is the clear ‘eye’ of the Vedas”. —Nārada Saṁhitā 1. 4.

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Mahādeva (Śaka 1185), the commentator of Śrīpati’s Ratnamālā says:—

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ग्रहगणितपाटीगणितबीजगणितरूपसुनिश्चलमूलस्य बहुविधविततहोरातंत्रशास्त्रस्य ज्योतिःशास्त्रवनस्पतेः संहितार्था एव फलानित्यवधार्य, जातकर्मनामकरणमौजीबंधनविवाह-यात्रावौ निखिलसंहितार्थमल्पग्रंथनाभिधातुमिच्छुः...आह ॥

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“I am desirous of describing in brief, the interpretation of Saṁhitā rules which are necessary to be followed, while performing ceremonies relating to post-natal sacrament, naming the child, thread ceremony, marriage, travelling, etc., knowing fully well that Saṁhitās are ‘fruits’ of the tree of astronomy, of which the various forms of Horā are the ‘branches’ and elementary arithmetic, algebra and calculation of planetary places are the firm ‘roots’.”

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Gaṇeśa Daivajña observes (about Śaka 1440) in his commentary on Muhūrta Tattva of Keśava.

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श्रीकेशवो...गणितस्कंधं...जातकस्कंधं चोक्त्वा...संहितास्कंधं चिकीर्षुः...प्रतिजानीते

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“Sri Keśava, having expounded......the Gaṇita branch and......Jātaka branch declares before proceeding to......the Saṁhitā branch.”

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The attention of our people was drawn to the study of celestial bodies from very ancient times; still considerable time must necessarily elapse before any subject can evolve itself into a science. Similarly, a long time must have elapsed before the standard works on the subject of astronomy could be written, and it is obvious that the works which were written in the beginning of the evolution of the subject must have contained simple statements of facts of an elementary nature and those too of only broad outlines. The most ancient of the astronomical works extant in these days is the Vedāṅga Jyotiṣa. It deals with the mathematical aspect of only the sun and the moon; the Atharva Vedāṅga Jyotiṣa may be a latter work*. This deals with some aspects of the second and the third branches of astronomy.

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It seems as if the Saṃhitās of Garga and Parāśara belong to a later age. After the knowledge of astronomy had considerably developed it must have been grouped into three divisions or branches including Gaṇita. But this stage must have been preceded by certain works in which all the branches were discussed together. It appears that works of this type did exist and they too were known by the name Saṃhitā. Varāhamihira says in his Bṛhat Saṃhitā :—

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ज्योतिःशास्त्रमनेकभेदविषयं स्कंधत्रयाधिष्ठतं ।। तत्कात्स्न्र्योपनयस्य नाम मुनिभिः संकीर्यते संहिता ।। अध्याय १.

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"The science of astronomy which comprises a variety of subjects is established mainly on three branches. But the treatment of the subject in its entirety is also named Saṃhitā by the sages."

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We have no clue for ascertaining whether there were any works more ancient than the Vedāṅga Jyotiṣa and the Saṃhitās of Garga and others. None of these are available at present. Nor can we say with any degree of certainty whether the Saṃhitās of Garga and others that are available at present, have all retained their original composition and structure. In the case of Garga Saṃhitā some two or three versions are available. Nevertheless, it is evident that some Saṃhitā works containing a treatment of all the three branches together must have been in existence at one time, as is evident from the above quotation from Varāhamihira, let alone be the question whether such treatment was complete in itself or only fragmentary. As the knowledge of astronomy was progressing and as each branch was nearing perfection, different works, each devoted to some specific branch, came to be written and the term Saṃhitā was then exclusively applied to one branch in particular. Varāhamihira's Pañcasiddhāntikā shows that there were independent works on the different branches written before his time (i.e., before Śaka year 427). Āryabhaṭa's work, which deals exclusively with Gaṇita, belongs to a slightly earlier date than that of Varāhamihira. It will, however, be shown in detail, in the following pages, that the Gaṇita branch had become independent at a still earlier date. As for Varāhamihira himself, he has to his credit independent treatises on all the three branches.

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Let us now enumerate the subjects commonly found in the works on each branch. The mathematical branch consists of three sections (i) *Siddhānta*, (ii) *Tantra* and (iii) *Karaṇa*. The *Karaṇa* works deal with planetary calculations only. Bhāskarācārya defines *Siddhānta* as follows :—

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∗ Many subjects have been mentioned here only very briefly in order to give a general idea of later works; their detailed survey will be made at appropriate places.

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त्रुट्यादित्रयकालकलनामानप्रभेदः क्रमाच्चारश्च सुदां द्विधाच गणितं प्रश्नास्तथा सोत्तराः । भूधिष्ण्यग्रहस्थितेश्च कथनं यंत्रादि यत्रोच्यते सिद्धांतः स उदाहृतोऽत्र गणितस्कंधप्रबंधे बुधैः ॥६॥

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सिद्धान्तशिरोमणि, मध्यमाधिकार.

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“The wise people describe the *Gaṇita Skandha* (i.e. the branch of mathematical astronomy) as that work, which gives in detail all the units of time from *Truṭi* (moment) to *Pralaya* (Universal deluge) and deals with the motions of planets, and which treats of mathematics in the form of questions and answers. It is mainly divided into two parts. It also describes the position of the earth, the stars, the planets and also the instruments for observation.”—*Siddhānta Śiromaṇi, Madhyamādhikāra*.

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*Siddhānta* or *Tantra* generally consists of two parts, one mainly deals with the calculation of planets’ places and the other chiefly describes the structure of the universe ; and this includes the knowledge of the celestial sphere, the construction of instruments, the units of the measurement of time and other allied subjects. These two parts are not and cannot remain separate, Almost all *Siddhāntas* show as an intermingling of the two. Some people define *Siddhānta*, *Tantra* and *Karaṇa* in the following way :—

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In the *Siddhānta* work the beginning of the *Kalpa* is taken to be the epoch ; in the *Tantra* the epoch is the beginning of a *Mahāyuga*, and in the *Karaṇa* any *Śaka* year can be the epoch, and the calculations of planets’ places are made on the basis of the respective epochs. As a matter of fact there is no difference between them in regard to the computation of planetary positions excepting that each adopts a different epoch. The part of the work devoted to planetary calculations in all the three varieties contains a number of chapters called *Adhyāya* or *Adhikāra*. In general, the chapters are as follows :—

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1. The mean places of planets.
2. The true places of planets.
3. The three problems (time, place and direction).
4. The lunar eclipse.
5. The solar eclipse.
6. The shadow cast by the gnomon.
7. The rising and setting of planets.
8. The elevation of the moon’s cusp.
9. The conjunction of the planets.
10. The conjunction of planets and stars.
11. The luni-solar parallel.

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