Cover design: Françoise Berserik Frontispice: Hortus Indicus Malabaricus, Vol. 4 (1683), tab. 52 by courtesy of the University Library Groningen Typesetting and layout: Adriaensen & Barkhuis

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This book was printed with financial support from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) and the J. Gonda Foundation, Amsterdam

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This book meets the requirements of ISO 9706:1994 Information and documentation Paper for documents-requirements for permanence

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

Preface

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The initial impetus to the writing of this survey of Indian medical literature is due to Prof. J. Gonda, who, more than twenty years ago, after the publication of my thesis on the *Mādhavanidāna*, asked me to consider composing a concise book on the subject, to be issued as one of the fascicles of *A history of Indian literature* he was editing.

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Rashness made me comply with his request. Rather soon it became apparent that a reliable survey required a preparatory descriptive analysis of the texts and a study of their chronological positions.

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Accordingly, I began writing these analyses. This time-consuming activity resulted in the accumulation of an amount of information that could not possibly be compressed in the space allotted to the planned fascicle. The work kept growing, gradually assuming a shape and size that necessitated abandonment of the original design and another way of publication.

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After large stretches had been written, the prospect of the possibility of publication led to a collaboration with The Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine in London, and, in particular, with Dr. D. Wujastyk, attached to this Institute. Over several years he has been helpful to me in many respects. I appreciate the efforts he made in looking after my interests. His expertise and advice facilitated the conversion of my writings into computer files. I acknowledge with gratitude the secretarial assistance of the Wellcome Institute over a long period of time. Several persons spent much time on reading my hand-written pages and processing them. In a later stage, secretarial help has also been forthcoming from the Seminar für Geschichte und Kultur des Vorderen Orients of the University of Hamburg, thanks to Prof. R.E. Emmerick, and from the Institut für Geschichte der Medizin of the University of Munich, thanks to Prof. P.U. Unschuld.

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After interruption of my contacts with the Wellcome Institute, due to editorial problems, wholehearted support from a number of Dutch organizations and several persons from my own country safeguarded my work from the danger of remaining unpublished. The offer to accept it as a set of volumes of the Groningen Oriental Series secured its future.

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I acknowledge with gratitude the unconditional readiness to further my interests of Prof. H.T. Bakker of the Institute for Religious Studies of the University of Groningen and of Prof. H.W. Bodewitz of the Kern Institute of the University of Leiden. My publisher, Egbert Forsten, mobilized the resources at his disposal and was always helpful by word and deed. The expertise of Dr. Roelf Barkhuis made the production process run smoothly and efficiently.

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The publication of my work has been made possible by grants from the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) and the J. Gonda Foundation of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.

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I should like to thank Prof. R.E. Emmerick of the University of Hamburg for his sincere interest in my work, which has encouraged and stimulated me.

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All colleagues and friends who have helped me in persevering during long years of labour may be assured of my appreciation of their assistance.

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My daily prop and stay has been my wife Hannie, without whose loyalty this work could never have been completed.

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Introduction . . . . . 1

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PART 1 Carakasaṃhitā . . . . . 7 1 Sūtrasthāna . . . . . 9 2 Nidānasthāna . . . . . 27 3 Vimānasthāna . . . . . 31 4 Śārīrasthāna . . . . . 38 5 Indriyasthāna . . . . . 48 6 Cikitsāsthāna . . . . . 51 7 Kalpasthāna . . . . . 81 8 Siddhisthāna . . . . . 86 9 General features . . . . . 93 10 Caraka, his identity and date . . . . . 105 11 Caraka in the Islamic world . . . . . 116 12 Caraka in Tibet . . . . . 117 13 Authorities associated with the Carakasaṃhitā . . . . . 119 14 Authorities mentioned in the Carakasaṃhitā . . . . . 145 15 Commentaries on the Carakasaṃhitā . . . . . 180

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PART 2 Suśrutasaṃhitā . . . . . 201 1 Sūtrasthāna . . . . . 203 2 Nidānasthāna . . . . . 234 3 Śārīrasthāna . . . . . 243 4 Cikitsāsthāna . . . . . 262 5 Kalpasthāna . . . . . 289 6 Uttaratantra . . . . . 300 7 Suśruta and the Suśrutasaṃhitā . . . . . 333 but absent from the Carakasaṃhitā 372 10 Commentaries on the Suśrutasaṃhitā 391

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PART 3 Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā 393 1 Sūtrasthāna 410 2 Śārīrasthāna 415 3 Nidānasthāna 426 4 Cikitsitasthāna 438 5 Kalpasiddhisthāna 442 6 Uttarasthāna 475

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PART 4 Aṣṭāṅgasaṃgraha 477 1 Sūtrasthāna 515 2 Śārīrasthāna 533 3 Nidānasthāna 538 4 Cikitsitasthāna 554 5 Kalpasthāna 560 6 Uttarasthāna 595

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PART 5 Vāgbhaṭa 597 1 Vāgbhaṭa and the works ascribed to him 657 2 Authorities mentioned in the works ascribed to Vāgbhaṭa, 661 but absent from Caraka- and Suśrutasaṃhitā 687 3 Commentaries on the works ascribed to Vāgbhaṭa 689

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APPENDIX

Abbreviations

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Abhinavanighaṇṭu | Caube, D. (1901). --- | --- ABI | Atrideva Vidyālaṅkāra (1976). ABORI | Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. AIAD | Mooss, N.S. (1938; 1949). AIOC | All India Oriental Conference. Ali, S. and Ripley, S.D. | Ali, S. and Ripley, S.D. (1983). ASB | Asiatic Society of Bengal. Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayakoṣa | Vaidya, K.M. (1936). AV | Atharvaveda. AVI | Sharma, P.V. (1975c). Āyurvedasaukhya | Bhagwan Dash and Lalitesh Kasyap (1980, etc.). BDHM | Bulletin of the Department of History of Medicine, Osmania Medical College, Hyderabad. BHM | Bulletin of the History of Medicine. BHU | Banāras Hindu University. BIHM | Bulletin of the Institute of History of Medicine, Osmania Medical College, Hyderabad. BIIHM | Bulletin of the Indian Institute of History of Medicine, Osmania Medical College, Hyderabad. BIM | Bulletin of Indian Medicine. BL | British Library. BNISI | Bulletin of the National Institute of Sciences of India. Bod. Cat. | see Cat. Oxford. BORI | Bhandarkar Oriental Institute. BSOAS | Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, London. Cat. Anup Sanskrit Library | Kunhan Raja, C. and Madhava Krishna Sarma, K. (1948). Cat. B.B.R.A.S. | Velankar, H.D. (1926; 1928; 1930). Cat. Berlin | Weber, A. (1853). Cat. BHU | Tripathi, Rama Shankar (1984). Cat. Bikaner | Mitra, Rājendralāla (1880). Cat. Calcutta Sanskrit College IX | Hṛṣīkeśa Śāstrī and Śiva Chandra Gui (1906). Cat. IO | Eggeling, J. (1896). Cat. Jammu | Stein, M.A. (1894).

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Cat. Madras: Kuppuswami Sastri, S. (1918). Cat. Mysore: Malladevaru, H.P. (1986). Cat. München: Jolly, J. (1912). Cat. Oxford I: Aufrecht, Th. (1864). Cat. Oxford II: Winternitz, M. and Keith, A.B. (1905). Cat. Puṇyavijayaji: Shah, A. (1965). Cat. Skt. MSS Cambridge: Aufrecht, Th. (1869). Cat. Skt. MSS N.-W. P.: A catalogue of Sanskrit manuscripts in private libraries of the North-Western Provinces (1874; 1877–78). Cat. Tanjore: Sastri, P.P.S. (1933). Cat. Vijayasevasūri: Catalogue of Sanskrit and Prakrit manuscripts, Āc. Vijayasevasūri's and Āc. Kṣāntisūri's collections, Ahmedabad 1968. CBORI: Sharma, Har Dutt (1939). CC: Aufrecht, Th., Catalogus Catalogorum. CESS: Pingree, D., Census of the exact sciences in Sanskrit. Check-list: Rama Rao, B. (1972). Chopra's Glossary: Chopra, R.N., Nayar, S.L., Chopra, I.C. (1956). CHSI: Bose, D.M., Sen, S.N., Subbarayappa, B.V. (1971). Coll. Puṇyavijayaji: Anonymous (1965). Dave: Dave, K.N. (1985). Der kleine Pauly: Ziegler, K. and Sontheimer, W. (1979). DGV: Śarmā, Priyavrat (1975d; 1977a; 1980; 1981). Dowson: Dowson, J. (1968). DWH: Dymock, W., Warden, C.J.H., Hooper, D. (1972). EI: Encyclopaedia of Islam. EIM: Ramachandra Rao, S.K. (1985). EIMI: Ramachandra Rao, S.K. (1985). ERE: Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics. Filliozat, Liste: Filliozat, J. (1934). Flora of India 1: Sharma, B.D. et al. (1993). Flora of India 12: Hajra, P.K. et al. (1995). Gambier-Parry: Gambier-Perry, T.R. (1930). GOML: Government Oriental Manuscripts Library. Gulabkunverba: ed. ff of the Carakasaṃhitā. Haas, Cat. BM: Haas, E. (1876). Haas, E.: Haas, E. (1876a; 1877). Hamdard: Said, H.M. (1970). Haridattaśāstrin: upodghāta to ed. ee of the Carakasaṃhitā. HCIP: Majumdar, R.C. (Gen. Ed.), History and Culture of the Indian People. Hemarājaśarman: Hemarājaśarman's Sanskrit upodghāta to his ed. of the Kāśyapa-saṃhitā.

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HIL Gonda, J. (Ed.), A history of Indian literature. HIM Mukhopadhyaya, G. (1974). HK Hilgenberg, L. and Kirfel, W. (1941). HMI Sharma, P.V. (Ed.) (1992a). Hobson-Jobson Yule, H. and Burnell, A.C. (1968). Hooker Hooker, J.D. (1961). Hopkins Hopkins, E. W. (1974). IC Indian Culture. IHQ Indian Historical Quarterly. IIJ Indo-Iranian Journal. IJEB Indian Journal of Experimental Biology. IJHM Indian Journal of History of Medicine. IJHS Indian Journal of History of Science. IJMR Indian Journal of Medical Research. IL Vogel, C. (1979). IO India Office. JA Journal Asiatique. Jaggi Jaggi, O.P. JAI Bhaṭnāgar, R. (1984). JAMA Journal of the American Medical Association. JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society. JASB Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. JBBRAS Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. JBNHS Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society JBORS Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society. JBRS Journal of the Bihar Research Society. JEĀS Journal of the European Āyurvedic Society. JRAS Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. JRASB Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal. JREIM Journal of Research and Education in Indian Medicine. JRIM Journal of Research in Indian Medicine. JTSML Journal of the Tanjore Saraswati Mahal Library. Kane Kane, P.V., History of Dharmaśāstra. Kaviratna translation a of the Carakasaṃhitā. Kirtikar and Basu Kirtikar, K.R. and Basu, B.D. (1981). Macdonell and Keith Macdonell, A.A. and Keith, A.B. (1967). Majumdar, R.C. Majumdar, R.C. (1948). Mayrhofer Mayrhofer, M. (1956; 1963; 1976). Mitchiner Mitchiner, J.E. (1982). Mitra, R., Notices Mitra, R. (1874), etc. Monier-Williams Monier-Williams, M. (1951). Mookerjee, Bhudeb Mookerjee, B. (1938). MW Monier-Williams, M. (1951). Nadkarni Nadkarni, A.K. (1954).

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NCC: New Catalogus Catalogorum. NIA: New Indian Antiquary. OL(Z): Orientalistische Literaturzeitung. Oldenberg, H.: Oldenberg, H. (1923). Peterson, A report: Peterson, P. (1899). PO: Poona Orientalist. PW: Böhtlingk, O. and Roth, R. (1966). RASB: Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal. Ray, P. c.s.: Rāy, P., Gupta, H.N. and Roy, M. (1980). RE: Wissowa, G. Rechung: Rechung Rinpoche (1973). RV: Rgveda. Śāstrī, Notices: Śāstrī, H. (1900). Śāstrī, R.: Śāstrī, Kavirāj Ratnākar (1977). Śāstrī, Vardhamān Pārśvanāth: Introduction to the edition of the Kalyāṇakāraka. Satyaprakāś: Satya Prakash, Kavirāj Ratnākar (1965). Sharma, P.V.: translation d of the Carakasaṃhitā. Sharma, R.K. and Bhagwan Dash: translation c of the Carakasaṃhitā. Shastri, A.M.: Shastri, A.M. (1969). SHM: Studies in History of Medicine, published by the Department of History of Medicine and the Institute of History of Medicine and Medical research, Tughlaqabad, New Delhi. Shukla, V., I: Shukla, V. (1977). SICH: Gode, P.K., Studies in Indian Cultural History. SII: Studien zur Indologie und Iranistik. SILH: Gode, P.K., Studies in Indian Literary History. Singhal c.s.: translation f of the Suśrutasaṃhitā. STMI: Rahman, A. et al. (1982). V. Śukla: Śukla, V. (1977). Sūramcandra: Sūramcandra (1978). Tāntrika Sāhitya: Gopīnāth Kavirāj (1972). Tawney and Penzer: Penzer, N.M. (1924–1928). Ṭoḍara: Bhagwan Dash and Lalitesh Kashyap (1980–1994). Vanauṣadhicandrodaya: Bhaṇḍārī, Ś. (1956–1968). Vanauṣadhidarpaṇa: Gupta, B.Ch. (1908; 1909). Vettam Mani: Vettam Mani (1989). VOHD: Janert, K.L. Vṛddhatrayī: Hāldār, G. (1963). VŚS: Umeśacandragupta (1914). Watt: Watt, G. (1972). WIHM: The Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine.

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Wilson, H.H. | Wilson, H.H. (1972). Winternitz | Winternitz, M. (1968). WIRM | The Wealth of India: Raw Materials. WZKM | Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes. WZKSA | Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde Südasiens. WZKSOA | Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde Süd- und Ostasiens. ZDMG | Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft.

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Unverified references are marked with an asterisk.

Introduction

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The scientific literature of India, to a large extent written in Sanskrit, usually has not been a subject to which indologists felt attracted and has repeatedly been described as a neglected area of research.

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The medical literature shared this fate, which may explain the paucity of critical editions and translations by Western scholars.

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This situation has probably contributed to the fact that Indian medicine is a relatively neglected area in works on the history of medicine. Seen from a wider perspective, encompassing the great civilizations of the world, the medical art that originated in the Indian subcontinent deserves more attention than it has received. Like Greek medicine, it spread over a large area, comprising Central Asia and a large part of Southeast Asia; Buddhist circles in China and Japan were interested in and influenced by it.

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While Greek medicine lost its dominant position in the West, and lives on, restrictedly, within Islamic medicine, as a transformed offshoot, Indian medicine can boast a continuous history, spanning more than two millennia, a living and still developing practice, and an ongoing literary activity.

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European interest in the medical art and achievements of the Indians was keen in the period of colonial expansion. The rich and varied flora of the country and the actions attributed to a large number of medicinal plants were intensively studied. The *Coloquios* of Garcia da Orta and the monumental *Hortus Indicus Malabaricus* of Henricus Adrianus van Rheede van Draakenstein are outstanding examples of Portuguese and Dutch activities in this field respectively.

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Some early representatives of Indology gave evidence of a considerable measure of curiosity towards Indian medicine and its materia medica in their writings. Several articles by no less a celebrity than Sir William Jones can be referred to as testimonies. Another famous scholar, Horace Hayman Wilson, also evinced the importance he attached to the subject in a number of publications.

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It is not within the scope of this introduction to review and discuss the early contributions to the study of Indian medicine, which largely date from the nineteenth century. Those interested can find much suitable material in a publication by A. Roşu (1989: Introduction XLIII–LI), devoted to the pioneering work of G. Liétard and P. Cordier. The earlier interactions between Western and Indian physicians have been dealt with in an article by T.J.S. Patterson (1987).

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Recent times show an undeniable surge of interest in non-Western systems of medicine, that of India included. The mere quantity of books on āyurveda in general and on the Indian medicinal flora in particular bear witness to this development. Unfortunately, their quality lags far behind their quantity. The majority of the authors present a biased, historically unfaithful picture, obscuring some of the facts and thus distorting the truth.

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A factual history of Indian medicine and its literature ought to show respect for both basic agreements and divergences of opinion expressed in the sources. Continuity in thought and practice and processes of change over the centuries should be described with an equal degree of attention and accuracy.

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Actually, this is hardly ever to be seen.

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The renaissance of āyurveda since about the middle of the nineteenth century - historically a fascinating phenomenon - made its protagonists and their epigones feel called upon to sketch a profile of this science that would be serviceable in the competitive struggle with Western medicine. The revival thus led to the construction of a unitary and coherent model of Indian medicine, weaned from inconsistencies and untenable concepts, and, particularly, as free from magical and religious elements as possible. The ancient terms for physiological and pathophysiological processes, nosological entities, etc., were diligently re-interpreted to bring them into line with terms derived from Western medicine. These procedures resulted in the appearance of a type of āyurveda that can best de designated as navyāyurveda or neo-āyurveda.

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I have tried to find examples of the methods resorted to in this system and to illustrate the inappropriateness of the attempts to make āyurveda into for worldwide use.

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In my view, Indian medicine is thoroughly embedded in the culture of the subcontinent and cannot adequately be studied and understood without acquaintance with its history and ways of thought. Conversely, knowledge of medical concepts will certainly illuminate problems that would otherwise remain obscure.

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Medical treatises abound in material relevant to cultural history, and many non-medical texts contain data pertaining to medicine, which demonstrates that medical science constitutes an integral part of the Indian civilization.

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A reliable and up-to-date history of Indian medicine and its literature is therefore unquestionably desirable. For a very long time, such a work has been a desideratum. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, no Western author has written a monograph on the subject.

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J. Jolly's Medicin, written in German and published in 1901, surveys the medical literature concisely, in nineteen pages, and gives a still valuable summary of medical theory and practice. C.G. Kashikar, who translated J. Jolly's work into English (1951; second, revised edition 1977), provided it with supplementary notes, but after him no other author incorporated newly acquired knowledge in the existing survey or in a new publication.

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In contrast with indologists of Western origin, Indian scholars produced a large number of books on the history of Indian medicine and its literature. Many of these are uncritical, but some are interesting and valuable. A few became relatively well known, whereas other publications, undeservedly, received almost no attention, being in Sanskrit, or, more often, in Hindī. The most important among these are frequently referred to in my annotations.

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Girindranath Mukhopadhyaya's History of Indian medicine in three volumes (1922–1929; second edition 1974) presents much useful information, as does the recent *History of medicine in India (from antiquity to 1000 A.D.)*, edited by P.V. Sharma (1992). Gurupada Hāldār’s *Vṛddhatrayī* (1963), composed in Sanskrit and dealing mainly with the classical treatises and the authorities associated with them, has to be consulted with caution, due to the idiosyncratic views of the author.

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Noteworthy publications in Hindī are Atrideva Vidyālaṅkāra’s *Āyurved kā bṛhat itihās* (1960; second edition 1976), Kavirāj Vāgīśvar Śukla’s *Sacitra āyurved kā itihās* (1952; second edition 1978) and Kavirāj Sūramcandra’s *Āyurved kā itihās* (1952; second edition 1978). The books by Atrideva and V. Śukla are comprehensive and discuss a large proportion of medical literature, rasaśāstra included, while that by Sūramcandra is concerned with ancient authorities.

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Some more books in Hindī to be read with profit are Ratnākar Śāstrī’s *Bhārat ke prāṇācārya* (1977), dealing extensively with a number of ancient authorities and their works, and *Prācīn bhārat meṇ rasāyan kā vikās* (1960) by Satyaprakāś, which is about a number of basic medical texts and a long series of works on rasaśāstra.

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Among the works in Hindī mentioned so far, the most useful book is that by Atrideva.

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Outstanding and of the first rank among the publications in Hindī is Priyavrat Śarmā’s *Āyurved kā vaijñānik itihās* (1975). As indicated in its title, this comprehensive survey of medical literature gives evidence of a scientific attitude. For that reason, it is the one I most frequently refer to. The numerous books and articles by its industrious and prolific author have been a constant source of inspiration to me. In spite of my disagreement with opinions expressed by P.V. Sharma, he remains the Indian scholar I most esteem and admire.

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The present work comprises the entire corpus of Sanskrit medical texts, from the earliest times to the present, thus covering about two millennia. Vedic medicine is not one of its subjects, since no exclusively medical treatises are known belonging to that branch of Indian literature. Those interested in this early stage may turn to the recent study of K.G. Zysk (1985) and the numerous earlier contributions. References to Vedic texts will be found in my annotations, whenever relevant. The same applies to texts forming part of the Buddhist Pali canon.

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Treatises on medicine written in Prakrit or Pali have been included, as well as a few in Hindī.

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Apart from the strictly medical texts, I incorporated a number of encyclopaedias with sections relating to medicine, some Purāṇas with medical chapters, and some Tantric works containing interesting material.

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Siddha medical literature, mostly written in Tamil, has been left undiscussed, although a not inconsiderable number of the large body of texts is available in editions. My very limited competence in Tamil is the main reason for this omission.

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The medical literature in Sanskrit that has been preserved in manuscripts is vast. Many important texts have been edited, some even very often, but a large mass remains unstudied. Many editions of lesser known treatises are rare and not easily accessible, because libraries possessing a sizable collection are few.

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For the purpose of writing my survey I chiefly relied on my own collection of texts.

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The secondary literature, extensive too, has been brought together during many years and derives for the most part from many Dutch libraries.

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The texts described and analysed are therefore those that were available to me in editions. Manuscripts were not studied, except in a few cases, and manuscript catalogues have mostly been gone through unsystematically, depending on their degree of accessibility.

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Text editions are provided with an asterisk in all cases where I did not set eyes on them. Editions present in the British Library and the India Office are recorded with their numbers as given in published catalogues, without an asterisk, because I consider the information to be trustworthy.

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With the restrictions mentioned, the texts analysed in my survey constitute a large part of those thought to be of importance. Depending on the available data, the remaining ones are more concisely described or simply mentioned, with reference to my source or sources.

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Besides the works on human āyurveda, those on veterinary medicine have been put in, since they form part of the same system of thought and practice.

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Rasaśāstra (alchemy and iatrochemistry) and āyurveda are overlapping areas and became intimately connected with each other in the course of time. Many texts can only be classified as intermediate between the two or as belonging to both at the same time. For this reason my survey embraces the literature on rasaśāstra. The close alliance between rasaśāstra and ratnaśāstra (the science dealing with precious and semi-precious stones) made me accept works on this subject too.

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The treatises on vṛkṣāyurveda (the cultivation of trees, shrubs, etc., and the treatment of plant diseases) have been left out. The literature on this subject has been studied in a recent book by R.P. Das (1988).

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My work is neither a continuous history of Indian medical literature, nor a history of Indian medicine that, in a chronological order, sketches progressive and regressive lines of development, losses and growth regarding theory and practice, changes in the materia medica and the types of preparations employed, etc., although a great deal of scattered information can be found in it.

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The conviction that an ongoing story requires a preceding systematic review of the sources prompted me to begin this enterprise and kept me going. Now that this task has finally been accomplished, someone else may take upon himself the duty of composing a readable, yet accurate and detached, history of Indian medicine and its literature.

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The coming into being of this survey has taken so many years that multiple traces of this long process of gestation will clearly show in the final product. A thorough harmonization of all the component parts proved to be impracticable.

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One of my aims, however, made in an early stage and adhered to until the very end has been to adopt, as far as possible (mainly in volume II), one and the same basic scheme in my description of texts: contents first, special features next, and information on author and date at the end. The majority of the chapters have an alphabetical arrangement based on the names of authors. This principle has been given up in the chapters on nineteenth- and twentieth-century works, ordered according to their titles, on account of the difficulties presented by the names of Indian authors. It has also been abandoned in the chapters on nāḍīśāstra (pulse-lore), pākaśāstra (cookery and the preparation of pākas) and rasaśāstra, where holding on to it appeared to have more disadvantages than merits. The successive order of the chapters is chronological whenever possible.

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I am fully aware of the inconveniences resulting from my scheme, which will only be remedied by the publication of an index volume.

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As far as my linguistic competence permits, the secondary literature has been digested or referred to, in particular in the annotations.

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This history of Indian medical literature is, self-evidently, one of many of the histories that could have been written. The fact that it is by one single author, who constantly had the same point of departure in mind, explains a leading feature. The unremitting emphasis is on nosology, with the Mādhavanidāna, the most authoritative textbook in this field, as the fixed point of orientation. My training in both medicine and Indology has contributed to the decision to choose this perspective, and has, in general, greatly facilitated the realization of the aims of my project.

v1.c6.43

Some of the principles of my method and of the structure of this survey may be in need of clarification.

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The two parts of volume I are devoted to four basic texts, their commentaries, and the authorities associated with these texts. The central position of these elaborate treatises and their influence on the later literature, which can therefore be designated as post-classical, made it not only unavoidable, but desirable, even necessary, to allot much space to their description, which, moreover, gave me the opportunity to refer to a large part of the secondary literature on many basic terms and concepts, and to provide cross-references. The four classical works are presented in the form of summaries, rather dissimilar from the synopses available for the Carakasaṃhitā and Suśrutasaṃhitā.

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The annotations give references to the Indological, medical-historical and recent āyurvedic literature in order to supply readers from diverse backgrounds with information. I recognize the drawbacks of this laborious procedure, but, after weighing up the pros and cons, the advantages for readers seemed to outweigh the snags. In general, I aimed at placing Indian medicine within a broader cultural and historical context.

v1.c6.46

The post-classical literature covers the two parts of volume II. Although prominence has been given to well-known treatises, I sincerely attempted to maintain impartiality by faithfully describing a large number of texts regardless of their impact or age, in the firm conviction that too many have been disregarded or taken no notice of, and with the objective of furthering the study of historical developments, which are, whether large or small scale, influential or marginal, always of interest and worthy to be given fair treatment.

v1.c6.47

Some of my conclusions regarding authorship and date of classical works will be seen to conflict with cherished Indian traditions. I acknowledge this disrespect for tradition, born out of respect for the independence of scientific inquiry.

v1.c6.48

Finally, a few technical points have to be made.

v1.c6.49

Sanskrit words have been hyphenated according to the akṣaras (syllables) of the Nāgarī script.

v1.c6.50

The source of botanical names, if left unmentioned, is the Wealth of India: Raw materials, volumes I–XI (1948–1976) and its revised edition, volumes I–III (1985–1992).

v1.c6.51

The frontispieces are taken from the *Hortus Indicus Malabaricus* (1678–1693) of Henricus Adrianus van Rheede van Draakenstein, as a tribute and mark of honour to this illustrious countryman, who deserves to be remembered by the author of a Dutch work on Indian medicine.

v1.c6.52

The responsibility for the errors and deficiencies of this work will be entirely mine. I am aware of some of its shortcomings. Reviewers, colleagues and friends are invited to identify weaknesses and blind spots outside the field of my consciousness. Their remarks will be appreciated by an author, who, as a psychiatrist and psychotherapist, sets great store by the salutariness of constructive criticism.

Part 1

Chapter 1 v1.c8.1

Chapter one,² called dīrghamjīvitīya, is the most heterogeneous of the whole saṃhitā in its composition.

v1.c8.2

Verses 3–40 describe the descent of the divine āyurveda to earth. The āyurveda was transmitted by Brahmā³ to Prajāpati,⁴ by Prajāpati to the Aśvins, by the Aśvins to Indra.⁵

v1.c8.3

A large group of sages,⁶ assembled on the slopes of the foothills of the Himālayas, sends Bharadvāja as their delegate to the abode of Indra,⁷ in order to ask this god for help, because diseases had cropped up among the living beings, creating thus obstacles to a religious life.⁸ Bharadvāja receives the āyurveda and passes his knowledge on to the other sages, among whom is Ātreya Punarvasu, who teaches the science in his turn to his six disciples. These six pupils, Agniveśa, Bhela, Jatūkarṇa, Parāśara, Hārīta and Kṣārapāṇi, put Ātreya’s teaching down in writing. Agniveśa is mentioned as the one who was the first to compose a medical treatise based on Ātreya’s exposition.⁹

v1.c8.4

Stories about the transmission of the āyurveda from divinities to human sages, similar to those found in the Carakasaṃhitā or of a more or less different character, occur in the Suśrutasaṃhitā, the works attributed to Vāgbhaṭa, the Kāśyapa-saṃhitā, Hārī-tasaṃhitā, Ugrāditya’s Kalyāṇakāraka, Bhāvamiśra’s Bhāvaprakāśa, and the Bṛhannighaṇṭuratnākara.¹⁰ An independent tradition regarding the origin of āyurveda is presented by the Brahmavaivartapurāṇa.¹¹

v1.c8.5

The Tibetan medical tradition developed its own version of the divine origin of the science.¹²

v1.c8.6

The large assembly of sages is a characteristic feature of the Carakasaṃhitā,¹³ although not unique. A similar group met at the court of king Romapāda in order to be instructed in hastyāyurveda.¹⁴ Part I of the Bower MS tells about a group of sages in the Himālayas who are interested in medicinal plants.

v1.c8.7

Parallels occur in non-medical treatises.¹⁵ A long list, with partly the same names as those of the Carakasaṃhitā, is found in the Bhāratīyanāṭyaśāstra.¹⁶ Meetings of numerous sages are also described in the Mahābhārata,¹⁷ Rāmāyaṇa¹⁸ and Bhāgavatapurāṇa.¹⁹

v1.c8.8

The sheer length of the list of sages (ṛṣi)²⁰ in the Carakasaṃhitā made Cakrapāṇidatta comment that it serves to remove sins (pāpakṣaya) and to show that the āyurveda is worthy of being honoured by great minds (mahāpuruṣa). The motley character of the group was noticed by Cakra; he divides the sages into yāyāvaras, śālīnas²¹ and ayonijas (not born from a womb),²² and into four categories: ṛṣika, ṛṣiputra, devarṣi and maharṣi. 23 Later scholars also expressed their opinion on the remarkable heterogeneity of the assembled sages, who, in the Indian tradition, belong to different yugas, which precludes their meeting together. 24

v1.c8.9

In my opinion, Caraka's list of sages, many of whom are known from Vedic literature, may have been inserted in order to stress the connection between āyurveda and the Vedic tradition, the orthodoxy of its teachings, and its association with the brāhmaṇas.

v1.c8.10

Chapter one continues, after this introductory part, with the actual subject-matter of the treatise, in discussing the terms āyus 25 and āyurveda (1.41–43). 26

v1.c8.11

The next series of verses, 44–52, deal with Vaiśeṣika concepts and their application in āyurveda, 27 a subject not discussed in the Bhelasaṃhitā, Suśrutasaṃhitā and the works ascribed to Vāgbhaṭa.

v1.c8.12

S. Dasgupta claimed 28 that there are important differences between some concepts as defined in the Carakasamhitā and the corresponding ones in Vaiśeṣika texts. In his view, the terms sāmānya and viśeṣa in the Carakasamhitā have a significance quite different from what they have in the Vaiśeṣikasūtras; he asserted that, in the Carakasamhitā, the word sāmānya, which denotes a class in the Vaiśeṣika system, 29 means concrete things which have similar constituents or characteristics, while viśeṣa, denoting ultimate particulars in the Vaiśeṣika system, means concrete things which have dissimilar constituents or characteristics. This judgment has been refuted by A. Comba, 30 who argues that the use of the words sāmānya and viśeṣa in their literal meaning is not foreign to the Vaiśeṣika tradition at all.

v1.c8.13

The most important passages of the Carakasamhitā on the universals (sāmānya) and particulars (viśeṣa) are: Sū.1.28cd–29ab, which lists the six categories of Vaiśeṣika in the following order: sāmānya, viśeṣa, guṇa, dravya, karman, and samavāya; 1.44, which describes the causality of sāmānya and viśeṣa; 1.45, which defines these concepts through characteristics useful in medicine.

v1.c8.14

The first of these passages enumerates the categories in an unusual order; sāmānya and viśeṣa are the fourth, respectively fifth category in Vaiśeṣika texts; both terms are used in their technical, not their literal, meaning on this occasion. The other passages employ the term sāmānya in its technical sense, i.e., it denotes the category, whereas the term viśeṣa does not denote the category of this name, the ultimate particular, but the universal-particular (sāmānyaviśeṣa) in its differentiating aspect; the ultimate particulars (antyaviśeṣa) are regarded as useless in medical theory. 31

v1.c8.15

A. Comba concluded in her study that the Carakasamhitā defines the universals and particulars differently from the Vaiśeṣikasūtras. By means of metonymies and ellipses, the Carakasamhitā points out the gnoseological function, at once unifying and differentiating, of the universal-particulars, rather than deducing their existence.

v1.c8.16

This led her to think that the Carakasamhitā takes for granted the demonstration of the universals in Kaṇāda's Vaiśeṣikasūtras, which implies that the latter are not dependent on speculations developed in medical circles, contrary to the opinions on this issue put forward by D. Chattopadhyaya. 32

v1.c8.17

S. Dasgupta 33 remarked that the Carakasamhitā seems to take its start from the Vaiśeṣika. He expressed as his view 34 that Caraka's definition of sāmānya and viśeṣa shows that they were then not yet counted as separate categories, as in the later Vaiśeṣika; Caraka’s sūtras were in his opinion probably written at a time when the Vaiśeṣika doctrines were undergoing changes, and compendia were beginning to appear; he supposed that a compendia like the Bhāṣāpariccheda might have been available to the author. 35

v1.c8.18

Verses 46–47 describe the puṃs (= puruṣa), who is the subject (adhikaraṇa) of the science of life, as a combination (saṃyoga) of three constituents (tridaṇḍa): sattva (= manas), ātman and body (śarīra). 36

v1.c8.19

Verse 48 is concerned with the category dravya (substance); 37 in agreement with Vaiśeṣika doctrine, the substances are nine in number: the five mahābhūtas, 38 ātman, manas, time (kāla) and space (diś); this enumeration of what are called the kāraṇadravyas is followed by an ardhaśloka on the kāryadravyas, divided into sentient (cetana) and insentient (acetana). 39

v1.c8.20

The categories guṇa and karman are dealt with in verse 49. The guṇas, forty-one in number, are divided into three groups by Cakrapāṇidatta in his commentary: vaiśeṣika-, sāmānya- and ātmaguṇas. The vaiśeṣikaguṇas are the objects (artha) of the senses (smell, taste, etc.); this agrees with Vaiśeṣika thought. 40 The qualities referred to as gurvādayaḥ in Ca.Sū.1.49 are sāmānyaguṇas; they consist of ten pairs of opposites, listed at Ca.Sū.25.36 and Śā.6.10, and by Cakra ad Ca.Sū.1.49: guru (heavy) and light (laghu), śīta (cold) and uṣṇa (hot), snigdha (oleaginous) and rūkṣa (dry), manda (sluggish) and tīkṣṇa (sharp), sthira (solid) and sara (flowing), mṛdu (soft) and kaṭhina (hard), viśada (clear) and picchila (mucilaginous), ślakṣṇa (smooth) and khara (rough), sthūla (gross) and sūkṣma 41 (subtle), sāndra (viscid) and drava (liquid); 42 a similar list is not known from Vaiśeṣika literature. Buddhi and the list ending with prayatna, referred to in Ca.Sū.1.49, constitute the ātmaguṇas, a subject discussed in Śārīrasthāna 1. 43 A second series of sāmānyaguṇas is alluded to as parādayaḥ; the items of this list are enumerated at Ca.Sū.26.29–30ab. 44 Karman is defined as movement (ceṣṭita), of the nature of effort, etc. (prayatnādi).

v1.c8.21

Samavāya is defined in verse 50 as the relation of inseparable inherence (apṛthagbhāva), as in the case of earth and other substances and their qualities; this relation is said to be eternal (nitya). Cakra describes it, in agreement with Praśastapāda’s commentary on the Vaiśeṣikasūtras, as the invariable co-existence (ayutasiddhi) of substrate (ādhāra) and that which exists in it (ādhārya). 45

v1.c8.22

Verse 51 defines dravya (substance) as that in which inhere karman and guṇa and which is a samavāyikāraṇa (inherent cause). This definition is qualified by Cakrapāṇi, because karman does not inhere in the mahābhūtas. 46 The same verse defines guṇa as being inherent (samavāyin) in a substance), devoid of action (niśceṣṭa), 47 and causative (kāraṇa). 48

v1.c8.23

Verse 52 describes karman, in conformity with Vaiśeṣika views, as inherent in substance, causative of conjunction (saṃyoga) and disjunction (vibhāga), and independent of other factors (nānyad apekṣate). 49

v1.c8.24

Chapter one then turns to concepts which are important in medical theory. Equilibrium of the dhātus (constituent elements of the body) is the object of the medical science, to be achieved by appropriate measures (kriyā) (1.53).

v1.c8.25

The threefold cause of bodily and mental disorders is the improper (mithyāyoga), 50 deficient (ayoga) and excessive (atiyoga) contact with time, buddhi and the objects of the senses (1.54), a subject more thoroughly discussed in Ca.Sū.11.

v1.c8.26

The body and the sattva 51 are the seats of both diseased and healthy states of man; a proper contact (samayoga) with the aforesaid factors is the cause of well-being (1.55).

v1.c8.27

Verse 56 characterizes the ātman.

v1.c8.28

Verse 57 enumerates the three bodily doṣas: 52 vāyu, pitta and kapha, and the two mental (mānasa) doṣas: rajas and tamas. 53 Verse 58 declares that the bodily doṣas are appeased by remedial measures (auṣadha), 54 which are of two types: daivavyapāśraya and yuktivyapāśraya; 55 the mental doṣas are pacified by means of jñāna, vijñāna, 56 dhairya, smṛti and samādhi.

v1.c8.29

The qualities of the doṣas and, by implication, the qualities of medicinal substances alleviating excited doṣas, are dealt with in verses 59–61. 57

v1.c8.30

The general principle on which the treatment of curable diseases is based is sketched in verses 62–63. Verses 64–66 are about the tastes, their relationships with the mahābhūtas and those with the doṣas.

v1.c8.31

Verse 67 divides medicinal substances into three groups: doṣapraśamana, dhātupradūṣaṇa and svasthavṛtti(kara). 58 Verses 68–74ab 59 divide drugs, according to their source, into jāṅgama, bhauma (or pārthiva) and audbhida, i.e., of animal, inorganic and vegetable origin; 60 many substances and clusters of substances belonging to these groups are enumerated. 61

v1.c8.32

Verses 74cd–119 describe sixteen plants with useful roots (mūlinī; 1.77–80), nineteen plants with useful fruits (phalinī; 1.81–86ab), 62 four fatty substances (mahāsneha; 1.86cd–88ab), five salts (1.88cd–92ab), 63 eight kinds of urine 64 and milk (1.92cd–113), 65 and six trees 66 used in evacuation (śodhana; 1.114–118). 67

v1.c8.33

Verses 120–135 state that a good physician should not only be acquainted with the names and characteristics of drugs, but in particular with their proper administration, on which therapeutic success depends.

v1.c8.34

Verses 136–140 summarize the contents of the chapter. 68

v1.c8.35

Chapter two, called apāmārgataṇḍulīya, 69 deals with drugs useful in vamana (emesis) and virecana (purgation) (2.1–16); both treatments, which, taken together, are identical with the śodhana (evacuation) of Sū.1.76, form part of the complex procedure called pañcakarman, elaborately described in the Siddhisthāna. 70

v1.c8.36

Many of the substances of this part of chapter two are already mentioned in Ca.Sū.1.74cd–119.

v1.c8.37

The medicinal plant apāmārga is the first one appearing in chapter two because it is the main drug used in evacuation of the head. 71 Madana (2.7) is the main drug among the emetics, 72 trivṛtā (2.9) among the purgatives. 73

v1.c8.38

The second part of chapter two describes twenty-eight medicinal gruels (yavāgū; 2.17–34), 74 employed in the dietetic regimen after a course of pañcakarman, especially if improperly carried out. 75

v1.c8.39

Chapter three, called āragvadhīya, 76 describes thirty-two 77 preparations called cū- rṇapradeha,⁷⁸ to be used for the purpose of external purification after proper evacuation of the patient.⁸⁰

v1.c8.40

Cūrṇapradeha is a powdered drug (cūrṇa), sprinkled over a spot already smeared with an oil, and rubbed for some time.⁸¹

v1.c8.41

Chapter four, called ṣaḍvirecanaśatāśritīya,⁸² discusses evacuative (virecana) preparations.⁸³

v1.c8.42

Six hundred of these preparations will be dealt with briefly in this chapter, to be described more fully later, in the Kalpopaniṣad (= Kalpasthāna).⁸⁴ The numbers of the preparations to be described in the twelve chapters of the Kalpasthāna are announced.

v1.c8.43

The milky sap (kṣīra), roots, bark, leaves, flowers and fruits of plants are employed (4.5) in the preparations, which are henceforth referred to as kaṣāyas in this chapter. The salt taste is unsuitable, the other five tastes are suitable in a kaṣāya (4.6).

v1.c8.44

Five types of kaṣāya are distinguished, arranged according to their decrease in strength: svarasa (freshly expressed juice), kalka (paste), śṛta (decoction), śīta (cold infusion), and phāṇṭa (hot infusion).⁸⁵ The definitions of these types are given in some interpolated verses.⁸⁶

v1.c8.45

Ten large groups (varga) of mahākaṣāyas are distinguished, subdivided into fifty smaller groups with specific actions;⁸⁷ each of these smaller groups comprises ten items, consisting of plants or plant products.⁸⁸ One and the same plant may be found in more than one of these groups of ten.⁸⁹

v1.c8.46

The groups begin with medicinal substances which are jīvanīya (vitalizing) and end with those which are vayaḥsthāpana (preserving youthful vigour), thus stressing the rasāyana aspect of āyurveda. The arrangement, names and actions of the fifty groups are remarkable in several respects and suggest that Sū.4 may represent an old part of the Carakasaṃhitā.

v1.c8.47

Substances called virecana in a broad sense are said to be the subject of the chapter, but, actually, a very small part of the groups of ten drugs belongs to this category.⁹⁰ Many groups consist of specifics against particular disorders,⁹¹ drugs acting on particular regions of the body⁹² or particular bodily constituents,⁹³ drugs with particular general effects,⁹⁴ etc. Some groups are specifically active against disorders not described as distinct diseases in the Carakasaṃhitā.⁹⁵

v1.c8.48

Chapter five, called mātrāśitīya,⁹⁶ is concerned with daily regimen.⁹⁷

v1.c8.49

The subjects are: the suitable quantities of light and heavy articles of food, which are dependent on the power of one’s digestion (agnibala) (5.3–13);⁹⁸ the application of collyria (añjana) (5.14–20ab);⁹⁹ smoking (dhūmapāna) as a daily routine¹⁰⁰ and for therapeutic purposes (5.20cd–56ab);¹⁰¹ the preparation of aṇutaila and its use as a snuff (5.56cd–71ab);¹⁰² teeth-cleaning (dantapavana; 5.71cd–74ab);¹⁰³ tongue-scraping (jihvānirlekhana; 5.74cd–76ab);¹⁰⁴ keeping fragrant substances in the mouth (5.76cd–77);¹⁰⁵ the use of gargles (gaṇḍūsa; 5.78–80);¹⁰⁶ rubbing the head with oil (mūrdhatailaniṣevaṇa; 5.81–83);¹⁰⁷ the use of eardrops (karṇatarpaṇa; 5.84);¹⁰⁸ massage of the body and the feet with oil (snehābhyaṅga; 5.85–92);¹⁰⁹ rubbing the body all over (śarīraparimārjana; 5.93); bathing (snāna; 5.94);¹¹⁰ wearing clean clothes (5.95); the uses of fragrant substances, garlands, gems and ornaments (5.96–97); 111 hygiene of feet and excretory orifices (5.98); 112 hair- and nail-cutting (5.99); 113 the use of footwear, 114 umbrella, 115 and stick (5.100–102). 116

v1.c8.50

Chapter six, called tasyāśitīya, discusses physiological changes during the seasons and the recommended seasonal regimen (ṛtucaryā). 117

v1.c8.51

The subjects are: the importance of seasonal regimen (6.3); the year is divided into six seasons; the period in which the sun courses northwards (udagayana), known as ādāna, consists of the seasons beginning with śiśira (the cool season) and ending with grīṣma (summer); the period in which the sun courses southwards, called visarga, consists of the seasons beginning with varṣāḥ (the rainy season) and ending with hemanta (winter) (6.4); 118 the main characteristics of visarga and ādāna 119 (6.5–8); the characteristics of hemanta and the regimen to be observed (6.9–18); the characteristics and regimen pertaining to śiśira (6.19–21), vasanta (spring) (6.22–26), grīṣma (6.27–32), varṣāḥ (6.33–40), and śarad (autumn) (6.41–48); the definition of okasātmya (one’s adjustment as to diet and behaviour to the region of residence) (6.49–50).

v1.c8.52

Chapter seven, called navegāndhāraṇīya, 120 is concerned with the unwholesome effects of the suppression of natural urges (vegadhāraṇa) 121 and other subjects.

v1.c8.53

The thirteen urges not to be suppressed are those relating to urination, defecation, ejaculation, passing flatus, vomiting, sneezing, eructation, yawing, hunger, thirst, shedding tears, sleep, and heavy breathing caused by exercise. The symptoms resulting from suppression and the treatment of these syndromes are described (7.3–25). 122

v1.c8.54

The next series of verses enumerate urges that should be suppressed as being morally condemnable (7.26–30). 123

v1.c8.55

Some verses are devoted to the proper use of physical exercise (vyāyāma; 7.31–33). 124 Excessive indulgence in physical exercise, laughing, talking, travelling, sexual intercourse and waking by night is warned against (7.34–35). Those who should avoid physical exercise are described (two additional verses). 125 The proper way to get out of bad habits is described (7.36–38). 126

v1.c8.56

The remaining subjects dealt with are: the constitutions (prakṛti; 7.39–41); 127 bodily orifices and channels obstructed by excreta and secretions (7.42–43); general causes of endogenous (nija) and exogenous (āgantu) diseases and their treatment (7.44–55); 128 persons with whom one should not associate and persons whose company is to be recommended (7.56–59); rules about the intake of thick sour milk (dadhi; 7.61–62).

v1.c8.57

Chapter eight, called indriyopakramaṇīya, 129 gives an account of the five sensory faculties 130 and mind 131 (8.3–17), 132 followed by rules of conduct, which refer to numerous Hindu practices (8.18–29). 133

v1.c8.58

Among the persons to be shunned (8.19) is a bhrūṇahan, explained by Cakra as a garbhaghātaka, i.e., someone who kills an embryo or foetus, thus inducing an abortion. 134 A Vedic mantra is quoted (8.28). 135 Friendship (maitrī) and compassion (kāruṇya) are among the recommended virtues (8.29). 136

v1.c8.59

Chapter nine, called khuḍḍākacatuṣpāda, forms the short exposition on the four ‘pillars of treatment’: the physician, the drug, the attendant and the patient. 137

v1.c8.60

Chapter ten, called mahācatuṣpāda, 138 is, to a certain extent, a continuation of chapter nine.

v1.c8.61

The ‘four pillars’ are referred to at the beginning of the chapter. Punarvasu Ātreya is reported to declare that rational (yuktiyukta) treatment leads to freedom from disease. He is contradicted by Maitreya, who states that people recover or die from disease, irrespective of treatment. 139 Ātreya replies that successful treatment depends on correct knowledge concerning curable (sādhya) and incurable (asādhya) diseases (10.3–8). 140

v1.c8.62

Curable diseases are divided into two categories: easily curable (sukhasādhya) and curable with difficulty (kṛcchrasādhya). Curable diseases are also of three grades (alpa, madhya, utkṛṣṭa). Incurable diseases are either amenable to palliative treatment (yāpya) or intractable (anupakrama); grades are not distinguished. These categories are characterized (10.9–20). 141

First 162 of 5,124 passages. Read on

Linked texts (19)

Carakasaṃhitā — Agniveśa (Āyurveda) & Caraka, Sanskrit
Brahmavaivartapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Bhāgavatapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā — Vāgbhaṭa, Sanskrit
Suśrutasaṃhitā — Suśruta & Nāgārjuna (siddha/alchemist), Sanskrit
Kalyāṇakāraka — Ugrāditya, Sanskrit
Kāśyapasaṃhitā (Vṛddhajīvakīyatantra) — Mārīca Kaśyapa & Vātsya, Sanskrit
Nāṭyaśāstra — Bharata, Sanskrit
Hārītasaṃhitā — Hārīta, Sanskrit
Bheḷasaṃhitā — Bheḷa, Sanskrit
Mādhavanidāna (Rugviniścaya) — Mādhavakara, Sanskrit
Bhāvaprakāśa — Bhāvamiśra 1550, Sanskrit
Padārthadharmasaṅgraha — Praśastapāda, Sanskrit
Bower Manuscript — Sanskrit
Mahābhārata — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Parāśaratantra — Parāśara, Sanskrit
Vaiśeṣikasūtra — Kaṇāda, Sanskrit
Vālmīkirāmāyaṇa — Vālmīki, Sanskrit
Jātūkarṇatantra — Jātūkarṇa, Sanskrit

A History of Indian Medical Literature v1: Volume 1

Contents

Volume 1

Front matter

Volume I A: Text

Preface

Contents

Abbreviations

Introduction

Part 1

Chapter 1