Shringaraprakasha 1.p1

The Illumination of Erotic Aesthetic Experience. Composed by the Paramount King of Kings, the illustrious Bhojadeva. First Illumination.

1.1 May the body of Purāri protect you—its girdle broken and unbroken, obtaining an embrace firm and unobtained, kissing received and unreceived, its facial radiance beheld and unperceived—the body blended with his beloved, as if forging a friendship between love in separation and love in union! (1)

Cleansed by the dust of whose lotus-feet, as minds attain the spotless purity of a mirror's surface, the more exalted splendours of linguistic sound and meaning burst forth—may that venerable Gaṇādhinātha remove all obstacles! (2)

They declare erotic aesthetic experience to be a distinctive quality belonging to the self, located in ego-consciousness; in this world it is the very life-breath of Kāma, the mind-born. Its nature as aesthetic relish comes from being savoured by the power of the self; endowed with this, a person is celebrated by the acclaim: "He is an aesthetic connoisseur!" (3)

Arising from a special, pure merit in beings of pure essence, awakened from the latent impressions shaped across different births, the sole cause for the supreme elevation of every richness of the soul, a certain transformation full of self-regard awakens in the heart. (4)

Purport alone delights in speech, poetic suggestion alone in poetry, graceful charm alone in a lover's wealth of virtues, beauty alone on a woman's body, and erotic aesthetic experience alone in the heart of a person endowed with self-regard. (5)

The wise have taught ten rasas bearing the names: erotic aesthetic experience, heroic rasa, pathetic rasa, marvelous rasa, furious rasa, comic rasa, odious rasa, affectionate rasa, terrific rasa, and tranquil rasa; we, however, maintain from its savouring that erotic aesthetic experience alone is aesthetic relish. (6)

And the well-known presence of rasa found here in the heroic, marvelous, and others appears somehow established just like the phantom yakṣa in a banyan tree. This effort of ours is undertaken to set aside that [assumption], which has crept into the world merely under the sway of unthinking imitation. (7)

Because it does not run contrary to the mind, self-regard here is the cause for experiencing cognitive states such as delight; it is to be understood as aesthetic relish because it is savoured through the power of the self. The designation "aesthetic relish," on the other hand, is spurious when applied to an abundance of amorous pleasure and the like. (8)

Fifty emotions minus one, amorous pleasure and the rest, become distinct sources of diverse emotions; surrounding the essence of erotic aesthetic experience from every side, they enhance it just as arrays of flames enhance a seven-flamed fire. (9)

That which is brought to mind through contemplation by a person whose intellect is undivided, until the rise of feeling, is emotion (bhāva). That aesthetic relish (rasa) is what, having transcended the path of contemplation, turns back and tastes exquisitely in the heart possessing ego-consciousness. (10) / If amorous pleasure and the others were aesthetic relishes when carried to excess, what fault would there be in Joy and the rest [being relishes too]? If you say that they are not enduring, then tell me, how long do fear, grief, anger, and the rest endure? (11) / If permanence here is held to arise from an intensity of object, whence do worry and the like arise? Or if [it is] by force of human nature, then that nature would be equal in every person; or if it is from the stimulation of latent impressions, that is equal in both cases. (12) / 1.2 Therefore this is established: amorous pleasure and the other forty-nine are indeed emotions derived from erotic aesthetic experience; heroic and the rest are false claims to aesthetic relish; erotic aesthetic experience alone is the sole cause, the [true] aesthetic relish. And because it is accessible solely through direct experience and has no other object, it is difficult to fathom; or, when demonstrated in flawless histrionic representations by sophisticated actors, it is apprehended by the spectators; or, when correctly narrated in compositions by great poets, it enters the sphere of the intellect of the wise. In this matter, meanings of words directly perceived do not taste so sweet as when they are communicated through the words of eloquent speakers. So it is said: / 'Indeed, the particulars of things do not produce a blossoming of the mind when merely directly perceived / as they do when opening up as they are heard through the words of good poets.' / 1.3 Therefore, we esteem poets more than actors, and poetry over histrionic representations. And that [poetry] is remembered as the literary conjunction of linguistic sound and meaning, as in: 'Sound and meaning conjoined are poetry.' What, then, is meaning? That which is conveyed by linguistic sound. And that is twelvefold: action, grammatical tense, syntactic role, grammatical person, qualification, primary element, subsidiary meaning, meaning of the nominal stem, meaning of the case inflection, meaning of the complex formation, and sentence-meaning. What is literary conjunction? That which is the relation between linguistic sound and meaning.

And that is twelvefold: denotative capacity, speaker's intention, purport, distinct distribution, mutual expectancy, semantic compatibility, syntactic connection, integration of meaning, elimination of poetic faults, adoption of poetic qualities, and connection with poetic ornaments. / 1.4 In this regard, although the rule of usage is that 'a morphological base must not be used alone, nor an affix alone,' nevertheless, for the purpose of establishing grammatical correctness in the functioning of theoretical analysis, in the conceptual realization of sound and meaning through the postulated division of morphological base and affix, that which is taken up before the affix, like a material cause, is designated as the morphological base. It is threefold: having the form of a verbal root, having the form of an affix, and having the form of a nominal stem. Among them, verbal roots are sixfold: explicitly listed in the recitation of roots, unlisted, both listed and unlisted, affix-formed verbal roots, denominative verbs, and affix-formed denominative verbs. Among these, those explicitly listed are *bhū* and the rest; as in: / 'May birth take place in their lineage, may riches be produced among those / whose own wealth the petitioners take, thinking it their own!' / 'The poet creates poems, the virtuous cherish them in their hearts; / the sea produces pearls, the young women's breasts bear them.' / 'You do not restrain the cluster of sense organs, you do not listen to the guru's word, / you do not win friends—how will you seize the fortunes of enemies?' / The unlisted are *āndolayati* ('swings') and the like; as in: / 'Without swinging the water-lily, the wind yet makes my mind sway; / blowing in all directions, it tears away the hope of pride.' / 'Lightning seems to inlay the quarters; peacocks find delight; / the cloud-bearing winds blow away the heat of travelers' wives' sighs.' / 'Clouds gather in the quarters, planets fade in the sky; / the rains extinguish the heat, bodily passions dwindle.' / Those that are read only in the grammatical rules and not in the list of verbal roots beginning with *bhū* are the listed-unlisted, such as *sku* and others; as in: / 'Do not point out my offenses; Spring destroys pride; / O messenger, quickly bring her here; Kāma desires to revive me.' / 'With the thuds accompanied by the grunts of pestle-strikes, O breaker of the grain...'

Eros, holding up your breasts' expanse, as if pins [you] down! / Minds, prone to falling into [various] undertakings, are fond of house-dwelling; / women, by one form of the young men, are made the site of burning.

Verbal roots ending with affixes such as *san* are affix-roots; for example:
‘You do not reflect on the treatises; you do not fulfill the hopes of petitioners; / he does not protect those who are frightened; why do you wander about arrogantly?
She treats the nectar-rayed moon as the sun; in the Nandana garden she acts as if in hell; / longing with desire for you, though living, she behaves as if dead.
Her two cheeks turn red; her two eyes shed tears; / wishing to pay homage to her beloved, O slender-limbed girl, how do you endure it?’

The roots *kaṇḍū* and so forth are denominative verbs; for example:
‘He who does not scratch a vulnerable spot, who behaves lovingly toward women, / who extends compassion to anger, that king doctors the realm.
He who does not speak sweetly to the wicked, who is not envious of the virtuous, / who does not show disrespect toward the venerable, is glorified among the great.
Let the sacrificers desire oblation-broth; let the bards recite panegyrics; / let the seekers crave for wealth; while Rāma is here, the forest flourishes.’

How then is the *kaṇḍū* class both a denominative verb [and an ordinary root]?
‘From its being placed in the section on roots, it is a root; and because of the non-attachment of the affix *yaṅ* [etc.]; / and he spoke this long vowel; therefore I consider it taught as a root.’

Those [forms] from which, whether recited verbal roots for the sake of establishing noun-status, or nouns for the sake of establishing root-status, the affixes such as *kvip* are elided, being both nouns and verbal roots by virtue of the affix, are affix-denominative roots—namely, *hoḍa*, *galbha*, *klība*, and so on; as follows:
‘Speech, the sacred word, a perverse blessing, beauty, two guarantors; / a foe's head, an ally's fortress, an arm, a sacrificial altar: these are united with bonds.
You do not act boldly among those born with limbs; you do not behave weakly among the proud; / you do not act clever among the naive; you do not swagger among the timid.
The sun acts like the moon, and even the moon acts like the sun; thus nights act like days, / and even days act like nights, when the mind is held in sway by joy and sorrow.’

1.5 In the same way, ‘he recounts the killing of Kaṃsa’ [yields] *kaṃsaṃ ghātayati* (‘he causes Kaṃsa to be killed’); ‘he recounts the spending of the night’ [yields] *rātriṃ vivāsayati* (‘he causes the night to pass’); ‘he knows the conjunction of the moon with Puṣya’ [yields] *puṣyeṇa candraṃ yojayati* (‘he unites the moon with Puṣya’); ‘having set out from Ujjayinī, he reaches the sunrise in Māhiṣmatī’ [yields] *māhiṣmatyāṃ sūryamudgamayati* (‘he causes the sun to rise in Māhiṣmatī’). Here, the rules remembered are: the affix *ṇac* by ‘[an affix is added] after a verbal derivative when expressing its narration’ (*ākhyānāt kṛtas tad ācaṣṭe*), ‘the elision of the primary suffix, the reversion to the original base, and the case-role functioning as with the base’, ‘and the elision of *āṅ* in the sense of limit in unbroken continuity of time’, ‘the affix *ṇic* in the conjunction of asterisms’, and ‘the affix *ṇic* in the sense of producing wonder’.

This morphological base in the form of a verbal root has been described in its six varieties; now, that in the form of an affix is also explained as having six varieties.

1.6 For affixes are of six kinds according to the division into nominal case-inflections (*sup*), verbal inflections (*tiṅ*), primary suffixes (*kṛt*), secondary suffixes (*taddhita*), verbal-forming affixes (*dhātupratyaya*), and feminine suffixes (*strīpratyaya*). The morphological base that ends in these is likewise of six kinds in the form of an affix. That which ends in a nominal case-inflection is, for example: *ahaṃyuḥ*, *śubhaṃyuḥ*, *sāyantanam*, *cirantanam*, *tvayakā*, *mayakā*, *āmuṣyāyaṇaḥ*, *apsavyaḥ*, *prahṇetarām*, *pragetarām*, *pūrvāhṇetanam*, *samāṃsamānā*. That which ends in a verbal inflection is, for example: *pacatitarām*, *gacchatitamām*, *spṛśatirūpam*, *jalpatikalpam*, *jighratideśyam*, *paśyatideśīyam*, *āstikaḥ*, *nāstikaḥ*, *pacataki*, *bhindhaki*, *pacatabhṛjjatā*, *khādatamodatā*. That which ends in a primary suffix is, for example: *kṛtrimam*, *bhṛtrimam*, *sekimam*, *sāṅkūṭinam*, *sāṃrāviṇam*, *vyāvakrośī*, *vyāvahāsī*, *śyenaṃpātā*, *tailaṃpātā*, *jitvarī*, *āḍhyaṅkaraṇī*. That which ends in a secondary suffix is, for example: *gārgyāyaṇaḥ*, *dākṣāyaṇaḥ*, *vārṣyāyaṇukaḥ*, *vārṣyāyaṇīyaḥ*, *phāṇṭāhṛtāyaniḥ*, *ābhidityaḥ*, *kauñjāyanaḥ*, *kutastyaḥ*, *tatratyaḥ*, *pacatitarām*, *pacatitamām*. That which ends in an affix having the designation ‘verbal root’ is, for example: *cikīrṣā*, *kaṇḍvā*, *putrīyā*, *kāraṇā*, *miśraṇā*, *mṛdayā*, *aṭāṭyā*, *sāsahiḥ*, *yāyāvaraḥ*, *yāyajūkaḥ*, *cikīrṣuḥ*, *caṅkramaṇaḥ*.

That which ends in a feminine suffix is, for example: *gāṅgeyaḥ*, *saudāmeyaḥ*, *kārīṣagandheyaḥ*, *draupadeyaḥ*, *gaureyaḥ*, *śārṅgaraveyaḥ*, *kādraveyaḥ*, *kāmaṇḍaleyaḥ*, *yauvateyaḥ*, *saurabheyaḥ*, *bahusapatnīkaḥ*, *suvadhūkaḥ*.

Now, why is *yauvateyaḥ* cited under affixal morphological bases? Inasmuch as by the rule *yūnas tiḥ* (Pāṇini 4.1.77) it has the designation of a secondary suffix, it is indeed a nominal stem (*prātipadika*). That is true; however, the word *yuvati*, being a synonym denoting women in general, is a different morphological base; as he says: ‘Without conflicting with dharma, artha, and the time for auxiliary disciplines, a man should study the *Kāmasūtra* and its auxiliary disciplines; a woman, before youth’ (*Kāmasūtra* 1.3). After that [word], or after this very one ending in the affix taught in *yūnas tiḥ*, the secondary suffix *ḍhak* originates by the optional prohibition of *ṅīṣ* according to *er ac-ktinaḥ*; as in *āditeyaḥ*, *saurabheyaḥ*.

Now, how are *kādraveyaḥ* and *kāmaṇḍaleyaḥ* [derived]? For although *ṅī* and *āp* are not nominal stems, by the specific rule *ṅyāpprātipadikāt* (Pāṇini 4.1.1), and because that which ends with the affix taught in *yūnas tiḥ* is a secondary suffix, let the nominal inflection (*sup*) arise; but in the case of the feminine suffix *ūṅ*, since it is an affix, that [derivation] would not be established, and the secondary suffix must occur after semantically compatible forms. It will occur by virtue of being treated as final (*antavadbhāva*); for thus in *brahmabandhūḥ* and so forth, by *akaḥ savarṇe dīrghaḥ* (Pāṇini 6.1.101), the two become one. If so, the affix *ḍhak* by *strībhyo ḍhak* (Pāṇini 4.1.120) would not be established; that too will occur by virtue of being treated as initial (*ādivadbhāva*). Or else, nominal case-inflection originates prior to the origination of *ūṅ*, based on the indicator rule *sāsya devatā* (Pāṇini 4.2.24).

Thus this morphological base consisting of an affix has also been stated as sixfold; / now, from this point, that which has the form of a nominal stem is explained as sixfold.

[Morphological Base in the Form of a Nominal Stem]

1.7 In that regard, simple nouns, indeclinables, roots expressing action, primary derivatives, secondary derivatives, and compound words are nominal stems; as it is said: ‘That which possesses meaning, is not a verbal root, and is not an affix, is a nominal stem’ (Pāṇini 1.2.45), and ‘Primary derivatives, secondary derivatives, and compound words are also [nominal stems]’ (Pāṇini 1.2.46).

There, by the mention of 'meaningful' [in Pāṇini 1.2.45], nouns and indeclinables are apprehended; but kṛt-affixes, taddhita-affixes, and compounds [are apprehended] by explicit mention [in Pāṇini 1.2.46]. Now, are not these too meaningful? That is true; however, kṛt and taddhita are affixes, and because affixes are excluded [by the term apratyayaḥ], they would not attain the status of a nominal stem; therefore, by the mention of kṛt and taddhita, they are subsumed. But by the mention of compounds, [the author], indicating that the designation 'nominal stem' belongs only to a compound which is a meaningful collection, averts this [designation] from a sentence of that kind. (1.8) There, nouns are those which do not depend on word-etymologies and which denote entities existing as substantial reality. They are of two kinds: having fixed grammatical gender and not having fixed grammatical gender. Among them, those denoting a genus, a substance, or a measure have fixed grammatical gender. There, genus is of two kinds: manifested by form and manifested by instruction. Of the two, the first is such as: gauḥ ('cow'), mṛgaḥ ('deer'), paśuḥ ('animal'), sarpaḥ ('snake'), siṃhaḥ ('lion'), vṛkṣaḥ ('tree'), kumārī ('girl'), kuṇḍam ('pot'), strī ('woman'), pumān ('man'), napuṃsakam ('eunuch'). The second is such as: brāhmaṇaḥ ('brahmin'), gārgyaḥ ('Gārgya'), kaṭhaḥ ('Kaṭha'), kṣatriyaḥ ('warrior'), vaiśyaḥ ('merchant'), śūdraḥ ('servant'), mūrdhābhiṣiktaḥ ('anointed king'), ambaṣṭhaḥ ('Ambaṣṭha'), pāraśavaḥ ('Pāraśava'), sūtaḥ ('charioteer'), vaidehakaḥ ('Vaidehaka'), caṇḍālaḥ ('outcaste'). Substance is of two kinds: relative and non-relative. Of the two, the first is such as: guruḥ ('teacher'), pitā ('father'), putraḥ ('son'), bhrātā ('brother'), jāmātā ('son-in-law'), mitram ('friend'), mātā ('mother'), svasā ('sister'), duhitā ('daughter'), yātā ('husband's brother's wife'), nanāndā ('husband's sister'), bhāryā ('wife'). The second is such as: caitraḥ ('Caitra'), maitraḥ ('Maitra'), indraḥ ('Indra'), upendraḥ ('Upendra'), sūryaḥ ('sun'), kālaḥ ('time'), ākāśaḥ ('ether'), prācī ('east'), pratīcī ('west'), śacī ('Śacī'), lakṣmīḥ ('Lakṣmī'). Measure is of two kinds: definite and indefinite. Of the two, the first is such as: droṇaḥ ('droṇa'), kharī ('kharī'), palam ('pala'), bhāraḥ ('bhāra'), krośaḥ ('krośa'), yojanam ('yojana'), nivartanam ('nivartana'), nalvaḥ ('nalva'), paṇaḥ ('paṇa'), purāṇaḥ ('purāṇa'), gaṇaḥ ('gaṇa'), akṣauhiṇī ('akṣauhiṇī'). The second is such as: saṃghaḥ ('assembly'), pūgaḥ ('guild'), sārthaḥ ('caravan'), samājaḥ ('society'), vargaḥ ('class'), śreṇiḥ ('row/guild'), kuṭumbam ('family'), pariṣat ('assembly'), paṅktiḥ ('line'), yūtham ('herd'), vanam ('forest'), senā ('army'). Adjectives denoting qualities, numbers, and pronouns do not have fixed grammatical gender.

Among them, quality is of two kinds: colouring [the object directly] and not colouring [it directly]. There, derived from conjunction with a colouring [quality], they are such as: śvetaḥ ('white'), svāduḥ ('sweet'), śīghraḥ ('quick'), mandaḥ ('slow'), dīrghaḥ ('long'), hrasvaḥ ('short'), ṛjuḥ ('straight'), vakraḥ ('crooked'), mṛduḥ ('soft'), kaṭhinaḥ ('hard'), yuvā ('young'), vṛddhaḥ ('old'). From conjunction with a non-colouring [quality], those contrary to them are such as: dakṣaḥ ('dexterous'), jihmaḥ ('deceitful'), jaḍaḥ ('dull'), prājñaḥ ('wise'), khalaḥ ('wicked'), sādhuḥ ('virtuous'), snigdhaḥ ('affectionate'), krūraḥ ('cruel'), śūraḥ ('valiant'), bhīruḥ ('timid'), laghuḥ ('light'), guruḥ ('heavy'). Number is of two kinds: possessing grammatical gender and devoid of grammatical gender. Of the two, the first is such as: ekaḥ, ekā, ekam ('one'); dvau, dve, dve ('two'); ubhau, ubhe, ubhe ('both'); trayaḥ, tisraḥ, trīṇi ('three'); catvāraḥ, catasraḥ, catvāri ('four'). The second is such as: pañca prātipadikārthāḥ ('five nominal-stem meanings'), pañca vṛttayaḥ ('five grammatical integrations'), pañca padajātāni ('five word-classes'), ṣaḍ viṣayāḥ ('six sense-objects'), ṣaḍ buddhayaḥ ('six cognitions'), ṣaḍ indriyāṇi ('six sense organs'), aṣṭau vasavaḥ ('eight Vasus'), aṣṭau mūrtayaḥ ('eight forms'), aṣṭau varṇasthānāni ('eight places of articulation'), daśa diśaḥ ('ten directions'), ṣoḍaśa padārthāḥ ('sixteen categories'), aṣṭādaśa purāṇāni ('eighteen Purāṇas'). Pronouns are of two kinds: beginning with sarva and not beginning with sarva. Among them, the first are such as: sarvaḥ ('all'), viśvaḥ ('every'), anyaḥ ('other'), itaraḥ ('different'), katamaḥ ('which of many'), yaḥ ('who'), saḥ ('he'), eṣaḥ ('this'), ayam ('this'), tvam ('you'), aham ('I'). The second are such as: prathamaḥ ('first'), caramaḥ ('last'), alpaḥ ('few'), katipayaḥ ('some'), pūrvaḥ ('prior'), paraḥ ('subsequent'), aparaḥ ('other'), dakṣiṇaḥ ('southern/right'), uttaraḥ ('northern/subsequent'), svaḥ ('own'), antaraḥ ('interior'), sakalaḥ ('all'), kṛtsnaḥ ('entire'). (1.10) Generally, indeclinables are devoid of grammatical gender, number, and syntactic relational capacity. They are of six kinds, through the divisions of: indeclinables [proper], particles, verbal prefixes (gati), preverbs (upasarga), adpositional particles (karmapravacanīya), and words simulating inflectional case-endings. Among them, indeclinables are words such as svar and others, owing generally to the application of syntactic relational capacity and number; as it is said: / 'That which is identical across the three genders, and in all case-inflections, / and across all numbers, and does not alter, that is an indeclinable.' / (1.11) They are of two kinds: possessing a tinge of substance and possessing no tinge of substance. Among them, those possessing a tinge of substance are of six kinds: having the nature of substance, having the nature of quality, having the nature of action, having the nature of genus, having the nature of a proper name, and having the nature of a relatum.

Those possessing no tinge of substance are likewise of six kinds: expecting an action, expecting an action and a substance, adverbial qualifiers of action, qualifiers of an action and a substance, having a form entered into an action, and having a form entered into an action and a substance. There, among the varieties possessing a tinge of substance: those having the nature of substance are such as: svaḥ ('heaven'), divaḥ ('sky'), bhuvaḥ ('atmosphere'), vihāyasā ('sky'), rodasī ('heaven and earth'), āpaḥ ('waters'), bhūḥ ('earth'), ṛcaḥ ('hymns'), śam ('peace'), mahaḥ ('greatness'), tapaḥ ('austerity'), hāhā ('Hāhā'), hūhū ('Hūhū'); those having the nature of quality are such as: śaśvat ('constantly'), āvat ('thus'), nṛvat ('manfully'), kūpat ('well'), kuvat ('badly'), sāmi ('half'), sāci ('crookedly'), drāk ('quickly'), shrāk ('instantly'), jyok ('for a long time'), manāk ('slightly'), īṣat ('a little'); those having the nature of action are such as: namaḥ ('salutation'), svasti ('welfare'), svāhā ('offering to gods'), svadhā ('offering to ancestors'), vaṣaṭ ('vaṣaṭ'), śrauṣaṭ ('śrauṣaṭ'), hanta ('come now'), accha ('towards'), vavaḥ, vave, bhāvaḥ; those having the nature of genus are such as: kam ('water/joy'), śam ('bliss'), yoḥ ('prosperity'), mayaḥ ('delight'), sāyam ('evening'), prātaḥ ('morning'), astam ('setting'), naktam ('night'), divā ('by day'), doṣā ('at night'), hyaḥ ('yesterday'), śvaḥ ('tomorrow'); those having the nature of a proper name are such as: kkip, saḥ, om, svāhā, hnāṃ, hnīṃ, klīṃ, brūṃ, diṅ, hleṅ, ṛṅ, juṅ, duṅ; those having the nature of a relatum are such as: antaḥ ('inside'), antarā ('between'), ūrdhvam ('above'), bahiḥ ('outside'), pāre ('across'), madhye ('in the middle'), samayā ('near'), nikaṣā ('close to'), ārāt ('near/far'), viṣvak ('on all sides'), puraḥ ('in front'), paścāt ('behind'). Among the varieties possessing no tinge of substance: those expecting an action are such as: dvandvam ('in pairs'), yathāyatham ('appropriately'), mithaḥ ('mutually'), anyo'nyam ('one another'), parasparam ('each other'), itaretaram ('mutually'), paroparam ('sequentially'), uttarādharam ('upside down'), adharottaram ('topsy-turvy'); those expecting an action and a substance are such as: sākam ('together with'), sārdham ('along with'), saha ('with'), samam ('equally/with'), amā ('together'), vinā ('without'), ṛte ('except for'), pṛthak ('apart'), nānā ('variously'); adverbial qualifiers of action are such as: abhīkṣṇam ('repeatedly'), alam ('enough'), balavat ('forcefully'), suṣṭhu ('well'), mṛṣā ('falsely'), vṛthā ('in vain'), mithyā ('falsely'), mudhā ('uselessly'), addhā ('truly'), ṛdhak ('separately'), uccaiḥ ('loudly/high'), nīcaiḥ ('lowly'); having a form entered into an action are such as: śaśvat ('perpetually'), sapadi ('immediately'), saṃprati ('now'), purā ('formerly'), asaṃprati ('not now'), sanā ('always'), sāṃpratam ('at present'), jātu ('ever'), bāḍham ('certainly'), phāṇaṭam ('easily'), svayam ('by oneself'), kāmam ('willingly'); having a form entered into an action and a substance are such as: āviḥ ('manifestly'), prāduḥ ('openly'), tiraḥ ('askance'), sākṣāt ('directly'), alam ('sufficient'), prādhvam ('in harness'), sat ('good'), asat ('bad'), dhik ('woe'), hiruk ('apart'), tūṣṇīm ('silently'), joṣam ('silently').

1.12 Particles such as *ca* are specific indeclinables because they express non-substance meanings through their non-reception of the causes for the application of words such as universal genus, and, devoid of the capacities of gender and number, fall upon various meanings; as has been said: 'The particles beginning with *ca* [are termed *nipāta*] when not expressing a substance' (Pāṇini 1.4.57). They indeed possess the meaning of injunction, commendatory statement, restatement, prohibition, injunction-and-prohibition, and neither-injunction-nor-prohibition. Injunction is [...]; censure, praise, dejection, joy, envy, and wonder constitute commendatory statement; recollection, comparison, concession, subsequent inquiry, another's action, and ancient precedent constitute restatement; prevention, warding off, refutation, malice, reviling, and restraint constitute prohibition; address, compassion, deliberation, question, alternative view, and stating a reason constitute injunction-and-prohibition; padding a word, filling out a verse-quarter, completing a sentence, ornamental completion, sentence-ornament, and refinement of a word constitute neither-injunction-nor-prohibition. / 1.13 Among them, *om*, *atha*, *svasti*, *diṣṭyā*, *naha*, *sma*, *śaśvat*, *kañcit*, [and] *iti* serve the purpose of auspiciousness; as in: *om*, 'I praise Agni, placed in front...'; 'Now therefore the desire to know Brahman'; 'May the Aśvins and Bhaga create well-being for us'; 'By good fortune you prosper'; 'Certainly, sir, you enjoy pleasures'; 'After an hour you made the mat'; 'We shall study constantly'; 'We shall study a little'; and so forth. *atha*, *atho*, 'You will come'; 'The rule applies so far as possible'; 'Following the sage Kaṇāda'; 'Again morning, and again night'; 'Afterwards the two of us'; 'doubled by separation'; 'And again she said: "You are on the bed"'; and so forth. *yāvat*, *tāvat*, *nanu*, 'I am going, sir'; 'Study, student, the lightning flashes on the other side'; 'Come, cook!'; 'Indeed, do not cook'; 'Alas!'; 'Command!'; 'The sun created everywhere' (Ṛgveda 2.28.4)—the meaning is, the sun brought forth on all sides.

param, vai, vāva, eva, ha, aha, tu, and u convey injunction; as in: 'Virtue alone (param) is one's friend on the journey to the next world, alas'; 'The Veda indeed (vai) is the root of dharma'; 'Two indeed (vāva) are the forms of Brahman'; 'The Self alone (eva) was this in the beginning'; 'He indeed (ha) spoke'; 'You, indeed (aha), go to the village'; 'I will tell you, however (tu)'; 'They indeed (u) speak the truth' (Nirukta 1.5). ca, vā, ā, api, uta, atha, atho, and tathā convey conjoining; as in: 'Both I (ca), O slayer of Vṛtra' (Ṛgveda 8.41.4); 'Either Vāyu (vā) to you, or Manu to you' (Taittirīya Saṃhitā 1.7.7.2); 'To the gods and (ca) to the ancestors as well (ā)' (Ṛgveda 10.15.11); 'With teeth as well as (api) with nails (api)'; 'Divine sacrificers, and also (uta) mortals' (Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa 3.6.6); 'Praise the gods, and then (atha) the ancestors'; 'Furthermore (atho) indeed they say'; 'Hārīta, Atri, and likewise (tathā) myself.' vā, atha, atho, yadi, ced, cana, net, and mā convey alternative; as in: 'Either kingship is to be exercised (vā) or the commentary listened to (vā)'; 'One should engage in intercourse during the fertile season, or (atha) outside it except on sacred days'; 'One should bathe in rivers, or else (atho) in divine pools'; 'If (yadi) there is tranquility, what is the point of penance?'; 'If you go (ca... cet), what is that to me here?'; 'If (ced) the teacher comes, I hope I will study diligently'; 'Lest (net) turning crooked we fall into hell' (Nirukta 1.11); 'May (mā) this never happen at any time.' In this manner, others also are to be understood according to usage. And these may be understood in other senses as well. 1.14 Under explanatory elaboration (arthavāda): hā, dhik, cit, nāma, kim, ha, api, jātu, and ati convey censure; as in: 'Alas (hā), why do you act thus?'; 'Fie (dhik) upon negligence!'; 'Bring even (cit) inferior beans' (Nirukta 1.4.14); 'What kind of sunrise is this (nāma) wherein one's own do not shine?'; 'What (kim) does Devadatta study? [i.e., nothing worthwhile]'; 'You indeed (ha) are a Brahmin?'; 'Would one even (api) water an onion?'; 'Will you ever (jātu) go there?' tu, paśya, paśyata, aha, aho, yathā, yāvat, and cit convey praise;

as in: 'Look how (tu) the young boy eats!'; 'Look (paśya), the boy eats!'; 'Look (paśyata), the boy eats!'; 'Indeed (aha), the boy eats!'; 'Aho, Devadatta cooks beautifully!'; 'How splendidly (yathā) he cooks!'; 'How deftly (yāvat) he performs!'; 'Even a teacher (ācāryaś cit) might say this' (Nirukta 1.4.12). hī, ī, hā, hanta, bata, nāma, and bhoḥ kaṣṭam convey despair; as in: 'Alas (hī), the earth-lord is bitten!'; 'Ah (ī), such is worldly existence!'; 'Alas (hā), beloved Jānakī!'; 'Bereft of shelter, alas (hanta bata), is high-mindedness!'; 'Aho, alas (bata), great misery!'; 'Where indeed (nāma) will you go?'; 'Alas, I am weary (bhoḥ śrānto'smi)!'; 'Misery, alas, misery (kaṣṭaṃ bhoḥ kaṣṭam)!' diṣṭyā, hanta, bata, baṭ, vāṭ, kad, katham, and kaccit convey joy; as in: 'By good fortune (diṣṭyā) you are not dead, my friend!'; 'Ah (hanta), we are alive!'; 'She alone, ah (bata), is my beloved!'; 'Truly great (baṭ) art thou, O Sūrya' (Ṛgveda 8.101.11); 'Hail (vāṭ), svāhā to them!' (Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa 2.6.5.3); 'What (kad) for wise Rudra?' (Ṛgveda 1.43.1); 'How is it, my child Rāmabhadra?'; 'Does Pārvatī live, I hope (kaccit)?'; 'On the contrary (pratyuta) you reproach me'; 'You are divine, but (param) Bhṛṅgiriṭi is [mere attendance]'; 'You are learned, but (kiṃ tu) a rogue'; 'Even when your mother has died, you gamble (api)?'; 'Let him be licentious (nāma), still he is her husband'; 'You are an ascetic, even if (yadi nāma) a fool.' hī, aho, ahaha, cana, nāma, paśya, paśyata, and bata convey astonishment; as in: 'Ah (hī), wondrous is the fruition of the plays of wretched fate!'; 'Aho, the beauty of this woman!'; 'Ahaha, the majesty of the earth-lord!'; 'Those men who do not grow angry when begged from are very few indeed (kecanaiva)'; 'Could a blind man ever (nāma) climb a mountain?'; 'Look (paśya), the boy speaks!'; 'Look (paśya), he travels through the sky!'; 'Who, alas (bata), is this being seen?' In this manner, other [particles] are to be traced according to usage. And these may be understood elsewhere than in explanatory elaboration as well.

1.15 Under reiteration (anuvāda): ām, āḥ, ā, aye, nāma, nūnam, hum, and om convey recollection; as in: 'Ah yes (ām), this is that Pañcavaṭī!'; 'Ah (āḥ), that conversation of hers!'; 'Ah (ā), I remember, that is Jaṭāyus!'; 'Aye, it is the divine Dāśarathi!'; 'That indeed (nāma) must be he!'; 'Surely (nūnam) this is Jānakī!'; 'Hum, it is Makaranda!'; 'Om, so it is!' iva, vā, yathā, cit, na, nakir, nu, and prati convey comparison; as in: 'He speaks like (iva) a king'; 'Two dewlaps dangle on a camel as it were (vā)'; 'An elder brother is like (yathā) a father'; 'He shines like (cit) fire'; 'A fierce wild beast, roving, mountain-dwelling (mṛgo na)' (Ṛgveda 1.154.2); 'The boy is brilliant like fire (nakir)'; 'Like branches of a tree to the much-invoked (vṛkṣasya nu)' (Ṛgveda 6.24.3); 'Abhimanyu is like Arjuna (prati).' om, tathā, āma, nāma, atha kim, śrat, satyam, and bāḍham convey assent; as in: '"Om," he said'; 'Having agreed, saying "So be it (tathā)"'; 'Yes (āma), just as you say'; 'Let it be so indeed (nāma)'; 'Will you go? "Of course (atha kim)"'; 'I believe (śrad-dadhe) as you say'; 'Truly (satyam), worldly existence is substanceless'; 'Indeed (bāḍham), I have now turned into a Kāmandakī.' nanu, hī, nu, hum, nakila, nanukila, evam, and śaśvat convey inquiring further; as in: 'Did you make the mat, Devadatta? Surely (nanu) I am making it, sir!'; 'Did I make it yesterday, eh (hī)?'; 'How indeed (nu) shall I do it?' (Nirukta 1.4); 'Are you Makaranda? Hum, I am he!'; 'Is it not so indeed (na kila)?'; 'Surely it is so (nanu kila)?' (Nirukta 1.5); 'Is this so (evam)?'; 'Is it always so (śaśvat)?' (Nirukta 1.5). iti, evaṃ kila, khalu, nanu, sma, api, and nāma convey citation of another's action or view (parakṛti); as in: 'Sound is eternal, according to the Mīmāṃsakas; it is non-eternal, according to the logicians (iti)'; 'Thus indeed (evaṃ kila) the teacher recites'; 'The fortunate indeed (khalu) practice dharma'; 'Did not (nanu) everyone do this?'; 'Thus used (sma) the teacher to say'; 'He too (api) certainly knows me'; 'Who indeed (nāma) does not think so?'