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Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan (1200–1550 A.D.) c7.s3: Amusements and Recreations

Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan (1200–1550 A.D.) c7.s3

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English

Contents

Amusements and Recreations

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On the whole, the period under review is marked by its joys and pleasures. Everybody appears to have an extraordinary sense of repose and leisure except when disturbed by an invading army which, however, was not a very long interruption, or on the whole a very unpleasant one. People used to carry about swords like walking sticks and made skilful use of them when occasions arose. In fact, military exercises began to occupy a sacred place in the scheme of life, not very dissimilar to what at other times was occupied by religious worship and prayers.³

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³ Compare for instance *Hidayat-ur-rami*, f. 5, where the author insists that the bow should only be used in a state of canonical purity of body and after the performance of ablutions. The *Adab-ul-Harb* similarly explains

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It was the pride and the dream of a warrior not to be captured alive by an enemy in open fight. He either came out with full honours of victory and with numerous scars or lay dead on the field of battle in a state of greater glory.¹ These conditions radically changed with the introduction of guns and gun-powder, for the latter rendered the old-time crude weapons almost ineffective.

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¹ Compare the typical sentiments of a warrior of the age in P. (hin), 289.

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We have mentioned these facts to emphasize that the amusements and pleasures of the age were strongly influenced by its military characteristics. All the writers emphasize the two aspects of social life which were complementary to one another—the *razm* or warfare and *bazm* or social pleasures. The average respectable man was something of an active soldier, which entailed great exertion. After the fighting was over, he made up for his physical exertion by indulgence in physical pleasures and recreative games.² The common people, whose occupation was anything but exciting, enjoyed themselves with periodical festivals and occasional pilgrimages to religious places.

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² Compare for a parallel, Salzmann, 29, on the character of English mediaeval pleasures.

I. Military and Physical Sports

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To begin with military sports, polo, fencing, wrestling, horse-racing, dog-racing, arrow-shooting, and a variety of other games were popular all over the country. In the Deccan and among the Rajputs, offended honour never failed to challenge the offender to a duel. In the dominions of the Sultan, however, there existed an organized system of administration which that it is wrong to imagine that the gifts of God are confined to soul, wisdom and intelligence alone. They also extend to the use of weapons of wood and iron (*vide* A.H., 55). The author expalins in another connection that every person should learn fearlessness, pride, tenacity of purpose, keenness, aggressiveness in attack, industry, perseverance, patience, loyalty, and watchfulness from various wild and domestic animals. The various forms of amusements and sports were designed to cultivate all these virtues of an ideal soldier. Every gentleman, so the author emphasizes, should know swordsmanship, wrestling, polo, stick-fencing, the handling of the pellet-bow and even the Hindu *chakra* (disc). (*ibid.*, 153-4). Compare also the indulgence of young Akbar in all kinds of amusements, as for instance camel-riding, horse-racing, hound-racing, polo, and pigeon-flying, and Abu'l Fazl's comments thereon. A.N., II, 317-8.

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prevented the recognition of private vengeance as an honourable and legitimate form of redress.¹ The place of duels was usually taken by physical feats to decide the claims of superiority between two contending rivals. Wrestling (*kushti, dangal*) was a favourite form of diversion. In fact every nobleman and commoner received some sort of instruction in this art. The monarchs and even the religious saints encouraged wrestling, employed famous wrestlers, watched the matches, and even joined in person in feats of wrestling.²

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¹ Compare Tod, I, 413, for an illustration from Rajput history. Compare Barbosa, I, 190-1, for a description of duel arrangements in the Deccan. A challenge was duly sent to the offender, and after it was accepted, royal permission to fight a duel was sought and usually granted. The day and the hour were then fixed by mutual arrangement. Seconds were chosen who selected the weapon with which the combatants were to engage in the duel, that of the one being of 'the same length as that of the other'. When the duel was fought, the King and the court also watched the spectacle. The traveller further adds that such duels were almost a daily feature of life in the South.

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² Compare W.M., 35b, for instruction in wrestling. Compare the interesting account of Prince Akbar and his cousin, the son of Mirza Kamran in A.N., I, 248. They quarrelled over the possession of a drum and the matter was decided by their engaging in wrestling, when Akbar subdued his cousin. Mirza Kamran watched the spectacle all the time. Similarly on the occasion of circumcising young Akbar, Humayun gave entertainments and feasts. He further asked his nobles to choose their rivals for a wrestling match and himself joined the match, wrestling with one named Imam Quli. Compare B.N., 339, for the favourite wrestler of Babur named Sadiq who beat another famous champion named Kalal, whereupon the Mughal Emperor rewarded him with a gift of 10,000 Tankas, a fine horse and other articles to the value of 3,000 Tankas. Compare Macauliffe, II, 15, for Sikh tradition.

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Archery was everywhere popular. We have referred in another connection to the manufacture of pellet-bows and arrows. Let us make note of the fact here that spectacular feats of shooting arrows were staged from time to time, and the champions of shooting acquired fame and renown in the land.³ Sword-play, throwing of discs (*chakra*) and javelins were similarly popular. Swimming was generally encouraged and Babur’s feats of swimming are well known. Among minor games, we may mention the popularity of a sort of hockey in Kashmir and of ball-throwing (*geru*) in Bengal.¹

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³ Compare K., 149, for the Id displays of the Emperor Humayun. On arrival at the Id Maidan the monarch was greeted by his guard with a show of marksmanship. At some height they used to fit gold and silver targets made in the form of melons. Then advancing in military formation they used to shoot their arrows. Instantly the targets were shattered into bits through their excellent marksmanship. Humayun rewarded the display with handsome gifts of horses and of dresses of honour. Compare also the account of Tarikh-i-Daudi, 9-10, for a famous Afghan marksman named Sikandar Shirwani. He was a young man of exceptionally robust build. He could fit an arrow 11 fists in length (i.e., more than 3 feet) to his bow and shoot it up to a distance of 800 step (about 800 yards).

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¹ Compare the account in *J.D.L.*, 1925, 52. Compare Temple, 208, for hockey. Sir Denison Ross has a painting of the reign of Jahangir, the Mughal Emperor which depicts a game of hockey in progress, played by polo sticks, while the Emperor is watching it. The game of polo had, it appears, a direct influence on the development of hockey.

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*Polo and Horse-racing, etc.*—The most aristocratic of outdoor games was polo, and of amusements, horse-racing. The precise origin of polo is still difficult to fix. The game has been traced as far back as the reign of the founder of the Sassanian dynasty in Persia.² It was introduced by the Muslims into Hindustan, where it soon became popular among all classes. In fact, the first Sultan of Delhi, Qutb-un-din Aibak died of an accident in playing polo at Lahore.³ The Turks were very fond of the game; one of the emblems of court offices was represented by a polo-stick and ball of gold. The popularity of the game did not suffer when at a later date the kingdom passed into the hands of the Afghans.⁴ The Rajput skill in playing polo was similarly very high.⁵

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² Compare Sykes, I, 466. Harun-ur-Rashid was the first Abbasid Caliph who played polo. Mu‘tasim improved upon it in certain directions. Marwan was also fond of it. *Vide* Sprenger, 25. Compare T.I., 455, for the skill of Uljaitu, the Mongol Sultan of Persia in polo playing.

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³ Compare the account in T.M., 84-5; Raverty, 528.

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⁴ Compare for Afghans M.T., I, 321, 323, also T.D., 3 when an Afghan nobleman carries his unsportive spirit beyond the limits of propriety and fairness.

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⁵ Compare P. (hin), 285, for Rajput skill. Compare also Barbosa, I, 119, for the skill of the Gujaratis (or the people of Gujarat) in polo playing; with them polo was as popular as the ‘reed game’ in Portugal.

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Horse-racing was just as popular. It had the additional advantage of the blessings of the Prophet who had prohibited other amusements and gambling in no uncertain terms, but was indulgent towards betting on horse-racing. A regular literature soon sprang up on the study of the horses, which does credit to the scientific methods of the age.⁶ It is quite reasonable to infer from these facts that the number of pedigree horses was quite large in the studs of the Sultans and the nobles. Special Arab horses were imported for racing purposes from Yemen, Oman, Fars. Each animal is reported to have cost from one thousand to four thousand Tankas.¹

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⁶ Compare for instance *Adab-ul-Harb* for chapters on horse breeding. Compare T., 20, for religious prohibition of dog-racing which positively ruined all the good deeds of a man.

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¹ Compare K.R., I, 200.

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The game of polo was played substantially as it is to-day.² For horse-racing, the skill of Rajputs and Gujaratis, among others, was praiseworthy.³ We shall not be wrong in inferring that the Turks and Afghans and in fact all ruling classes of Hindustan had attained a very high degree of skill in horsemanship.

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² Compare Encyclopaedia Britannica (1929 Edition), XVIII, 175, for the modern game. ‘Polo is played with four players on each side, on exactly the same principles as hockey or association football. A match lasts about one hour, divided into periods of play; during the intervals ponies are changed...’ So there are two forwards and two backs. But during the course of the game as the players pass the ball to one another these places are being constantly changed. The modern game is a most elastic one, but there should always be one player in each place (i.e. at No. 1, No. 2, No. 3 or half-back and No. 4 or back). Compare the account of Amir Khusrau in his Kulliyat, folios 777-8, where he describes the two opposing teams of four players, the intervals of play and the scoring with the ball which determined the issue of the game. He describes the movement of the team of Sultan Qutb-ud-din Mubarak Shah (including the Sultan) as a man ‘sitting in a crescent’. It may be added incidentally that the account of the introduction and historical development of Polo in India as given in the Encyclopaedia Britannica is incorrect.

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³ Compare P. (hin), 285, for Rajput skill in horsemanship: also Barbosa, I, 119, for Gujaratis.

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The elephants of the royal stables used to be trained in paying homage to the monarch with ceremony. At a given signal from their keeper, the animals used to put their foreheads on the ground and then raise their trunks and trumpet. They were also trained to pick up an article from the ground, keeping it in their mouths or handing it over to the keeper as they were directed. There could hardly be any other use of these costly military accessories during the time of peace. At times, they were also taken out for riding or for conveying heavy loads.⁴

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⁴ Compare the account of Timur M., 288; compare Mirza, 147, for a reference from Khusrau. Oil-cans were put under the feet of the elephants to smooth the roughness of their feet.

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Shikar (the chase).—All other amusements and exercises, however, gave way to the chase in excitement and stimulation. Voluminous literature was compiled by the Arabs on the study and breeding of hunting animals and birds, long before the Muslims were established in Hindustan.⁵ The Muslims brought all these advanced traditions of the chase with them to India together with the memories of the Sessanian monarchs, who were famous hunters of their age. In other parts of Asia, the same ruling passion for the chase and the same elaborate equipment had gone still further ahead.¹ Almost every important monarch from the time of the founder of the Slave dynasty, Qutb-ud-din Aibak, to the reign of Akbar, was fond of the chase and spent as much time over it as he could spare from his royal duties and other pleasures. Even when the Sultans were not very fond of hunting they maintained large establishments for Shikar.² The Rajput were similarly fond of the chase; in fact the famous spring hunt, known as the ‘Aheria’ was sacred to Gauri, and no means were neglected for slaying boar on this historic occasion in the month of Phalguna. The hour of sallying forth was fixed in all solemnity by the astrologers; and the success or failure of the occasion determined the fortune for the rest of the year.³

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⁵ Compare J.P.A.S.B., 1907. Phillots on the ‘Kitab-ul-Bayzarah’ homposed in the 10th century; compare also references to the breeding of hunting animals and birds in I.K., II, 60.

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¹ Compare Huart, 146, for the Persian tradition. Compare the account of Marco Polo for the chase of Kublai Khan and his personal impressions. Yule, I, 397-403. Compare Major, 4, for the presents of hunting animals to the Great Khan as an illustration.

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² Compare the accounts of the chase of Sultans of Delhi : T.M., I, 6, for the description of the chase of Qutb-ud-din Aibak; also K.K., 740-1, where Amir Khusrau speaks of his occupations: ‘He bagged both the fowls in the air and the animals on land’. Compare B., 54-5, for Sultan Balban. His favourite season was winter when he used to start very early in the morning towards Rewari and returned next day at midnight. He was accompanied by a thousand horsemen whom he knew individually and a thousand troopers who were fed from the royal kitchen. His return to the capital was announced by beat of drums. Compare B., 272-3; also M.T., I, 148, for an account of the chase of Ala-ud-din Khalji. His favourite method was the *Narga* or the formation of a beaters’circle (which by the way is the predecessor of the Mughal *Qamragha*), which assembled about sunrise when they were joined by the Sultan. Compare E.D., III, 579-80, for an account of Sultan Muhammad Tughlaq’s *Shikar* equipment. He employed 10,000 falconers who rode on horseback in the chase, 3,000 beaters, 3,000 provision dealers, and others. Four collapsible double-storied houses were carried in his train by 200 camels, together with tents, canopies and a variety of pavilions. Compare A., 178-9, for Sultan Firuz Tughluq, whose only hobbies were the construction of buildings and going to the chase, when he thoroughly enjoyed himself. ‘He brought devastation and ruin in the animal kingdom through shooting one with arrow, chasing another on horseback and releasing his falcon for the third on its wings’. Compare the account of Barani to the same purport. (*Vide* B., 599-600). Sikandar Lodi spent most of his time in the chase and the game of polo. *Vide* T.A., I, 322. Babur and his men did not forget the pleasure of the chase even while they were marching towards Lahore. *Vide* T.F., I, 378. With Akbar, *Shikar* was a favourite sport.

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³ Compare Tod, II, 660.

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The Muslim theologians on the whole reconciled themselves to the chase.¹

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¹ The employment of dogs, hounds and falcons creates many intricate and complex problems in relation to the religious validity of the game and, further, its suitability for eating by a Muslim. The Ulama on the whole reconciled themselves to the employment of falcons and hawks and even of dogs, ‘provided they were trained in hunting the game and did not spoil too much of the flesh by gnawing’. Vide T., 20.

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We may add here some remarks on the royal establishment for the chase. Every Sultan had very large establishments which included vast numbers of animals trained specially for the chase, and very large areas reserved as royal preserves. Under Firuz Tughluq the Shikar department was considered as one of the ‘pillars of the State’. ² The Shikar department was organized under an *Amir-i-shikar* who was usually noble of rank, together with other officials of similar status. Under these senior officials came minor officers for the care and keeping of royal falcons and other hunting animals and birds, known as *Arizan-i-Shikar*, *Khassa-daran* and *Mihtaran* respectively. Under them came a numerous staff of *Shikra-dars* who carried the animals and birds on the day of the chase. The services of practically all the big game hunters and watchers of the kingdom were secured by this department. All kinds of hunting animals and birds—elephants, hounds, trained ‘cheetahs’, lynxes, falcons, and hawks were collected in large numbers.³ It was an old Persian tradition to build great walled enclosures as royal preserves for wild and domestic animals.⁴ A large piece of land extending to about twelve krhos (about 24 miles) was secured near Delhi to serve as a State preserve.⁵ It may be remembered in this connection that the Shikar regulations were probably very strict and small defaults were severely dealt with.⁶

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² Compare A., 316. Compare for confirmation, the fact that two distinguished nobles of the rank of Maliks supervised the Shikar department of Sultan Firuz Tughluq.

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³ Compare B., 600; T.F., 1,287. Compare the account of Afif for details. A., 317-9.

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⁴ Compare Huart, 146, for Persian tradition. ‘(Hunting) was done in great walled parks, formerly called ‘Paradises’ in which lions, boars and bears were preserved. Theophanes tells us that the soldiers of the Roman Emperor Heraclius found, in the gardens abandoned by Chosroes II, ostriches, gazelles, wild asses, peacocks, pheasants, and even lions and tigers’.

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⁵ Compare the account of the royal preserve at Delhi in B., 54.

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⁶ Compare the account of Abu’l Fazl in this connection. In his youth Akbar was so fond of the chase that when on one occasion the hound-keepers

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Deer, nilgai and common fowl were the popular game; rhinoceros and wolves were found in the hills of the Punjab.¹ It was the privilege of the monarch to hunt a lion whenever the animal was found.² Fishing was popular with some monarchs.³ Others probably found it very unexciting in comparison with the pleasures of the chase.

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¹ Compare for instance T.F., I, 378, also T.M..S., 410; B.N., 229; A., 243. The term *Karkadan* occurs in the text, which, as Abu'l Fazl makes clear by his description (*vide* A.A., II, 58), applies to the rhinoceros.

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² Compare A., 324.

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³ Compare for instance, the account of Afif for Firuz Shah Tughluq. A., 328. Compare B.N., 355, for Babur's account of his fishing in the Gogra by candle light.

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We shall conclude this account of the chase with a few more remarks on royal hunting. Though the facts of the reign of Firuz Tughluq may not have a very close bearing on the reigns of his predecessors and successors, they will give us a fair idea of the royal *Shikar* equipment. Afif, his chronicler, informs us that when Firuz Tughluq used to go out for the chase, a big procession was formed. Forty to fifty special standards and two specially designed emblems adorned with peacock feathers, accompanied him. The emblems were carried in front of the Sultan on both sides. Just behind them were four trained wild animals and birds of prey, to the left and right of the monarch respectively. A vast number of other animals, namely, cheetahs, panthers, lynxes, hounds, eagle and falcons with their keepers on horseback followed the Sultan. Ibn Batuta informs us that a great many nobles used to go with the Sultan to the chase with their tents and canopies and a big crowd of porters and attendants. The chase of Sultan Firuz Tughluq, sometimes lasted from seventeen to eighteen days at a stretch.⁴

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⁴ Compare the account of Afif. A., 317-19; also K.R., II, 82.

II. Indoor Amusements

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*Jashn*, or social parties.—The popular term for social parties and entertainments was *Jashn*. When they spoke of organizing a *Jashn*, it usually brought to the mind of the hearer

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were somewhat negligent in their duties, the prince put them in halters like common hounds and ordered them to be paraded round the camp in this condition. When the Emperor Humayun came to know of this, he was exceedingly pleased at this exhibition of tact and authority on the part of the Prince. *Vide* A.N., I, 318.

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such items of entertainments as vocal and instrumental music, dainty wines, dried fruit and indoor games such as chess, *chaupar*, etc. It was usual to decorate the rooms where the guests assembled with rich carpets. Aloe-wood and incense were constantly burning there. Rose-water was frequently sprinkled over the party for its refreshing and cooling effect. Fruits were neatly served in silver and golden fruit-trays. But the most entertaining item was the wine which was served by very handsome cup-bearers together with some spices and seasoned dishes (like *kababs*) for relish. So that, as a result, ‘the covers of the goblets of wine’ (to borrow the figurative language of Amir Khusrau) ‘looked holier than a prayer carpet’.¹

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¹ Compare the descriptions of parties and items of entertainment I.K., II, 241-2, 271; Q.S., 129-30. The royal parties usually described as Majlis-i-Jashn, Jashn Darbars have been referred to earlier.

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The serious business commenced after sunset when the musicians and dancers began their performance, and the wine cups went round. When the performers had stirred the emotions of the audience to fever heat, gold and silver were frequently showered on them at intervals. In the small hours of the morning the whole scene began to fade away before the weary eyes, and people dropped into sleep through sheer exhaustion.² Entertainments on these broad lines were a regular feature of official celebrations. Certain festival days were fixed for public *Jashns*. When State envoys or any distinguished guest arrived, similar celebrations were held. The Mughal Emperor Akbar added to the number of existing official celebrations a dozen more from the Persian Calendar.³

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² Compare B.N., 330b.

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³ Compare A.A., 278, for the days of official celebrations under Sultan Firuz Shah Tughluq. Jashn parties were fixed for the two *Ids*, the *Nau-roz*, the entertainment of distinguished State guests, and in connection with the reception of envoys and other State functions. Compare A.A., I, 200, for official *Jashns* under Akbar.

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We have a connected record of the numerous banquets and festivities arising out of these royal *Jashns*. There is an almost tiresome repetition of the familiar features, namely ‘the fairy-faced dancers’, the ‘musk-smelling wines’, the drinking cups made of marble, the flower-carpets and other rich decorations, and the abundance of everything. Sometimes royal poets add to the liveliness of the occasion by their laudatory verses :

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at others, the courtiers enhance the gaiety and cheerfulness by their wit and humour.¹ In some respects these pleasure parties were very different from the official public *darbar* we have described elsewhere. In contrast to the dignity and the solemn appearance of a monarch in *darbar*, he was anything but conventional and ceremonial in these private parties. If there were a few chosen people in the party, he ‘left off the vanity that appertains to kingship’. The courtiers and guests were permitted to take off their heavy overcoats and to be generally at their ease. There was no particular reserve in conversation and matters of high policy of the State as well as smaller affairs were discussed with perfect geniality and ample freedom.²

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¹ Compare an account of Jashns in various chronicles. Hasan Nizami describes the parties of Qutb-ud-din Aibak and Iltutmish. In one place the author, by no means a man of secular outlook becomes so enthusiastic in describing wives ‘the source of happiness and the treasure of gaiety’ that he parts with his orthodox professions for the moment and frankly avows that drinking is quite legitimate and permissible (*halal*) for every sensible man and is prohibited only in the case of fools who are obsessed with the *Shari‘at*. Iltutmish used to go out for the chase and polo after these Jashn parties. *Vide* T.M. (II), 63-5. Compare the account of Barani for the *Jashns* of the austere Sultan Balban. Like Sultan Sanjar and Khvarazm Shah, the parties of Balban were organized on a gigantic scale. Flower carpets and curtains of brocade were used to decorate the halls; the service was gold and silver and there was abundance of all kinds of fruits, sweets, drinks, and betel-leaves. The guests attended in gorgeous costumes. The court poets recited their poems. *Vide* B., 32. Mubarak Shah Khalji was a gay monarch at his best. To celebrate the birth of his eldest son, he organized a *Jashn*, to some decorations of which we have already referred. Arched pavilions were constructed in the city and decorated with velvet and brocade curtains, after being lined with silks. The royal band played in the small cabinet at the top of this arch. All round the place, Persian and Indian musicians and dancers performed. The Sultan also held a *darbar* on the occasion and distributed lavish gifts in honour of the event. *Vide* K.K., 768-72.

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² Compare B. (MS.) 107, for a description of the parties of Jalal-ud-din Khalji; also Vambery, 55, for the conversation of the Turkish admiral Sidi Ali Reis with Humayun.

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On the return of Humayun from the Bihar campaign, his mother organized a grand banquet in his honour. The soldiers and the market people were specially commanded to decorate their lodgings and shops, which gave the thoroughfares of the city a beautiful appearance. A special throne was constructed in the banquet hall, to receive the Emperor. It was furnished with cushions and pillows of brocade. The State canopy used on this occasion was lined with English brocade and Portuguese velvet and was supported on gilded poles. Other articles of furniture, namely, candle-stands, ewers, wash-basins, goblets, rose-water sprinklers, etc. were all worked in gold and enamel. 7,000 dresses of honour and 12 rows of mules and pack camels, 100 pack horses, and 70 fine stallions were distributed in honour of the occasion. *Vide* G., 28-9. Similar entertainments under Akbar sometimes lasted for eighteen days when thousands of male and female singers and dancers were engaged to perform. *Vide* A.A., II, 309.

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Similar parties or Jashns on a very large scale were held on certain official occasions by the Sultans. We have mentioned the festivities and lavish gifts in connection with royal coronations. Big parties of an informal character followed the official celebrations and a great many officials and dignitaries were invited. Similarly other occasions served for inviting large numbers of officials and even common people to share in the happiness of the monarch.

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We shall describe in this connection certain new additions that were made by Mughal emperors to the existing features of a royal Jashn. We have mentioned earlier that Humayun introduced the system of river picnics on the Jumna and built for that purpose a double-storeyed building of wood on four giant boats containing all sorts of provisions for a pleasure party. The Emperor used to go out with chosen favourite nobles and ladies on the Jumna to enjoy himself with music and dancing. The ‘Mystery House’ to which a reference has already been made was sometimes converted to serve for a social party. In such a case, the water of the octagonal tank was emptied and the floor was spread with rich Persian carpets. An elevated dais was raised for the monarch and the visitors, and musicians made themselves comfortable on the floor. The whole building was tastefully decorated with brocade and embroidered cloth. The two side rooms on the ground floor were furnished with the necessary number of bedsteads, betel-leaf boxes, goblets, drinking vessels, and other furniture for lodging the monarch. The top floor was decorated with weapons and armour, prayer-carpets, books and ink-stands and specimens of calligraphy and paintings, to serve probably as the retiring room for the royal party. Fruits, drinks, and all necessities, were provided in the building. Sometimes, the water reservoir was used for bathing and people entered it, after taking preventives for cold, to stay and enjoy themselves all day long.¹

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¹ Compare K, 135-7, for details.

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Humayun similarly instituted the system of what came to be known as Mina Bazars under his son and successor. These were not separate and elaborate bazaars; only six stalls were constructed in the double-storeyed building on the boats to which we referred above. A miniature orchard was laid out on the boat and pots of flowers were provided, to give the whole place a most pleasant appearance. The stalls were supervised by ladies of rank and position who were chosen to act as saleswomen, while the Emperor went about bargaining and buying.¹ Under Akbar this system of bazars was greatly elaborated. Instead of modest stalls there was now a bazar, where the ladies and the Emperor in turn acted as customers and salesmen. This was a regular market and all sorts of merchandise was sold. In fact, a regular treasurer and auditor were appointed to look after this section of the royal activity. We know very little about these intriguing affairs beyond what Abu'l Fazl chooses to tell us. According to him the purchases of the Emperor were nothing but ‘an excuse for acquainting himself with information of all kind’ through his fair dealers. There was a great degree of freedom and accessibility in these Mina Bazars. For instance, when the Emperor acted as salesman and dealer, the ladies and other persons approached his stall without any interference or interruption on the part of the royal guards and ushers. So that apart from bargaining over an article, people used the opportunity to tell him all their grievances and sorrows.²

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¹ Compare the account of Gulbadan G. 31 for details.

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² Compare A.A., I, 200-1.

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*Indoor Games.*—For lighter amusement, a variety of indoor games was played, both with and without stakes. Chess, *Chaupar*, *Nard* (Persian backgammon) and cards were all popular with every class of the people. A fierce controversy went on in orthodox circles over the religious validity of these amusements. Orthodox opinion was unanimous in condemning gambling of all kinds. Some clever theologians even discovered a tradition of the Prophet purporting to declare that the playing of *Nard* was a sin. A similar weighty exposition of their case was attributed to the wise Ali, who was reported to have considered chess as detrimental to proper intellectual development. The case of the opposition was simple and was based entirely on common sense and personal experience. They considered both chess and Persian backgammon as two excellent aristocratic recreations which were quite harmless and refined and warmly defended the wide popularity of these games.³

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³ Compare the details of the controversy in T.I., 171.

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The authority of sacred injunctions could hardly influence them to change this realistic view of their amusements.

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(a) *Chess.*—Chess, according to all accounts, was considered to be the aristocrat of all indoor games. ‘It is impossible to live without some kind of recreation’ said the wise Harun-ur-Rashid, ‘and for a monarch, I can suggest no better diversion than chess’.¹ Such was the position the game had occupied in India since ancient times. Our period was especially happy in the progress of the game and a famous Indian chess player named Abu’l Fath Hindi occupied an international position and fame for his proficiency in the game.² Hasan Nizami, Amir Khusrau, and Malik Muhammad Jaisi make numerous references to the game of chess which reflects its wide popularity among all classes. Jaisi in particular depicts a realistic scene in which Sultan Ala-ud-din Khalji and Raja Ratan Sen engage to play a game of chess inside the Rajput fortress of Chitor.³ The Indian origin of chess has sometimes been disputed on insufficient grounds. The point was not so much in dispute in the time of Amir Khusrau who is an enthusiastic advocate of the Indian origin of chess. Historical evidence is not wanting to prove that the claim of India is indisputable.⁴ Besides the present game of chess, another variety referred to as *Shatranj-i-kamil* or ‘quadruple chess’ was also played during this period.⁵ (b) *Chaupar, playing cards, etc.*—The Indian origin of *Chaupar* has never been disputed. It is an ancient game which is played even nowadays under three different names—*Pachisi*, *Chausar*, and *Chaupar*, the difference consisting not in the rules of the game or in the manner of playing but in minor and negligible respects.¹ The game of *Chaupar* was played, as it is to-day, with sixteen pieces in four sets each of a different colour. The game is generally played by four players in teams of two each. Each player has four pieces with him which he moves on the diagram of chaupar according to the throw of the dice (or nowadays, of cowries). The diagram of chaupar may be described as follows :—take two sets of two parallel lines crossing one another at right angles in the middle. This intersection of the four lines forms a square in the centre and four rectangles adjoining the four lines of this square. Leaving the central square as it is, the four rectangles are divided into 24 squares in three rows of eight squares each.² The playing of chaupar was especially popular among the Hindus, particularly among the Rajputs. The Mughal Emperor Akbar later substituted human figures for the pieces of chaupar and turned it into the amusing game of *Chandal-mandal*.³

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¹ Compare *ibid.*, 163.

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² Compare Bland, 17.

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³ Compare T.M., 12, for a description of Hasan Nizami in metaphors borrowed from the game of chess. Similar descriptions of Amir Khusrau in *I’jaz-i-khusravi* and other works. Compare the account of Malik Muhammad Jaisi in P. (hin), 257.

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⁴ Compare the opinion of Amir Khusrau, K.K., f. 709. Mr. Bland is an advocate of the Persian origin. Irwin, in his book on chess claims to have successfully traced the origin of chess to China, the home of many inventions. He bases his opinion on some very ancient Chinese MS. (which he did not examine for himself) and attributes the discovery to the talents of a Chinese general who wanted to engage his soldiers in a game, to keep them away from politics. Macdonnel in *J.A.R.S.*, 1898, ‘Origin and early history of Chess’ has made it clear that there is positive evidence of an Indian embassy visiting Chosrau Anusharvan towards the end of the sixth century and of the introduction of chess in Persia through this embassy at about the same time. The story of the Indian embassy to Persia is found in every important Muslim history that deals with the subject. *Nard* is claimed to have been introduced into Hindustan from Persia on the return of this embassy.

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⁵ This ‘Quadruple chess’ (*Chaturaji*, ‘the four king game’) according to Macdonnel is referred to by a Sanskrit writer of the late 15th and early 16th century, though it existed much earlier. This game was played by

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¹ Compare Crooke’s Herklot, etc., 333-5, for modern *chaupar*.

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² Compare A.A., I, 218-9, for a diagram of *chaupar*; also P., 22, for a game in progress. Note that the Kshatriyas still retained their reputation of ‘being without equals in swordsmanship, the virtue of generosity’ and of course in gambling by throwing the dice of chaupar. Compare the interesting observations of Macdonnel on the relations of chaupar with the ancient *Chaturanga*, J.R.A.S., 1898, 140. Compare the popularity of chaupar with Hindu saints. Mira Bai plays a game of chaupar with her favourite god Girdhar (*vide* Macauliffe, 348). Compare P. (hin), 141, for a whole description of Malik Muhammad Jaisi in metaphors borrowed from chaupar.

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³ Compare A.A., 219, for a description of Chandal-mandal.

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Mention may be made in this connection of the game of *Nard* or the Persian backgammon, which was introduced into Hindustan very early in the Muslim period. All kinds of four persons with two dice, each piece moving according to the number of the throw. A board of 64 squares was used for this game, with 32 figures forming four groups of eight, each group consisting of a king, elephant, horse, and chariot in the first row and four foot soldiers in front of them in the second. It was so arranged that the chariot always occupied the left-hand corner of the side facing the player. Thus there were four kings, each attended by figures representing the four members of the army, while the minister was absent. It is difficult to account for the origin and development of this game, but Bland supports the Persian claim. This ‘quadruple chess’ was played by Timur and is supposed to be the parent of the ordinary chess, which, according to this theory, is its abridged form. See Bland, 5-6.

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refinements were introduced in making its board and pieces.¹ *Nard* was played on a wooden board, square in shape and divided into 24 squares of equal size. It was played with thirty pieces in two sets of fifteen, each set of one distinct colour.² It was on the lines of *Nard* that Humayun introduced a game in which human pieces were set in motion.³ The tradition mentions the popular fact that *Nard* was brought to India from Persia in return for chess which was introduced there from this country.

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¹ Compare M.T., I, 174, for *Turi* a kind of *nard* played by Malik Kafur. There are many references to *nard* in *I’jaz-i-Khusravi*.

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² Compare T.I. (II), 164.

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³ Compare the description of this game in Khvand Mir, 155-6.

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The playing of cards (*Ganjafa*) appears to have been first introduced into Hindustan by the Mughal Emperor Babur.⁴ Akbar seems to have made certain improvements in the game which became widely popular during his reign. The old Mughal pack of cards was made up of eight suits of twelve cards each, the Queen and the Jack of the present pack being replaced by one *Wazir* or Premier. The old Mughal cards have not gone out of use altogether, even now.⁵

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⁴ Compare the account of *Babur-nama*, 307.

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⁵ Compare A.A., I, 220; also Crooke’s Herklot’s Islam, etc., 335.

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In all indoor games there is an imperceptible temptation to play for stakes. The Indian tradition of gambling was a very ancient and a hallowed one. In the ordinary game of *Chaupar*, as has been mentioned, a dice or *pansa* was used. It was a four-sided piece usually made of ivory, the sides marked with one, two, five and six dots respectively. Three such sets were used in playing for stakes.⁶ Gambling was by no means confined to the lower classes. Gulbadan relates that when the royal family was in Kabul, Humayun used to play games for stakes. He used to distribute twenty gold pieces each among the players, both gentlemen and ladies, which served as a deposit for the stakes.⁷

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⁶ Compare the account of Ain-i-Akbari, II, 190, for the prevalence of gambling in Hindustan; P.P., 148, for the use of dice.

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⁷ Compare G., 77.

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Among other minor amusements we may mention pigeon flying and cock-fighting. The orthodox Muslims did not object to pigeon flying so strongly as to the ‘accursed’ cock-fighting.

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People in general, however, sought their advice and guidance neither in the one or the other amusement.¹ Sultan Ala-ud-din Khalji maintained a regular pigeon-house which appears to have descended to him from his predecessors. With Akbar, especially in his younger days, pigeon-flying became a passion. The young Prince used to feed his own birds and used to call the amusement by the romantic term *Ishq-bazi* (love-making).²

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¹ Compare the attitude of Muslim orthodoxy to pigeon-flying and cock-fighting in T., 20; also I.K., I, 179.

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² For Ala-ud-din's pigeon-house, an indirect reference in B., 318; A.N., II, 317-8, for Akbar.

III. Popular Amusements

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There was a great variety of popular amusements; religious festivals and periodical pilgrimages to holy shrines provided some of these; public receptions and official celebrations provided others. Folk-dances, songs, jugglers' tricks, were the share of common people in every-day life, and their hard life and its exacting toil were forgotten from time to time in these innocent recreations.³

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³ Compare the estimate of *Tarikh-i-Tahiri* regarding the people of Thatta (Sind). 'Other nations possess greater wealth and greater skill, but such light-heartedness and contentment as to labour for one day and to repose for the rest of the week, to have but moderate desires and enjoy boundless ease, this has been reserved for the people of Thatta alone'. *Vide* E..D., I, 274.

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*Hindu Festivals.*—In comparison with the Muslim festivals, the religious and social festivals of the Hindus are to be noted for the manner of their celebration and the appropriate seasons in which they occur. They usually synchronise with the seasons of comparative leisure for the peasantry and are as a rule enjoyed with dances and popular tunes. Ruling dynasties have come and gone; calamities and disasters have occurred and have been forgotten; people have suffered and groaned, but the local and general festivals have abided and have always been observed with enthusiasm and gaiety. The introduction of new cults and religious faiths has not changed the character of these popular festivals. On the other hand, the newcomers have only added to their richness and variety. Though these festivals cater for the religious emotions of a few, the vast majority is supremely indifferent to their religious significance. For them they are popular occasions of universal social enjoyment and intercourse.

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It is difficult to describe all the local and general festivals. A few of these sprang into special prominence which they maintain even to-day.¹ The most popular festivals were those of Basant Panchami, Holi, Dipavali (or popularly Divali), Sivaratri, and others connected with the various incidents of the life of Krishna. The Basant festival was the harbinger of spring and occurred in the month of Magha. It was conspicuous for the singing of songs, folk-dances and the scattering of red powder. In some ways Holi was a more important festival, at any rate for the Sudras or the lower classes of Hindus. It was celebrated by huge bon-fires, by popular songs and by the usual scattering of red powder (gulal). The Holi was observed in the month of Phalguna. The night of the 29th of Magha was the festival of Sivaratri, which was observed by the religious minded with night vigil and prayers. The 25th of the Karttika was the festival of Divali or Dipavali.²

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¹ Compare Ross, Feasts, etc. for an account of Hindu festivals, pp. 17-18, 75-6, 77.

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² Compare A.A., II, 188-91, for an account of Hindu festivals.

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All the festivals were celebrated in their own way. For instance the worship of Mahadeva figures prominently in the Basant Panchami festival. Vermillion and red powder were scattered in such abundance that, to borrow the figure of speech from Malik Muhammad Jaisi, ‘everything was red from the earth to the sky’. The young maidens did not forget to take their offerings of fruits and flowers to the temple of Siva where after washing the emblem of Siva with sandal and aloe-wood paste and painting it with vermilion, they prayed for the fulfilment of their most intimate wishes, which of course included the wish for a loving spouse. Then, probably after the promise of a second offering to the god, on condition of fulfilment, they returned home.³ Similarly, for three days on the occasion of the Holi festival, Hindus of all castes and classes drenched everybody, including passers-by, with saffron and coloured water. On the third day, in the evening, probably the whole population crowded round a huge bon-fire and took omens from it for the prospects of the next harvest.¹ The Sivaratri festival was celebrated with fire-works by the common people, while the more sober and religious minded kept the night vigil. After the customary worship of the goddess Lakshmi, people used to whirl round torches and burning sticks or ‘fire-brands’.²

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³ Compare the account of a characteristic celebration of Basant Panchami, in Padumavat, 417-27.

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¹ Compare for the celebration of Holi festival, Crooke, Popular Religion 343; also Frampton, 42, for a descritption of Nicolo Conti which most probably applies to this festival.

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² Compare P.P., 135, for a celebration of Sivaratri by the soldiers of Raja Lakshamana; also Carpenter, 306, for a description of a ‘fire-brand’. It was an ancient and familiar boys’ game played by whirling a burning stick swiftly through the air, thus producing the impression of a circle of fire.

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Divali, in some respects was most delightful and pleasing. It is appropriately designated as ‘the festival of lights’. Once in a year the spirits of the sainted dead were permitted to return to their earthly homes and familiar surroundings to fraternise with the mortals of this earth. The relations were naturally happy to give the spirits of their forefathers a cheerful welcome. Wick lamps were lighted in vast number everywhere, inside and outside their homes and all over the temples and public buildings. The whole place looked like a flood of illumination.³ It was the most popular festival of the Vaisyas or bankers and other commercial classes. Everybody was anxious to divine his luck for the coming year. Gambling was therefore universally resorted to as a magical means of tracing fortune.⁴

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³ Compare Crooke, Popular Religion, etc., 346, for an analysis of Divali. Compare Frampton, 42, for a description of illuminations.

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⁴ Compare A.A., II, 188-91, for gambling on the occasion of the Divali festival.

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Dasehra was very popular with the Khsatriyas and all agricultural classes. The festival occurred on the 10th of Jaistha (now also called Vijay Dasmi) and the favourite Saivite goddess Durga was worshipped by the above-mentioned classes. The other prominent feature was the worship of the respective implements of their trade, profession or occupation. The Rajput brought his horse after decorating its forehead with green sprouts of barley; the peasants and craftsmen brought their tools and worshipped them.⁵ Purna-mashi occurred on the full moon of the month of Sravana and was the favourite festival of the Brahmans. Rakhis (or strings made of silk thread and tinsel) were put as wristlets on the hands of young men by the maidens for good luck and affection.

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⁵ Ibid.

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Among the festivals of social importance are chiefly those which celebrate the births of Rama, Krishna, Parasurama, and Narasingha. Krishna was the most popular of all the gods during our period and his cult was fast spreading. At Puri, Lord Jagannatha was brought out in his car with great pageantry at various times in the year. People behaved towards this idol of Krishna exactly as they would to a living god. He embodied all the purest and the finest emotions of the popular mind. In the land of *Braj* (round about Muttra in the United Provinces) where the god was born and played with his mates and milkmaids, every incident of his life was celebrated with intense devotion. We shall refer later to *Krishna-lilas*.¹

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¹ Compare the account of Chaitanya's biography, Sircar, 164, and. Chaitanya's visit to Brindaban.

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Among pilgrimages, there were several that became popular. Some of them were made to the shrines or relics of popular saints, others probably to sacred cities as they are to-day. The important river pilgrimages during this period were more or less confined to the Ganges, especially on the first of a lunar month. Large parties of pilgrims travelled together for convenience and safety and took ample provisions to last them on their long journey. On the whole, these pilgrimages must have been pleasant and romantic in those days of arduous travelling and dangers on the road.²

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² Compare E.D., I, 273; also Ross, Feasts for Hindu pilgrimages.

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Muslim Festivals.—Speaking from the orthodox viewpoint, Muslim life as a whole has little room for any kind of social festivals. Large numbers make the pilgrimage to Mecca and others attend the *Id* prayers. But in every case, the atmosphere of these religious gatherings is too sombre and austere to call them social festivals. However, Indian environment and tradition were bound to react in course of time on this rigidity of Muslim ritual. As a result, although the form of the orthodox religious congregations remained, their nature and purpose underwent a great deal of modification in the environment of Hindustan. Other new festivals were super-imposed on the Muslim Calendar which were predominantly social and indigenous.

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As we have excluded from the present survey the study of modifications in the Muslim rituals and prayers, we shall confine ourselves to the enumeration only of those festivals which were introduced into the orthodox Muslim Calendar. Among the festivals that were officially recognized by the State was the popular Persian festival of *Nau-roz*, to which we had occasion to refer earlier in our treatment. The *Nau-roz* was a spring festival. It was usualy celebrated in large gardens and riverside parks with music and flowers.¹ On the whole its observance was confined to the upper classes of Muslims who were very closely associated with the Sultan. It has more or less died out now in Hindustan.² The Mughal Emperor Humayun was the first monarch who forbade its observance, professedly under religious influence. The usual State banquet on the day of *Nau-roz* was, however, retained.³

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¹ Compare I.K., IV, 330, for a description; also K.K., 18, for verses on the occasion.

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² Compare Ross, Feasts, 110, for the survival of the Nau-roz festival in Murshidabad (Bengal).

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³ K., 150.

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The other important festival was that of *Shab Barat* (‘the night of record’) which fell on the 14th day of *Sha‘ban*.⁴ It has been aptly described as the ‘Guy Fawkes Day of Islam’ although its associations are totally different from the parallel English festival. It professes to commemorate an appropriate legend of Islam, but this is not the whole truth. It is difficult to make a positive assertion, but the *Shab Barat* festival is probably copied from the Hindu festival of Sivaratri.⁵ Some religious enthusiasts spent the whole night of *Shab Barat* in offering special prayers and reading the Holy Book and other formulae.⁶ Common people spent their time in making merry. The distinguishing features of popular celebration were the extensive use of fire-works and the illumination of homes and mosques.⁷

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