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History of Dharmashastra (Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Law in India) v3.c43: Chapter XXV. Dāna (Gifts)

History of Dharmaśāstra (Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Law in India) v3.c43

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Chapter XXV. Dāna (Gifts)

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Manu (I. 86) and others state that in the four *yugas* (ages) viz. Kṛta, Tretā, Dvāpara and Kali, the principal aspects of religious life were respectively *tapas*, metaphysical knowledge, sacrifices,¹⁹⁷³ and gifts. Manu (III. 78) eulogises the stage of householder as the most worthy because all men in the other āśramas are cherished and fed with (Vedic) knowledge (as a teacher of Vedic students) and with food by him. Yama specifies the characteristic features of the four āśramas as follows: ‘quiescence is the *dharma* of ascetics, cessation from taking ordinary food that of forest hermits, dāna (making gifts) that of householders and obedience (or service) that of brahmacārins.’ Vide Dakṣa 1. 12-13 also for the peculiar outward characteristics of the four āśramas. Therefore the subject of *dāna* (gifts or charity) will now engage our attention.

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¹⁹⁷³ तपः परं कृतयुगे त्रेतायां ज्ञानमुच्यते। द्वापरे यज्ञमेवाहुर्दानमेकं कलौ युगे॥ मनु I. 86 = शान्तिपर्व 232. 28 = पराशर I. 23 = वायुपुराण 8. 65-66. यतीनां तु शमो धर्मस्त्वनाहारो वनौकसाम्। दानमेव गृहस्थानां शुश्रूषा ब्रह्मचारिणाम्॥ यम quoted in हेमाद्रि (दान० p. 6).

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Gifts of various kinds and donors have been highly eulogised in the Ṛgveda. There are *dānastutis* (eulogies of gifts) in Ṛg. I. 125 (where the gifts made by king Svanaya son of Bhāvayavya to Kakṣīvat are praised and *dāna* in general is eulogised in verses 5-7), I. 126. 1-5 (where the same praise is continued), V. 61 (where Śyāvāśva praises the donors Taranta, Purumīḷha and Rathavīti), VI. 47. 22-25 (praise of the donor Prastoka Sārñjaya), VII. 18. 22-25 (praise of the gifts made by Sudās Paijavana), VIII. 5. 37-39 (praise of Kaśu Caidya), VIII. 6. 46-48 (praise of Tirindira Pāraśavya), VIII. 46. 21-24 (praise of Kānita), VIII. 68. 14-19, X. 62. 8-11 (praise of Sāvarṇi). Among the objects gifted the most prominent are cows. In Ṛg. I. 126. 3 Kakṣīvat represents¹⁹⁷⁴ that he received sixty thousand cows from Svanaya, along with ten chariots to each of which four bay horses were yoked and in which young girls were seated. In Ṛg. VIII. 5. 37 reference is made¹⁹⁷⁵ to the gifts of ten thousand cows and of 100 camels by Kaśu Caidya. In Ṛg. V. 30. 12 a gift of 4000 cows to Babhru by the men of king Ṛnañcaya is mentioned. Horses are also often described as objects of gift. e. g. Ṛg. V. 18. 5 (gift of 50 horses), VII. 16. 10, VIII. 46. 22 (gifts of 60000 horses, 2000 camels, 1000 bay mares and 10000 cows); VIII. 68. 17. For gifts of camels vide Ṛg. VIII. 5. 37, VIII. 46. 22. For gifts of young damsels vide Ṛg. I. 126. 3, VI. 27. 8, VII. 18. 22, VIII. 19. 36, VIII. 68. 17. The word 'vadhū' used in all these passages cannot mean that the young girls were meant to be the wives of the donees, since in some of them the 'vadhūs' gifted are as many as 10, 20 or even 50.¹⁹⁷⁶ So they were maid servants or female slaves. Ṛg. X. 117 contains an eulogy of the gift of food, the 6th verse of which is the basis of the later teaching of Manu III. 118, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 67. 43, Bhagavad-gītā 3. 13 and is as follows: 'the foolish man¹⁹⁷⁷ (who does not share with others) obtains food to no purpose; I say the truth that it is really his destruction; he does not offer food to Aryaman (i. e. to the gods) nor to his friend (or guest); one who takes food alone (without giving to others) partakes simply of sin.' This injunction was most assiduously followed at all times in India. In the Chān. Up. IV. 1-2 it is stated that Jānaśruti Pautrāyaṇa, a man of faith and very charitable, had erected everywhere shelters in order to feed at all times all people that came from all quarters. Ṛg. X. 107 (of 11 verses) is an apotheosis of dakṣiṇā (gift or sacrificial fee which generally consisted of a cow or cows), which word is repeated several times in almost every verse. Verses 2, 7 and 8 are very interesting 'Those who make gifts of dakṣiṇā (cows or fee) stand high in heaven, those who make gifts of horses stand in the world of the Sun, donors of gold secure immortality (become gods), those who give garments increase the duration of their life. Gifts endow (the donor) with horses, cows, the moon (silver?), gold, food which is the life of us and the knowing (donor) makes gifts of his armour. Donors do not die (they reach immortality in heaven), they do not go down to a low goal, they are not harmed, nor do they suffer pain; dakṣiṇā renders unto these donors this whole world and also heaven'. Ṛg. VI. 47. 23 mentions that from Divodāsa gifts of ten horses, ten boxes (i. e. chariots or boxes of gold), ten garments, in addition to dinners and ten lumps of gold were received.¹⁹⁷⁸

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¹⁹⁷⁴ उप मा श्यावाः स्वनयेन दत्ता वधूमन्तो दश रथासो अस्थुः। षष्टिः सहस्रममु गव्यमागात्सनत् कक्षीवाँ अभिपित्वे अह्नाम्॥ ऋ. I. 126. 3. Sāyaṇa explains षष्टयधिकसहस्रं गवां समूहोऽनु आगात्.

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¹⁹⁷⁵ यथा चिच्चैद्यः कशुः शतमुष्ट्रानां ददत्सहस्रा दश गोनाम्। ऋ. VIII. 5. 37; षष्टिं सहस्राम्ब्यस्यायुतासनमुष्ट्रानां विंशतिं शता। दश श्यावीनां शता दश त्र्यरुषीणां दश गवां सहस्रा॥ ऋ. VIII. 46. 22.

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¹⁹⁷⁶ अदाम्मे पौरुकुत्स्यः पञ्चाशतं त्रसदस्युर्वधूनाम्। मंहिष्ठो अर्यः सत्पतिः॥ ऋ. VIII. 19. 36.

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¹⁹⁷⁷ मोघमन्नं विन्दते अप्रचेताः सत्यं ब्रवीमि वध इत्स तस्य। नार्यमणं पुष्यति नो सखायं केवलाघो भवति केवलादी॥ ऋ. X. 117. 6. The last quarter is quoted by Kullūka on Manu III. 118. The verse occurs in तै. ब्रा. II. 8. 8.

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¹⁹⁷⁸ दशाश्वान्दश कोशान्दश वस्त्राधिवोजना। दशो हिरण्यपिण्डान्दिवोदासादसनिषम्॥ ऋ. VI. 47. 23.

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It appears that although in the Ṛg. gifts of horses are spoken of as next in importance to gifts of cows, popular sentiment changed very early. In the Pauṇḍarīka sacrifice the fee was a thousand horses and in the Jyotiṣṭoma one cow and one horse (Śabara on Jaimini III. 4. 28). The Tai. S. II. 3. 12. 1 says¹⁹⁷⁹ 'Varuṇa indeed seizes him (i. e. he suffers from dropsy) who accepts the gift of a horse and that one should offer to Varuṇa as many offerings prepared on four potsherds as the horses accepted.' Jaimini (III. 4. 28-31) establishes two propositions in connection with this that the iṣṭi to Varuṇa is to be performed when the gift of a horse or horses is accepted in a Vedic sacrifice and that the iṣṭi is to be performed by the donor (and not by the acceptor). The Kāṭhaka Saṁ. XII. 6 also recommends that the horse should not be accepted as a gift, as it has two rows of teeth. In the Tai. Br. II. 2. 5 reference is made to the gift of gold, clothes, a cow, a horse, a human being, a bedstead and several other objects and their presiding deities are said to be Agni, Soma, Indra, Varuṇa, Prajāpati &c. The Tai. S. II. 2. 6. 3 says 'he who accepts an animal with two rows of teeth, such as a horse or a human being, (thereby) secures (to himself) a portion of *ātman* (self); he should offer a mess cooked on twelve potsherds to Vaiśvānara.' Manu X. 89 forbids the sale of the horse and other animals with uncloven hoofs; but the Pehoa inscription from Garibnath temple shows that brāhmaṇas engaged in the sale of horses and that a tax agreed to be levied from vendors and purchasers was made into a permanent fund for temples and priests (vide E. I. vol. I. p. 186). Gaut. 19. 16 mentions the horse among objects that are gifted by way of penance for sins. The Śāṅ. Br. (25. 14) says¹⁹⁸⁰ that he who after promising to gift all, does not give all, is reduced to falling into a deep pit or is killed. The Ait. Br. (30. 9) enjoins¹⁹⁸¹ that one should not accept a gift rejected by the priests and if one accepts it it should be given over to one's enemy.

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¹⁹⁷⁹ वरुणो वा एतं गृह्णाति योऽश्वं प्रतिगृह्णाति यावतोऽश्वान् प्रतिगृह्णीयात् तावतो वारुणांश्चतुष्कपालान्निर्वपेत्। तै. सं. II. 3. 12. 1.

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¹⁹⁸⁰ यो ह वै न सर्वं वृङ्क्ते सर्वं ददानीति ब्रुवन् गर्तपत्यमेव तद्धीयते प्र वा मीयत इति ह स्माह सहस्रं वैनमवदन्ध इति ह स्माह कौषीतकिः। शां. ब्रा. 25. 14.

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¹⁹⁸¹ तस्मादाहुर्न निवृत्तदक्षिणां प्रतिगृह्णीयान्नेन्मा शुचा विद्धा शुचा विध्येदिति। यदि त्वेनां प्रतिगृह्णीयादप्रियायैनां भ्रातृव्याय दद्यात्परा हैव भवति। ऐ. ब्रा. 30. 9; the शतपथ III. 5. 1. 25 also has the words तस्मान्निवृत्त...गृह्णीयात् and it adds सिंही हैनँ भूत्वा क्षिणोति.

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The Śat. Br. (II. 2. 10. 6) says 'there are two kinds of devas, the gods (heavenly) and the human gods viz. brāhmaṇas who have studied the Veda and mastered it; sacrifice is divided between these two, i. e. oblations go to the gods and the fee to the learned brāhmaṇas who are the human gods. These two kinds of gods when gratified place him (the sacrificer) in nectar (or in the celestial world).'¹⁹⁸² The Tai. S. VI. 1. 6. 3 states that 'it is indeed *tapas* when¹⁹⁸³ a man makes a gift of what he owns.' We saw above (note 11) how the Bṛ. Up. V. 2. 3 inculcates the three virtues of self-restraint, charity (*dāna*) and compassion. In the Ait. Br. 39. 6¹⁹⁸⁴ it is stated that the king when anointed should make gifts of gold, fields and cattle. But it appears from the story of Viśvakarman Bhauvana narrated in the Ait. Br. (39. 7) and also in the Śat. Br. (XIII. 7. 1. 13-15) that when he desired to make a gift of the earth to his priest Kaśyapa as sacrificial fee the earth appeared and sang a verse 'no mortal must give me away as a gift; O Viśvakarman Bhauvana, you desired to give me away; I shall plunge into the midst of water, so that this your promise to Kaśyapa is fruitless.' It seems however that gifts of villages had come to be made very early. The Chān. Up. IV. 2. 4-5 narrates how Jānaśruti desirous of learning the saṁvarga lore from Raikva offered a thousand cows, a golden chain, a chariot to which mules were yoked, his own daughter (as a wife) and certain villages to Raikva, which came to be known as Raikvaparṇa villages in the country of Mahāvṛṣa, where Raikva lived.

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¹⁹⁸² Vide S. B. E. vol. 12, pp. 309-310 and also vol. 26, p. 341 (where the same passage occurs).

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¹⁹⁸³ एतत्खलु वाव तप इत्याहुर्यः स्वं ददातीति। तै. सं. VI. 1. 6. 3.

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¹⁹⁸⁴ भूमिर्ह जगामित्युदाहरन्ति। न मा मर्त्यः कश्चन दातुमर्हति विश्वकर्मन्भौवन मां दिदासिय। निमंक्ष्येषं सलिलस्य मध्ये मोघस्त एष कश्यपायास सङ्गरः। इति। ऐ. ब्रा. 39. 7; in the (शतपथ XIII. 7. 1. 15) the words are तदपि भूमिः श्लोकं जगौ। न मा... भौवन मन्द आसिथ। उपमंक्ष्यति स्या सलिलस्य मध्ये मृषैष ते सङ्गरः कश्यपाय। इति।

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The literature on *dāna* is of enormous extent. Apart from casual references in the other *parvans* of the Mahābhārata, the major portion of the Anuśāsana parva is devoted to the various aspects of dāna. The Purāṇas, particularly Agni (chap. 208-215 & 217), Matsya (chap. 82-91 and 274-289) and Varāha (chap. 99-111), contain numerous verses on dāna. There are digests specially devoted to the topic of dāna, the most extensive and important being Hemādri's Dānakhaṇḍa (of the Caturvargacintāmaṇi), Dānakriyākaumudī of Govindānanda, the Dānamayūkha of Nīlakaṇṭha, the Dānavākyāvalī of Vidyāpati, the Dānasāgara of Ballālasena and the Dānaprakāśa of Mitramiśra. Only a brief summary of the topics dealt with in all these is attempted below.

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What constitutes gift (*dāna*) according to the śāstra has been discussed from very ancient times. There is a distinction between *yāga*, *homa* and *dāna*. The first is constituted by abandoning something that belongs to one, intending it for a deity and accompanying it with Vedic mantras; homa is throwing into fire something belonging to oneself over which one abandons one's ownership and which (thing) is intended for a deity; dāna consists in the cessation of one's ownership over a thing and creating the ownership of another over that thing and this last occurs when the other accepts the thing, which acceptance may be mental or vocal or physical; vide Śabara on Jaimini IV. 2. 28 (quoted above in note 1703), VII. 1. 5, IX. 4. 32 and the Mit. on Yāj. II. 27.¹⁹⁸⁵ The Mit. explains that physical acceptance may be effected in various ways such as by actually receiving the thing in one's hand, by simply touching it and quotes a smṛti which illustrates this 'one should give (and the donee may accept) a deer skin (by touching it) on the hairy side, a cow by its tail, an elephant by its trunk, a horse by its mane, a female slave by (touching) her head'. The Mit. adds that as it is impossible to accept a field physically (except by enjoying its fruits) its acceptance is effected by some enjoyment, however small, of its produce. The Viṣṇudharmottara quoted in Dānakriyākaumudī p. 7 gives more examples of the method of acceptance. Vide Bṛhat-Parāśara (chap. VIII. p. 242) for copious illustrations of the way in which a gift is to be accepted according to the nature of the thing given. The word 'pratigraha' has a technical meaning in Dharmaśāstra. Medhātithi on Manu IV. 5 says¹⁹⁸⁶ 'merely taking a thing (from another) does not constitute pratigraha (as understood in Dharmaśāstra). The latter word is applicable only to a particular kind of acceptance viz. when a person accepts what is given by the donor with the idea that he (the donor) will derive from that act some unseen spiritual result (adṛṣṭa or puṇya) and when in making the gift a vedic mantra is repeated. When one gives alms, no mantra (such as 'devasya tvā') is repeated and hence that is not the *dāna* spoken of by *śāstra*, nor does any one apply the word *pratigraha* to the acceptance of an article given through affection to a friend or a servant.' When such a word as vidyādāna (gift of learning to a pupil) is used, the word *dāna* is employed there in a figurative sense only; otherwise the teacher will have to give a dakṣiṇā to the pupil, whereas it is the pupil who may give a dakṣiṇā to the teacher. When some gift is made to an image, the word dāna in that case is also used in a secondary sense, as the image cannot accept the gift. Therefore Devala defines *dāna* (of the *śāstric* kind)¹⁹⁸⁷ as 'that is described as dāna when wealth is given according to śāstric rites so as to reach a receiver who is a fit recipient as defined in the śāstra. What is given to a worthy person without an eye to any particular object (to be achieved by such gift) but solely with the idea of doing one's duty, that is called dharmadāna'. The Dānamayūkha p. 3 explains that the definition of dāna given by Devala applies to the best kind of dāna (called sāttvika) and not to dāna in general. If a gift is sent to a person, but it is lost while on its way or it is stolen and never reaches the donee, then there is no acceptance and so no complete dāna and the donor cannot reap the reward of dāna in such a case.

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¹⁹⁸⁵ एष च यजिः यद् द्रव्यं देवतामुद्दिश्य मन्त्रेण त्यज्यते । शबर on जै. VII. 1. 5; स्वस्वत्वनिवृत्तिः परस्वत्वापादनं च दानम् । परस्वत्वापादनं च परो यदि स्वीकरोति तदा संपद्यते नान्यथा । स्वीकारश्च त्रिविधः । मानसो वाचिकः कायिकश्चेति । ...कायिकः पुनरुपादानाभिमर्शनादिरूपोऽनेकविधः । तत्र च नियमः स्मर्यते । दद्यात्कृष्णाजिनं पृष्ठे गां पुच्छे करिणं करे । केसरेषु तथैवाश्वं दासीं शिरसि दापयेत् । इति...क्षेत्रादौ पुनः फलोपभोगव्यतिरेकेण कायिकस्वीकारासम्भवात् स्वल्पेनाप्युपभोगेन भवितव्यम् । मिता. on याज्ञ. II. 27.

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¹⁹⁸⁶ नैव ग्रहणमात्रं प्रतिग्रहः। विशिष्ट एव स्वीकारे प्रतिपूर्वो गृह्णातिर्वर्तते। अदृष्टबुद्ध्या दीयमानं मन्त्रपूर्वं गृह्णतः प्रतिग्रहो भवति। न च भैक्षे देवस्य त्वादिमन्त्रोच्चारणमस्ति। न च प्रीत्यादिना दानग्रहणे। न च तत्र प्रतिग्रहव्यवहारः। मेधा० on मनु. IV. 5.

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¹⁹⁸⁷ अर्थानामूचिते पात्रे यथावत्प्रतिपादनम्। दानमित्यभिनिर्दिष्टं व्याख्यानं तस्य वक्ष्यते ॥ देवल quoted by अपरार्क p. 287, दानक्रियाकौमुदी p. 2, हेमाद्रि (दानखण्ड p. 13), दानवाक्यावलि (D. C. Ms. No. 368 of 1891–95) folio 2 b. The last reads श्रद्धया for यथावत्. पात्रेभ्यो दीयते नित्यमनपेक्ष्य प्रयोजनम्। केवलं धर्मबुद्ध्या यद्धर्मदानं तदुच्यते ॥ देवल quoted by हेमाद्रि (दान p. 14).

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There are six aṅgas (constituent elements) of dāna, as stated by Devala,¹⁹⁸⁸ viz. the donor, the donee, śraddhā (charitable attitude), the subject of gift which must have been acquired by the donor in a proper way, a proper time and a proper place. The first four are clearly indicated in Manu IV. 226-227. These six will have to be dealt with one after another.

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¹⁹⁸⁸ दाता प्रतिग्रहीता च श्रद्धा देयं च धर्मयुक्त् । देशकालौ च दानानामङ्गान्येतानि षड् विदुः ॥ देवल in दानवाक्या० folio 3 a, हेमाद्रि (दान p. 14).

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One important word that deserves consideration in the subject of dāna is *iṣṭāpūrta*. That word has a high antiquity. It occurs in the Ṛgveda and the sense seems to be ‘the cumulative spiritual result or merit due to a man's performance of sacrifices and charitable acts’. Ṛg. X. 14. 8 is addressed to one recently¹⁹⁸⁹ dead ‘may you join the pitṛs, may you be united with Yama, and with your *iṣṭāpūrta* in the highest heaven’. The word, though employed in the singular (probably as a samāhāra-dvandva compound), consists of two parts, iṣṭa (what is sacrificed) and pūrta (what is filled). In the Atharvaveda also the word occurs, ‘may the iṣṭāpūrta of our ancestors save us (from our enemy); I seize yonder (man or enemy) with divine wrath’ (II. 12. 4). Vide also Atharvaveda III. 29. 1. Sometimes the two components are employed separately or in the dual when compounded. The Tai. S. V. 7. 7. 1-3 has the interesting observation¹⁹⁹⁰ ‘when he comes by the Devayāna paths, then make ye his iṣṭāpūrta manifest to him; whatever sacrifice was offered, whatever was handed over, whatever was given and the dakṣiṇā offered, may Agni present in all actions place all that in heaven among the gods for us.’ The Tai. Br. II. 5. 5 says¹⁹⁹¹ ‘may Iṣṭa and pūrta last for endless years; having sacrificed with an offering that is ever-lasting, a man ascended to the highest and ever-lasting world ' and Tai. Br. III. 9. 14 remarks "the brāhmaṇa should sing 'you made gifts, you performed sacrifices, you cooked food (for serving to others).' Indeed iṣṭāpūrta belongs to a brāhmaṇa; he makes him (the king) prosper by iṣṭāpūrta." The Vāj. S. XV. 54 says 'O fire, may you be awake (or kindled), may you be watchful for us; join with iṣṭāpūrta (the sacrificer) and him with his iṣṭāpūrta.' The Kaṭhopaniṣad I. 1. 8 states that when a brāhmaṇa guest is allowed to stay in a house without being served with food he destroys the iṣṭāpūrta, the issue and the cattle of the householder. The Muṇḍaka Up. I. 2. 10 condemns those who regard iṣṭāpūrta as the highest and do not hold that there is anything higher than that and states that they have to come down to this world or to a lower world again after enjoying the blessings of Heaven.

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¹⁹⁸⁹ सङ्गच्छस्व पितृभिः सं यमेन इष्टापूर्तेन परमे व्योमन् । ऋ. X. 14. 8; इष्टापूर्तमवतु नः पितृणाममुं दधे हरसा दैव्येन ॥ अथर्ववेद II. 12. 4.

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¹⁹⁹⁰ यदागच्छात्पथिभिर्देवयानैरिष्टापूर्ते कृणुतादाविरस्मै । ... यदिष्टं यत्परादानं यद्दत्तं या च दक्षिणा । तदग्निर्वैश्वकर्मणः सुवर्देवेषु नो दधत् । तै. सं V. 7. 7. 1-3; उद्बुध्यस्वाग्ने प्रतिजागृहि त्वमिष्टापूर्ते संसृजेथामयं च । वाज. सं. XV. 54 and XVIII. 61.

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¹⁹⁹¹ इष्टं पूर्तं शश्वतीनां समानां शाश्वतेन हविषेष्टानन्तं लोकं परमारुरुहे । तै. ब्रा. II. 5.5; इत्यददा इत्ययजथा इत्यपच इति ब्राह्मणो गायेत् । इष्टापूर्ते वै ब्राह्मणस्य । इष्टापूर्तेनैवेनं स समर्धयति । तै. ब्रा. III. 9. 14.

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Aparārka (p. 290) quotes the Mahābhārata for defining iṣṭa and pūrta¹⁹⁹² 'whatever is offered in the single fire (i. e. gṛhya fire) and what is offered in the three śrauta fires and the gifts made inside the vedi (in śrauta sacrifices) are called *iṣṭa*; while dedication of deep wells, oblong large wells and tanks, temples, distribution of food, and maintaining public gardens—these are called pūrta.' Aparārka quotes Nārada also 'Honouring a guest and performance of vaiśvadeva constitute *iṣṭa* while the dedication of tanks, wells, temples, places for public distribution of food and gardens is called pūrta and also gifts made at the time of eclipses, or on the sun's passage in a zodiacal sign or on the 12th day of a month.' Hemadri (Dāna p. 20) quotes Śaṅkha that nursing of those who are ill constitutes pūrta. Manu (IV. 226-227) ordains 'one should always assiduously perform *iṣṭa* and *pūrta*, which when done with śraddhā and with wealth justly acquired become inexhaustible. One should ever resort to dānadharma (that mode of dharma which consists in gifts) which is either iṣṭa or pūrta, according to one's means, after meeting a worthy person (as recipient) and with a pleased attitude of mind.'

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¹⁹⁹² महाभारतम्। एकाग्निकर्म हवनं त्रेतायां यच्च हूयते। अन्तर्वेद्यां च यद्दानमिष्टमित्यभिधीयते॥ वापीकूपतडागानि देवतायतनानि च। अन्नप्रदानमारामः पूर्तमित्यभिधीयते। अपरार्क p. 290 (vide note 370 for वापी &c.); the 2nd verse is अत्रि 44, while अत्रि 43 defines इष्ट as अग्निहोत्रं तपः सत्यं वेदानां चैव पालनम्। आतिथ्यं वैश्वदेवश्च इष्टमित्यभिधीयते॥. लिखित 5 is the same as अत्रि 43. Vide हेमाद्रि (दान p. 20) where एकाग्नि० and अग्निहोत्रं० are ascribed to शङ्ख; also यम 68-70 and अग्निपुराण 209. 2-3 which define इष्ट and पूर्त almost in the same words as अत्रि.

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Any one including women and śūdras could make gifts. So much emphasis was laid on the duty to make gifts that Aparārka quotes a verse¹⁹⁹³ 'two persons should be drowned in water after tying round their neck a large stone, viz. a rich man not making gifts and a poor man who is not a *tapasvin* (who undergoes austerities or who is restrained).' It is stated in Atri 46, Likhita 6 and other smṛtis that¹⁹⁹⁴ 'Iṣṭa and pūrta are dharma common to all twice-born classes; the śūdra has authority to perform pūrta dharma, but not the Vaidika dharma (sacrifices etc.).' According to Devala the donor should be free from incurable or disgusting diseases, be religious, charitably inclined, free from vices, pure and following a blameless profession for livelihood. Several smṛtis note that it is a rare sight to see a man giving away in charity wealth earned by him. Veda-vyāsa¹⁹⁹⁵ (IV. 60) says 'amongst a hundred men, one may be found to be brave, among thousands a learned man, among hundreds of thousands an orator, but a donor may or may not be found.'

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¹⁹⁹³ द्वावेवाप्सु प्रवेष्टव्यौ गले बध्द्वा महाशिलाम् । धनवन्तमदातारं दरिद्रं चातपस्विनम् ॥ quoted by अपरार्क p. 199, दानवाक्यावलि folio 2 a. This is उद्योगपर्व 33. 60 (which reads द्वावम्भासि निवेष्टव्यौ).

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¹⁹⁹⁴ इष्टापूर्तौ द्विजातीनां धर्मः सामान्य इष्यते । अधिकारी भवेच्छूद्रो पूर्ते धर्मे न वैदिके ॥ अत्रि 46, लिखित 6 and quoted by Aparārka p. 24 as जातूकर्ण्य's. अपापरोगी धर्मात्मा विस्मृरव्यसनः शुचिः । अनिन्द्यजीवकर्मा च षड्भिर्दाता प्रशस्यते ॥ देवल quoted by अपरार्क p. 288, हेमाद्रि (दान p. 14). पापरोगs are said to be eight such as Tuberculosis etc.

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¹⁹⁹⁵ शतेषु जायते शूरः सहस्रेषु च पण्डितः । वक्ता शतसहस्रेषु दाता भवति वा न वा ॥ वेदव्यास IV. 60.

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A good deal has already been said above (pp. 113-114) about the persons fit to be donees (*pātra*) and an unfit one. A few more words may be added here. Dakṣa III. 17-18 states 'a gift made to one's parents, guru, friend, to a well conducted man, to one who has laid the donor under obligation, to the poor, the helpless, those endowed with special excellence, leads to rewards, while gifts made to rogues, to bards, to wrestlers, to those who devote time to bad lores, to gamblers and deceitful persons, to cāṭas, to cāraṇas and thieves brings no fruit (or merit).¹⁹⁹⁶ Manu 4. 193-200 (= Viṣṇu Dh. S. 93. 7-13) contains a list of persons to whom gifts should not be made, such as a brāhmaṇa who is like a cat or hypocrite or who does not know the veda. Bṛhad-Yama III. 34-38 enumerates those brāhmaṇas who are unfit to be invited at a śrāddha or to be donees such as lepers, those who suffer from incurable diseases, those who officiate at sacrifices for śūdras, a devalaka and seller of Veda (teaching it with a prior stipulation for money) and in IV. 55-56 says that gifts made to brāhmaṇas that are addicted to bad actions, that are covetous, devoid of Veda study and sandhyā performance, who have swerved from the vows proper (for brāhmaṇas), who are wicked and who are immersed in pleasures of sense become fruitless. Vanaparva (200. 5-9) enumerates 16 futile gifts such as to one who left off the order of *saṁnyāsa* or of wealth acquired by unjust means &c. Almost the same verses occur in Bṛhat-Parāśara (VIII. pp. 241-242), which are quoted in Par. M. I, part 1, p. 188. Vide also Vṛddha-Gautama (III. chap. pp. 508-509) for numerous futile gifts. It is one's duty to give food at the end of Vaiśvadeva to all (vide note 1779 above) and the Viṣṇudharmottara directs that as to gifts of food and clothing the only consideration is whether the donor is hungry or in need of clothes and not caste nor qualities.1996a When on seeing a needy person the donor feels pleasure and indicates it by a smiling face, when he shows honour and is free from a feeling of ill-will or irritation (towards the suppliant), that is said to be śraddhā, according to Devala.¹⁹⁹⁷ Manu IV. 235 says that he who gives a gift with honour and he who accepts it with honour both go to heaven, but if the reverse is the case they go to hell.

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¹⁹⁹⁶ मातापित्रोर्गुरौ मित्रे विनीते चोपकारिणि। दीनानाथविशिष्टेषु दत्तं च सफलं भवेत् ॥ धूर्ते वन्दिनि मल्ले च कुवैद्ये कितवे शठे। चाटचारणचौरेषु दत्तं भवति निष्फलम् ॥ दक्ष III. 17-18, the 2nd verse being quoted by अपरार्क p. 286. About the meaning of *cāṭa* that occurs in many grants there is no unanimity. The Mit. on Yāj. I. 336 (चाटतस्कर &c.) explains चाटा: प्रतारकाः विश्वास्य ये परधनमपहरन्ति. Vide E. I. vol. IX p. 284 n. 10, p. 294, XI. p. 176, XIV. p. 156 for discussion of the meaning.

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1996a अन्नाच्छादनदानेषु पात्रं नैव विचारयेत्। अन्नस्य क्षुधितं पात्रं विवस्त्रो वसनस्य चेति। विष्णुधर्मोक्तेः। दानमयूख p. 5.

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¹⁹⁹⁷ सौमुख्यं याचकं दृष्ट्वा सम्भाषामितिथौ सदा। सत्कृतिस्त्वानसूया च तदा श्रद्धेति कीर्त्यते॥ देवल quoted by अपरार्क p. 288.

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Numerous rules are laid down about the things that can be the subject of gifts (i. e. about *deya*). Whatever is in this world a most desirable thing and what one prizes most in one's house may be given to a man endowed with good qualities by a donor who desires inexhaustible (merit) from it — Anuśāsana parva 59. 7.¹⁹⁹⁸ According to Devala, that is a proper subject for a gift, which has been acquired by the donor himself without causing pain or loss to another or without worry or trouble to himself, whether it be small or valuable (or much).¹⁹⁹⁹ It is not the extent of the gift that causes greater or lesser merit. Merit (*puṇya*) of gifts depends upon the mental attitude, the capacity of the giver and the way in which the donor acquired his wealth. If a man²⁰⁰⁰ were to give even the whole earth acquired by unjust means, or if he makes a gift without śraddhā (as defined) or to an unworthy person he would secure no prosperity (religious merit) thereby. On the other hand by making a gift of even a handful of vegetables with a heart full of śraddhā and to a very worthy person, he may secure all prosperity. If one possessing a thousand makes a gift of 100 or one having ten makes a gift of one and another gives only water according to his ability, they all reap an equal reward.

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¹⁹⁹⁸ यद्यदिष्टतमं लोके यच्चापि दयितं गृहे । तत्तद्गुणवते देयं तदेवाक्षयमिच्छता ॥ अनुशासनपर्व 59. 7 = मार्कण्डेय 35. 52-53 = मत्स्य 72. 39. This is विष्णुध. सू. 92. 32.

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¹⁹⁹⁹ अपराधामक्लेशं स्वयं येनार्जितं धनम् । स्वल्पं वा विपुलं वापि देयमित्यभिधीयते ॥ देवल quoted in अपरार्क p. 288.

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²⁰⁰⁰ अन्यायाधिगतां दत्त्वा सकलां पृथिवीमपि । श्रद्धावर्जमपात्राय न कांचिद् भूतिमाप्नुयात् ॥ प्रदाय शाकमुष्टिं वा श्रद्धाभक्तिसमुद्यताम् । महते पात्रभूताय सर्वामभ्युदयमाप्नुयात् ॥ देवल quoted by अपरार्क p. 290; सहस्रशक्तिश्च शतं शतशक्तिर्दशापि च । दद्यादपश्य यः शक्त्या सर्वे तुल्यफलाः स्मृताः ॥ आश्वमेधिकपर्व 90. 96-97; एकां गां दशगुर्वद्याद्दश दद्याच्च गोशती । शतं सहस्रगुर्दद्यात्सर्वे तुल्यफला हि ते ॥ अग्निपुराण 211. 1.

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Among *deya* things, some are the best, some middling, some inferior. Food,²⁰⁰¹ curds, honey, protection, cow, land, gold, horse and elephant — gifts of these nine are said to be the best; learning, house for shelter, domestic paraphernalia (like cots), medicine — these four are said to be middling; shoes, swings, carts, umbrellas, vessels, seats, lamps, wood, fruits and whatever is old and worn out and all other unspecified objects are inferior. Yāj. (I. 210-211) appears to have this difference in view when he says that a man, making a gift of land (capable of yielding a crop or fruits), lamp, wood, garment, water (water-reservoir), sesame, ghee, house for travellers, money for settling a person as a married man (or bringing about his marriage by finding a girl for him), gold, draught ox, is honoured in the heavenly world, while one who makes a gift of a house, corn (of various kinds), protection from danger, shoes, umbrella, flowers, unguents, conveyance (chariot &c.), tree, a desired thing, a cot secures endless happiness. Gifts of three things are said to be superior to the gift of anything else and are styled²⁰⁰² *atidāna*, viz. of cows, land and Sarasvatī (*vidyā*) according to Vas. Dh. S. 29. 19 and Bṛhaspati 18. Vas. Dh. S. 29. 19, Manu 4. 233, Atri, 340, Yāj. I. 212 say that the gift of *vidyā* is the best of all gifts such as those of water, food, cows, land, garments, sesame, gold and clarified butter. On the other hand Anuśāsana-parva (62. 2) and the Viṣṇudharmottara (quoted by Aparārka p. 369) say that the gift of land surpasses all other gifts. The Viṣṇu Dh. S. 92. 1 says that the gift of protection from danger (abhayadāna) is the highest. The gifts of certain objects were called *mahādānas*. These and a few other dānas will be dealt with in some detail later on.

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²⁰⁰¹ अन्नं दधि मधु त्राणं गोभूरुक्माश्वहस्तिनः । दानान्युत्तमदानानि उत्तमद्रव्यदानतः ॥ विद्या चाच्छादनावासपरिभोगौषधानि च। दानानि मध्यमानीति मध्यमद्रव्यदानतः । उपानमेद्द्ययानानि छत्रपात्रासनानि च । दीपकाष्ठफलादीनि चरमं बहुवार्षिकम् ॥ बहुत्वार्थजातानां संख्या शेषेषु नेष्यते । अधमान्यवशिष्टानि सर्वदानान्यतो विदुः ॥ देवल quoted by अपरार्क pp. 289-90, हेमाद्रि (दान० pp. 16.)

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²⁰⁰² त्रीण्याहुरतिदानानि गावः पृथ्वी सरस्वती । अतिदानं हि दानानां विद्यादानं ततोधिकम् । वसिष्ठ 29. 19 ; अति दानानि सर्वाणि पृथिवीदानमुच्यते । अनुशासन 62. 2.

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Dānas are divided into *nitya*²⁰⁰³ (called ājasrika by Devala), *naimittika* and *kāmya*. Whatever is given everyday (such as food after Vaiśvadeva &c.) is nitya, what is given at certain specified times (such as on eclipses) or on account of doing certain acts (such as penance for lapses) is called naimittika; what is given through the desire of securing progeny, victory, prosperity, heaven or a wife is called kāmya (as it springs from a desire). Dedication of a garden or of a well &c. is called dhruvadāna (permanent gift) by Devala; while the Kūrma-purāṇa adds to the well-known three a fourth division called *vimala* (pure) defined by it as 'what is given to those who know brahma for securing the grace of God with a mind full of devotion.' Vas. Dh. S. 29. 1-15, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 92 and Manu IV. 229-232 (which are repeated in Vṛddha-Gautama, chap. XI. p. 586) and many of the purāṇas are eloquent over what rewards a man reaps by making gifts of water, food, sesame &c. The Bhagavad-gītā (17. 20-22) divides dānas into sāttvika, rājasa and tāmasa and defines them as follows: When a gift is made because one feels it one's duty to make it and at a proper time and place and to a worthy person who will not return it, it is called sāttvika; when it is made with an expectation of the donee doing a good turn in return or with a view to securing some reward therefrom and is given grudgingly, it is rājasa; when a gift is made at an improper time or place and to an unworthy person and without showing honour to the recipient and with disrespect (or contempt), it is declared to be tāmasa.

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²⁰⁰³ प्रपारामतडागादि सर्वकामफलं ध्रुवम् । तदाजस्रिकमित्याहुर्दीयते यदिने दिने ॥ अपत्यविजयैश्वर्यस्त्रीबालार्थे यदिष्यत । इच्छ्छासंस्थं तु तद्दानं काम्यमित्यभिधीयते ॥ कालापेक्षं क्रियापेक्षमर्थापेक्षमिवि स्मृतम् । त्रिधा नैमित्तिकं प्रोक्तं सहोमं होमवर्जितम् ॥ देवल quoted by अपरार्क p. 289 and हेमाद्रि (दान० p. 16); यदीश्वरप्रीणनार्थं ब्रह्मवित्सु प्रदीयते । चेतसा भक्तियुक्तेन दानं तद्विमलं शिवम् ॥ कूर्मपुराण quoted by हेमाद्रि (दान. p. 17).

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Many texts emphasize a rule similar to that in the Bible 'But when thou doest alms, let not thy left hand know what thy right hand doeth, that thine alms may be in secret'—Matthew VI. 3-4. Yogi-Yājñavalkya says²⁰⁰⁴ that the reward of making gifts secretly, possessing knowledge without being puffed up and engaging in *japa* without others seeing it is infinite. Devala says 'sacrifice, gift and study lose their power and perish by being declared to others, by boasting about them or by repenting of having done them. Therefore one should not without good reason (such as protecting a gift &c.) proclaim one's meritorious act.'

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²⁰⁰⁴ प्रच्छन्नानि च दानानि ज्ञानं च निरहंकृतम् । जप्यंनि च सुगुप्तानि एषां फलमनन्तकम् ॥ योगियाज्ञवल्क्य quoted in गृह. र. p. 243; लघुशातातप 149 is प्रत्यक्षानि (!) च दत्तानि ...... तपांसि ...... अनन्तकम् ॥; इष्टं दत्तमधीतं वा विनश्यत्यनुकीर्तनात् । श्लाघाऽनुशोचनाभ्यां च भग्नेतेजो विपद्यते । तस्मादात्मकृतं पुण्यं न वृथा परिकीर्तयेत् । देवल quoted by अपरार्क p. 290, हेमाद्रि (दान. p. 17).

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Certain things when offered voluntarily by a person with his own hand must be accepted and not spurned even by one who does not ordinarily accept gifts. Manu IV. 247-250, Yāj. I. 214-215, Āp. Dh. S. I. 6. 19. 13-14, Viṣṇu Dh. S. 57. 11 declare that kuśas, vegetables (raw), milk, fish, fragrant substances, flowers, curds, clay, flesh, a bedstead, a seat, fried barley, water, precious stones, fuel-sticks, fruits and roots, honey, food offered without being asked (except of the impotent, of prostitutes and of *patita*) must not be spurned, but must be accepted.

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Certain objects could not be donated either because one had no ownership over them or because the sages forbade such gifts. Jaimini (VI. 7. 1-7) establishes several propositions, viz. that one can make a gift only of what one owns, that one cannot make a gift of one's relatives (parents, sons and others) in the Viśvajit, that a sovereign cannot make a gift of the whole of his kingdom, that horses cannot be gifted in that sacrifice as śruti forbids such a gift in that sacrifice, that a śūdra who serves the sacrificer merely as a duty cannot be given away and that whatever is of the full ownership of a person at the time of giving the dakṣiṇā can alone be gifted in the Viśvajit sacrifice. Nārada²⁰⁰⁵ (dattāpradānika 4-5) forbids eight kinds of gifts viz. of what is handed over to a creditor by a debtor for delivery to a third person, what is borrowed for use (such as an ornament on a festive occasion), a pledge, property jointly owned with others, a deposit, son and wife, one's entire property when one has children, what has been already promised to another man. Dakṣa III. 19-20 enumerates nine things as not proper subjects of gifts (adding to Nārada's list 'a friend's wealth and gift through fear' and omitting 'what is already promised to another'). Yāj. II. 175 is of similar import. Aparārka p. 779 quotes verses of Bṛhaspati and Kātyāyana to the same effect. Vide above (pp. 507-508) as to a man's power over his children.

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²⁰⁰⁵ अन्वाहितं याचितकमाधिः साधारणं च यत् । निक्षेपः पुत्रदाराश्च सर्वस्वं चान्वये सति । आपत्स्वपि हि कष्टासु वर्तमानेन देहिना । अदेयान्याहुराचार्या यच्चान्यस्मै प्रतिश्रुतम् ॥ नारद (दत्ताप्रदानिक 4-5) ; सामान्यं याचितं न्यास आधिर्दाशः सुहृद्धनम् । भयादितं च निक्षेपः सर्वस्वं चान्वये सति । आपत्स्वपि न देयानि नव वस्तूनि सर्वदा । यो ददाति स मूढात्मा प्रायश्चित्ती यते नरः ॥ दक्ष III. 19-20.

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The texts took care to set limits to a man's generosity. After emphasizing in very eloquent language the obligation to share one's possessions, however meagre, with others, Veda-Vyāsa²⁰⁰⁶ (IV. 30-31) inculcates the doctrine that charity begins at home. Āp. Dh. S. II. 4. 9. 10-12, Baud. Dh. S. II. 3. 19 ordain that one should not stint one's dependents (whom one is bound to maintain), one's servants and slaves for distributing food to guests and others. Yāj. II. 175 prescribes that one should make gifts in such a way as not to cause detriment to one's family. Bṛhaspati²⁰⁰⁷ explains this by saying that one may give away wealth that is over and above what is required for maintaining one's family and for clothing and that the charity of one who disregards this rule is something that is sweet like honey at first but like poison in its effect. In this Bṛhaspati only echoes what Manu says (XI. 9-10) 'the charity of him who has wealth enough to make gifts to strangers, when his own people live a life of misery, is only a false imitation of dharma (and not the true dharma), it is at first like honey but will taste like poison (later). Whatever a man does for his welfare in the next world by stinting those whom he is bound to maintain results in unhappiness to him while living and also after death'. The Anuśāsana parva (37. 2-3) declares that if one makes a gift stinting one's servants, he makes himself a sinner, even though one may say that one would give whatever any one begs for (compare Luke VI. 30 'give to every man that asketh of thee'). Hemādri quotes²⁰⁰⁸ Śivadharma to the effect that a man should set apart three parts out of five from his acquisitions for himself and his family and two parts for dharma, as life is evanescent.

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²⁰⁰⁶ यद्ददासि विशिष्टेभ्यो यच्चाश्नासि दिने दिने ॥ तत्ते वित्तमहं मन्ये शेषं कस्यापि रक्षसि ॥ किं धनेन करिष्यन्ति देहिनो गत्वरायुषः । यद्धर्मयितुमिच्छन्ति तच्छरीरमशाश्वतम्॥ ग्रासादर्धमपि ग्रासमर्थिभ्यः किं न दीयते । इच्छानुरूपो विभवः कदा कस्य भविष्यति ॥ प्राणत्राणस्तु कर्तव्यः यः कृतार्थः स नो सुतः। अकृतार्थस्तु यो मृत्युः प्राप्तः खरसमो हि सः॥ मातापितृषु यद्दत्तं भ्रातृषु श्वशुरेषु च । जायापत्येषु यो दद्यात् सोऽनन्तः स्वर्गसंक्रमः । पितुः शतगुणं दानं सहस्रं मातुरुच्यते । भगिन्यां शतसाहस्रं सोदरे दत्तमक्षयम् ॥ वेदव्यासस्मृति IV. 16, 18, 24, 26, 30-31 quoted by हेमाद्रि (दान) p. 33; vide अग्निपुराण 209. 32-33.

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²⁰⁰⁷ कुटुम्बभक्तवसनाद्देयं यदतिरिच्यते । मध्वास्वादो विषं पश्चात् दातुर्धर्मोऽन्यथा भवेत् ॥ बृहस्पति quoted by अपरार्क p. 780 and हेमाद्रि (दान० p. 44).

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²⁰⁰⁸ तस्मात् त्रिभागं वित्तस्य जीवनाय प्रकल्पयेत् । भागद्वयं तु धर्मार्थमनित्यं जीविते यतः ॥ शिवधर्म quoted by हेमाद्रि (दान. p. 44) and दानमयूख p. 5.

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Certain things were forbidden to be accepted as gifts. The gift of animals with two rows of teeth was forbidden by śruti (vide Śabara on Jaimini VI. 7. 4 quoted above). Vas. Dh. S. 13. 55 declares that a brāhmaṇa should not accept the gift of weapons, poisonous substances and spirituous liquor. Manu IV. 188 states that a brāhmaṇa who is not learned should not accept the gift of gold, land, horses, cow, food, garment, sesame, clarified butter; but if he accepts he is reduced to ashes (i. e. perishes) like wood. Hemādri (Dāna p. 57) quotes the Brahma-purāṇa that a brāhmaṇa should not accept the gifts of ewes, horses, precious stones, an elephant, sesame and iron, and that one who accepts a gift of antelope skin or sesame would not be born again as a male and that if a person accepts the bedstead, ornaments and the clothes of one who is dead he would go to hell.

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As to the proper times for gifts, several rules are laid down. Apart from the daily duty to make gifts (Yāj. I. 203) gifts had to be made on special occasions and if so made were more meritorious than the gifts made daily. Laghu-Śātātapa (145-153)

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says²⁰⁰⁹ that a gift must be made on the first day of each *ayana* (the sun's passage to the north or south), at the beginning of *Ṣaḍaśīti* and while an eclipse of the sun or moon is in progress and that the rewards of the gifts made on these occasions are inexhaustible. Vanaparva 200. 125 is to the same effect. A gift made on Amāvāsyā imparts rewards a hundred times (of the reward of making it on any ordinary day), a thousand times when made on the suppression of a tithi, a hundred thousand times when made on the equinoctial day and a gift brings endless rewards when made on Vyatīpāta. Saṁvarta (208–209) says that gifts made on the *ayana* day, equinoctial day, vyatīpāta, the suppression of a tithi and on the eclipses of the sun and moon, on new moon day, 12th day, saṁkrānti (sun's passage into a zodiacal sign) becomes inexhaustible and these tithis are highly commended and so also Sunday for a bath, japa, homa, dinner to brāhmaṇas, fast and gifts.²⁰¹⁰ Śātātapa (146) states that 16 *ghaṭikās* before and also after the moment when the sun enters a new zodiacal sign is the holy time for gifts, while others give 30 ghaṭikās (before and after) for Karkaṭaka (Cancer saṁkrānti), 20 for Makara (Capricorn) and 105 for Tulā (Balance) and Meṣa (Aries). Viśvarūpa on Yāj. I. 214–217 states that the times specified as the proper occasions for śrāddha are all of them the most appropriate times for making gifts. Vide Prajāpati 25 and 28 and Atri 327 for similar rules. Śaṅkha says that if amāvāsyā falls on Monday, the 7th tithi on Sunday, 4th on Tuesday, 8th on Wednesday—these four are like eclipses and so gifts made on these days yield infinite rewards (quoted by Hemādri, dānakhaṇḍa p. 66). The Viṣṇu Dh. S. chap. 89 deals with the rewards of the gifts of various articles made on the full moon days of the twelve months of the year. Anuśāsana chap. 64 speaks of dānas on the 27 nakṣatras from kṛttikā.

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²⁰⁰⁹ अयने विषुवे चैव षडशीतिमुखेषु च । चन्द्रसूर्य्योपरागे च दत्तमक्षयमुच्यते ॥ वनपर्व 200. 125 ; अयनादौ सदा दद्याद् द्रव्यमिष्टं गृहे वसन् । षडशीतिमुखे चैव विषुवे चन्द्रसूर्ययोः ॥ लघुशातातप 145, quoted as शातातप by अपरार्क p. 291. The sun's entrance into the signs of Gemini, Virgo, Sagittarius and Pisces is called षडशीति; vide बृहत्पराशर p. 245 and अपरार्क p. 292 quoting वसिष्ठ, अग्निपुराण 209. 9–10.

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²⁰¹⁰ शतमिन्दुक्षये दानं सहस्रं तु दिनक्षये । विषुवे शतसाहस्रं व्यतीपाते त्वनन्तकम् ॥ लघुशातातप 150 quoted as व्यास's by अपरार्क p. 292; विश्वरूप p. 144 also quotes the first पाद. When three *tithis* occur on the same day it is called दिनक्षय as the middle one is suppressed in the calendars (vide अपरार्क p. 292); शतमिन्दु० is quoted as याज्ञ० by हेमाद्रि (दान p. 69). व्यतीपात is one of the 27 योगs beginning with विष्कम्भ and is defined as श्रवणाश्विधनिष्ठाद्र्रानागदेवत-मस्तके। यद्यमा रविwareण व्यतीपातः स उच्यते ॥ (वृद्धमनु according to अपरार्क p. 426)—when the moon is in the constellations of Sravaṇa, Aśvinī, Dhaniṣṭhā, Ārdrā, Āśleṣā (first quarter) and amāvāsyā falls on Sunday it is Vyatīpāta. Even Bāṇa in the Harṣacarita IV states that Harṣa was born on a day that was free from all inauspicious conjunctions such as Vyatīpāta.

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The general rule was that gifts were not to be made at night. But there are several exceptions. Atri 327 states that a gift even at night is commended on the occasions of eclipses, marriages, saṁkrāntis and the birth of a child. Devala²⁰¹¹ quoted in Par. M. I. part I, p. 194 has a similar verse and the Par. M. adds that only on the Cancer and Capricorn saṁkrāntis are gifts allowed to be made at night.

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²⁰¹¹ राहुदर्शनसंक्रान्तिविवाहात्ययवृद्धिषु । स्नानदानादिकं कुर्युर्निशि काम्यव्रतेषु च ॥ देवल quoted by हेमाद्रि (दान p. 81).

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The above rules about the special occasions for gifts are amply borne out by epigraphic evidence. A few examples may be cited. A very large number of grants on copper and stone relate to gifts of lands and villages at the time of solar eclipses. For example, vide Tiwarkhed plate of Rāṣṭrakūṭa Nannarāja dated *śake* 553 (653?) in E. I. vol. XI. p. 279, I. A. vol. VI, p. 73 (in *śake* 534 i. e. 613 A. D.), the grant of 30 *nivartanas* of land purchased for 30 gadyāṇakas of gold on a total eclipse of the sun in 754 A. D. in the time of Cālukya Kīrtivarman II (E. I. vol. III. p. 6), E. I. vol. III. p. 193 (of *śake* 716), E. I. vol. IX, p. 100 (in 660 A. D.). Grants on the occasion of a lunar eclipse are found in J. B. B. R. A. S. vol, 20, p. 135 (Navsari plates of Rāṣṭrakūṭa Mahāsāmanatādhipati Karkarāja issued in *śake* 738, i. e. 817 A. D.), in E. I. vol. I. p. 341 (Patna Inscription of the time of Yādava Siṅghaṇa dated *śake* 1128 i. e. 1207 A.D.), E.I. vol. 19, p. 41, E.I. vol. 20, p. 125 (in *saṁvat* 1108). Grants on *ayana* days may be seen in I. A. vol. 12, p. 193 (Haddāla plates of the Cāpa Mahāsāmantādhipati Dharaṇī-varāha issued in *śake* 836), the Sañjan grant of Amoghavarṣa dated *śake* 793 (Uttarāyaṇa-Mahāparvaṇi). Grants on Saṁkrāntis are found in E. I. vol. VIII. p. 182 (Dhulia plate of Karkarāja dated *śake* 701), E. I. vol. XII. p. 142 (in 1087 A. D.), E. I. vol. VIII. p. 159 (in *saṁvat* 1207). It may be noted that not only on the sun's passage in a rāśi, but even on Jupiter's passage in a rāśi (Taurus in this case) a grant was made as seen in Lucknow Museum plate of Kīrtipāla (E. I. vol. VII, p. 93 in *saṁvat* 1167 i. e. 1111 A. D.). A village was granted on Viṣuvasaṁkrānti to a brāhmaṇa in honour of Buddha by Mahīpāla I, a·king of Bengal (vide E. I. vol. XIV, p. 324). For grants on Akṣaya Tṛtīyā (3rd of the bright half of Vaiśākha) vide E. I. vol. 14, p. 198 (when 32 villages were granted to 500 brāhmaṇas in saṁvat 1156) and E. I. vol. VII. p. 98 (Lar plates of Govindacandra of Kanoj in *saṁvat* 1202). For a grant made on Mahākārtikī (the full moon day of Kārtika) vide E. I. vol. X, p. 75 (which is a grant to several brāhmaṇas for enabling them to offer *bali*, *caru*, *vaiśvadeva*, *agnihotra* and the five *mahāyajñas*, in Kalacuri *saṁvat* 292 i. e. about 540 A. D.).

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The places (*deśa*) where gifts are to be made are also specified in the smṛtis, purāṇas and digests. Gifts²⁰¹² made in the house yield ten times as much merit (as when made elsewhere), a hundred times when made in a cowpen, a thousand times when made in sacred places (*tīrthas*) and an infinite number of times when made near an image (or liṅga) of Śiva. The Skandapurāṇa²⁰¹³ quoted by Hemādri (*dāna* p. 83) states that Benares, Kurukṣetra, Prayāga, Puṣkara (Ajmer), the banks of the Ganges and of the ocean, Naimiṣa forest, Amara-kaṇṭaka, Śrīparvata, Mahākāla (at Ujjayinī), Gokarṇa, Veda-parvata—these and the like are declared to be holy places resorted to by gods and *siddhas*; all mountains, all rivers and the ocean are holy; the habitations of cows, siddhas and sages are also holy; whatever is donated in these sacred places confers infinite reward.

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²⁰¹² गृहे दशगुणं दानं गोष्ठे चैव शताधिकम्। पुण्यतीर्थेषु साहस्रमनन्तं शिवसन्निधौ ॥ quoted in दानमयूख p. 8.

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²⁰¹³ वाराणसी कुरुक्षेत्रं प्रयागः पुष्कराणि च। गङ्गासमुद्रतीरं च नैमिषामरकण्टकम् ॥ श्रीपर्वतमहाकालं गोकर्णं वेदपर्वतम् । इत्याद्याः कीर्तिता देशाः सुरसिद्धनिषेविताः। सर्वे शिलोच्चयाः पुण्याः सर्वा नद्यः ससागराः। गोसिद्धमुनिवासाश्च देशाः पुण्याः प्रकीर्तिताः। एषु तीर्थेषु यद्दत्तं फलस्यानन्त्यमृच्छवेत् । स्कन्दपुराण q. by हेमाद्रि (दान p. 83).

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When making a gift of anything one has to pour water on the hand of the donee. Āp. Dh. S. II. 4. 9. 9-10²⁰¹⁴ states that all gifts are to be made with water except in the case of vedic sacrifices where they are to be made as directed by the vedic texts. Gautama V. 16 says the same. In the case of all gifts they are to be accompanied by a separate dakṣiṇā. The Agni-purāṇa²⁰¹⁵ 211. 31 makes an exception in the case of gifts of gold, silver, copper, husked rice, corn, daily śrāddha and daily devapūjā (which may be without dakṣiṇā). That dakṣiṇā should consist pre-eminently of gold, but if gold itself is the article donated then the dakṣiṇā may be of silver. In the case of very costly gifts like *tulāpuruṣa*, the dakṣiṇā may be one hundred or fifty or 25 or ten *niṣkas* or one-tenth of the price of the thing gifted or according to ability.

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²⁰¹⁴ सर्वाण्युदकपूर्वाणि दानानि । यथाश्रुति विहारे । आप. ध. सू. II. 4. 9. 9-10; स्वस्तिवाच्य भिक्षादानमप्पूर्वम् । ददातिषु चैवं धर्मेषु । गौ. V. 16-17.

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²⁰¹⁵ अदत्तदक्षिण दानं व्रतं चैव नृपोत्तम। विफलं तद्विजानीयाद्भस्मनीव हुतं हविः॥ भविष्यपुराण quoted by हेमाद्रि (दान p. 111); अन्येषां चैव दानानां सुवर्णं दक्षिण स्मृता । सुवर्णे दीयमाने तु रजतं दक्षिणेष्यते ॥ q. in हेमाद्रि (दान p. 112); this is अग्निपुराण (211. 30) and दानक्रियाकौमुदी p. 11 quotes it from अग्नि०

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Hemādri (Dāna pp. 96-97) and Dānamayūkha (pp. 11-12) quote verses from the Viṣṇudharmottara stating the presiding deities of the several articles that are donated (such as Agni of gold, Prajāpati of dāsas, Rudra of cows &c.) and adds that wherever no presiding deity is specifically named Viṣṇu is the presiding deity. Those very verses are quoted as from the Kapila-pañcarātra in the Dānakriyākaumudī (p. 5). The Agnipurāṇa (209. 40-48) has similar verses. This notion is derived from the Brāhmaṇas and Śrautasūtras which speak of Rudra as the presiding deity of the gifts of cows, Soma of garments, Prajāpati of human beings and so on (vide Tai. Br. II. 2. 5, Āp. Śr. 14. 11. 3).

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The general procedure of making gifts may be stated here once for all. The donor and the donee should have taken their bath and should wear two white garments each, the donor should wear a pavitra, perform ācamana, should face the east, should wear the sacred thread in the upavīta form, be seated on a pure seat (of kuśa &c.) and seat the donee on a seat and make him face the north, then the donor should utter the name of the subject of gift, its presiding deity and the purpose for which he makes the gift, and say 'I make a gift to you of such and such an article,' pour water on the donee's hand, and when the donee says 'give' the donor should sprinkle water on the subject of gift and place it into the hand of the donee, who utters the syllable 'om' and says 'svasti'. Then dakṣiṇā is given to the donee. The detailed formula is set out below.²⁰¹⁶ Necessary changes have to be made as to the statement of the occasion, the receipt of the subject of gift &c. (if it is land or a house, it cannot be received in the hand; the donee simply walks round it or on it or enters it).

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²⁰¹⁶ The formula may be described as follows; अद्य अमुके मासि अमुके पक्षे अमुकतिथौ अमुकराशिस्थे भास्करे भारतवर्षाख्यभूप्रदेशे सूर्यग्रहणादौ अमुकगोत्रः अमुकशर्मा अमुककामः अमुकगोत्राय अमुकप्रवराय अमुकशर्मणे ब्राह्मणाय इदम्-अमुकद्रव्यं अमुकदैवतं तुभ्यमहं संप्रददे इति द्विजकरमध्ये सकुशं जलं दद्यात् । ग्रहीता करमध्येन गृहीत्वा स्वस्तीति वदेत् । अद्येत्यादि० अमुककामनया कृतस्य अमुकदानकर्मणः प्रतिष्ठार्थं दक्षिणां अमुकगोत्राय अमुकशर्मणे ब्राह्मणाय तुभ्यमहं संप्रददे न मम इति दक्षिणां दद्यात् ।. Vide अग्निपुराण 209, हेमाद्रि (दानखण्ड ) pp. 506-7 and दानक्रियाकौमुदी pp. 14 ff. for the procedure. The अग्निपुराण 209. 59-61 mentions the following purposes for which gifts are usually made 'पुत्रपौत्रगृहैश्वर्यपत्नीधर्मार्थसद्गुणाः । कीर्तिविद्यामहाकाम-सौभाग्यारोग्यवृद्धये । सर्वपापोपशान्त्यर्थं स्वर्गार्थं मुक्तिमुक्तये । एतत्तुभ्यं संप्रवृद्दे प्रीयतां मे हरिः शिवः ॥

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