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History of Dharmashastra (Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Law in India) v5.c74.t2: Prayāga

History of Dharmaśāstra (Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Law in India) v5.c74.t2

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Prayāga

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One of the most ancient reference to the greatness of the confluence of the Ganges and the Yamunā occurs in a khila¹³⁴⁹ verse which is usually placed in Ṛg. X. 75 and may be rendered as follows: "Those who take a bath at the place where the two rivers, white and dark, meet together, rise up (fly up) to heaven; those determined men who abandon their body there (i. e. commit suicide by drowning themselves) secure immortality (or *mokṣa*)". This must have been a comparatively early verse. The Skandapurāṇa referes to it as śruti. The greatness of Prayāga is dwelt upon in the Mahābhārata (Vana-parva 85. 69-97, 87. 18-20, Anuśāsana 25. 36-38)¹³⁵⁰ and in many purāṇas such as the Matsya (chapters 103-112, in all 260 verses), Kūrma I. 36-39 (verses 121), Padma (I. chap. 40-49), Skanda, Kāśī-Khaṇḍa, chap. 7. 45-65). Only a few out of the hundreds of verses on Prayāga can be cited here by way of sample. One remarkable fact is that the Rāmāyaṇa does not say much about Prayāga. The confluence of the two rivers is no doubt referred to (Rām. II. 54.6) but from the description it appears that there was a forest at what is now Prayāga. Prayāga is called Tīrtharāja (the prince among tīrthas) in the Matsya 109. 15, Skanda (Kāśī 7. 45), Padma VI. 23. 27-35 (where the refrain at the end of each verse is 'sa tīrtharājo jayati prayāgaḥ) and elsewhere. The legend runs that Prajāpati or Pitāmaha (Brahmā) performed a sacrifice here and Prayāga is the middle one of the vedis of Brahmā, the others being Kurukṣetra in the north (uttaravedi) and Gayā in the east. It is believed that three rivers meet at Prayāga viz. Gaṅgā, Yamunā and Sarasvatī (underground between the two). It is said in the Matsya¹³⁵¹, Kūrma and other Purāṇas that at the very sight of Prayāga, even by taking its name or by applying its clay to one's body a man becomes free from sin. The Kūrmapurāṇa¹³⁵² proclaims "it is the sacred spot of Prajāpati; those who bathe here go to heaven and those who die here are not born again." That sacred spot is known as tīrtharāja; it is dear to Keśava. The same is known as Triveṇī.

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¹³⁴⁹ सितासिते सरिते यत्र सङ्गते तत्राप्लुतासो दिवमुत्पतन्ति। ये वै तन्वं विसृजन्ति धीरास्ते जनासो अमृतत्वं भजन्ते॥. The त्रिस्थली० p 3 says it is a supplementary śruti text of the Āśvalāyana school, while the Tīr. C p 47 quotes it as a verse of the Ṛgveda. It is quite possible to hold that the verse does not encourage religious suicide but only makes this distinction that by a bath only once a man goes to heaven and that if he dies at Prayāga he attains mokṣa even without correct metaphysical knowledge Vide रघुवंश 13 58 'तत्त्वावबोधेन विनापि भूयस्तनुत्यजां नास्ति शरीरबन्धः' q. by तीर्थप्र p 313. The स्कन्द says' शुचिभिः परिपश्येते सितासिते सरिद्वरे। तत्राप्लुताङ्गा ह्यमृतं भवन्तीति विनिश्चितम्। काशी. 7. 54 q by त्रिस्थली० p 11. Vide also काशीखण्ड 7.46 for a similar verse The verse no doubt has a vedic ring about it The त्रिस्थली० p 4 notices another reading The waters of the Ganges are whitish while those of the Jumnā are dark Classical Sanskrit poets very often harp on these colours of the waters of the two rivers. Vide रघुवंश 13 54-57.

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¹³⁵⁰ दशतीर्थसहस्राणि तिस्रः कोट्यस्तथापराः । समागच्छन्ति माघ्यां तु प्रयागे भरतर्षभ ॥ माघमासं प्रयागे तु नियत संशितव्रतः । स्नात्वा तु भरतश्रेष्ठ निर्मलः स्वर्गमाप्नुयात् । अनुशासन 25. 36-38.

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¹³⁵¹ दर्शनात्तस्य तीर्थस्य नामसंकीर्तनादपि । मृत्तिकालम्भनाद्वापि नरः पापात्प्रमुच्यते॥ मत्स्य. 104. 12, कूर्म I. 36. 27. The अग्नि (111. 6-7) reads स्तवनादस्य तीर्थस्य०; वनपर्व 85.80 reads 'गमनात्तस्य...दपि। मृत्युकाslabभयाद्वापि नरः ..च्यते'

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¹³⁵² एतत् प्रजापतेः क्षेत्रं त्रिषु लोकेषु विश्रुतम्। अत्र स्नात्वा दिवं यान्ति ये मृतास्तेऽपुनर्भवाः॥ कूर्म I. 36 20 मत्स्य (104 5 and 111. 14) and नारद (उत्तर 63.127-128) also calls it प्रजापतिक्षेत्र.

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The word Prayāga is employed in the neuter when connected with such words as tīrtha or kṣetra, as in Matsya (111 14 prajāpater-idam kṣetram prayāgam-iti viśrutam), but when employed along with words (in the masculine gender) such as tīrtharāja, it takes the masculine gender.

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The word Prayāga is derived in various ways. The Vana-parva¹³⁵³ appears to suggest that the word Prayāga is derived from the root 'yaj' when it says 'Brahmā who is the soul of all beings performed formerly a sacrifice here; therefore it became known as Prayāga'. In the Skanda¹³⁵⁴ purāṇa also it appears to be explained by taking the two parts *pra* and *yāga* separately. "It is mentioned as Prayāga because it is superior to all sacrifices; Prayāga was the name given to it by the gods Hari, Hara and others seeing that it is superior to all sacrifices though the latter be enriched with fees and the like." The Matsyapurāṇa¹³⁵⁵ appears to lay emphasis on the part 'pra' when it says 'on account of its efficacy (or power) as compared with all other tīrthas it prevails (or is useful) far more'. The Brahmapurāṇa¹³⁵⁶ affirms "It is called prayāga on account of its eminence and it has the word 'rāja' (in Tīrtharāja) applied to it on account of its being the chief".

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¹³⁵³ गङ्गायमुनयोर्वीरं सङ्गमं लोकविश्रुतम् ॥ यत्राश्वजत भूतात्मा पूर्वमेव पितामहः प्रयागमिति विख्यातं तस्माद्भरतसत्तम ॥ वनपर्व 87. 18-19, तथा सर्वेषु लोकेषु प्रयागं पूजयेद् बुधः। पूज्यते तीर्थराजस्तु सत्यमेव युधिष्ठिर ॥ मत्स्य 109 15

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¹³⁵⁴ प्रकृष्टं सर्वयागेभ्य प्रयागमिति गीयते। दृष्ट्वा प्रकृष्टयागेभ्य पुष्टेभ्यो दक्षिणादिभि । प्रयागमिति तन्नाम कृतं हरिहरादिभिः॥ q in त्रिस्थली० p 13. The first half स्कन्द, काशी० 7 49, so प्रयाग means प्रकृष्टो यागो यत्र

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¹³⁵⁵ प्रभावात्सर्वतीर्थेभ्य प्रभवत्यधिकं विभो। मत्स्य 110 11 [^1356] प्रकृष्टत्वात्प्रयागोऽसौ प्राधान्याद्राजशब्दवान्। ब्रह्मपुराण q in त्रिस्थली० p. 1

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We must distinguish between Prayāga-maṇḍala, Prayāga and Veṇī or Triveṇī, each subsequent one being smaller and holier than each preceding one. The Matsya¹³⁵⁷ states that the sphere of Prayāga is five *yojanas* in circumference and that the moment a man enters inside this strip of land, there is an Aśvamedha at every step. This has been explained by the Tristhalīsetu (p. 15) as follows Regarding Brahmayūpa (the sacrificial post of Brahmā) as the spike or peg, if one measures with a rope one and one half yojana long all round, that would be the Prayāgamaṇḍala of five yojanas in circumference. The boundaries of Prayāga itself are defined by Vanaparva,¹³⁵⁸ the Matsyapurāṇa (104 5 and 106. 30) and others. 'Prayāga extends from Pratiṣṭhāna up to the pool of Vāsuki and upto the two nāgas Kambala and Aśvatara and the nāga Bahumūlaka; this is known in the three worlds as the sacred spot of Prajāpati' (Matsya 104. 5), while Matsya 106. 30 provides that to the east of the Ganges is the Sāmudrakūpa, which is the same as Pratiṣṭhāna. This is explained by the Tristhalīsetu as follows. the eastern boundary is the kūpa called Pratiṣṭhāna ¹³⁵⁹; the northern one is the Vāsuki pool, the western limit is formed by Kambala and Aśvatara, the southern boundary is Bahumūlaka. This would be a four-cornered space which is included within Prayāga-maṇḍala. According to the Matsyapurāṇa as quoted by the Kalpataru on tīrtha p. 143 the two Nāgas are on the south bank of Yamunā while the printed text has 'vipule Yamunātaṭe' (106 27) ¹³⁶⁰ The printed text of Padma I. 43. 27 supports the Kalpataru reading ('Yamunā-dakṣiṇe taṭe) Veṇī-kṣetra is within the limits of Prayāga itself and is twenty bow lengths in extent, as stated in the Padma. There are three *kūpas* viz. Prayāga, Pratiṣṭhāna and Alarkapura. The Matsya and Agni say 'there are three fire kuṇḍas and the Ganges flows in their midst' It should be noted that except where special reference is made in the Purāṇas to the subtīrthas, the reference to a bath at Prayāga in general means bath in the Veṇī i. e the confluence of the two rivers, as e. g in Vanaparva 85 81 and 85 and Matsya 104 16-17. ¹³⁶¹

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¹³⁵⁷ पञ्चयोजनविस्तीर्णं प्रयागस्य तु मण्डलम्। प्रविष्टमात्रे तन्मात्रमश्वमेध पदे पदे मत्स्य. 108 9-10, 111. 8, पद्म I 458 The कूर्मपुराण has पञ्चयोजनविस्तीर्णं ब्रह्मण परमेष्ठिनः। प्रयागं प्रथितं तीर्थे यस्य माहात्म्यमीरितम्॥ II 35.4.

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¹³⁵⁸ आ प्रयागं प्रतिष्ठानात्प्रभूरा वासुकेर्ह्रदात्। कम्बलाश्वतरौ नागौ नागश्च बहुमूलकः॥ एतत् प्रजापतेः क्षेत्रं त्रिषु लोकेषु विश्रुतम्। मत्स्य 104 5, पद्म I. 39. 69-70, 41 4-5 are similar वनपर्व 85 76-77 are. प्रयागं सप्रतिष्ठानं कम्बलाश्वतरावुभौ। तीर्थं भोगवती चैव वेदिरैषा प्रजापतेः। तत्र वेदाश्च यज्ञाश्च मूर्तिमन्तो युधिष्ठिर। अग्नि 111 5 has the verse प्रयागं...प्रजापते. (reads वेदी प्रोक्ता)

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¹³⁵⁹ पूर्वपार्श्वे तु गङ्गायास्त्रिषु लोकेषु भारत। कूपं चैव तु सामुद्रं प्रतिष्ठानं च विश्रुतम्॥ मत्स्य. 106. 3.

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¹³⁶⁰ माघ सितासिते विप्र राजसूयैः समो भवेत्। धनुर्विंशतिविस्तीर्णे सितनीलाम्बुसङ्गमे॥ इति पाद्मोमोक्तेः। त्रिस्थली० p. 75. सितासित (white and dark) means Veṇī. Vide n. 1337 above for धनु being equal to four hastas and 96 angulas

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¹³⁶¹ तत्र त्रीण्यग्निकुण्डानि येषां मध्येन जाह्नवी। वनपर्व 85 73, त्रीणि चाप्यग्निकुण्डानि येषां मध्ये तु जाह्नवी। मत्स्य 110 4 and अग्नि 111.12, पद्म I. 39. 67, I 49. 4; while मत्स्य, 104 13, कूर्म (I. 36 28-29) read पञ्च कुण्डानि

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The Vanaparva¹³⁶² and some of the Purāṇas represent that the country between the Ganges and the Yamunā is (like) the hips and loins of the earth (i e. it is the most prosperous and plentiful part of the earth) and that Prayāga is like the inmost part of the hips.

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¹³⁶² गङ्गायमुनयोर्मध्यं पृथिव्या जघनं स्मृतम् । प्रयागं जघनस्यान्तमुपस्थमृषयो विदुः॥ वनपर्व 85. 75 = पद्म I 39. 69 and I. 43 19, अग्नि 111 4, कूर्म I. 37. 12, मत्स्य 106. 19 The idea appears to be that holy places are like the children of the earth.

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The Narasimha-purāṇa says that Viṣṇu is in the form of Yogamūrti in Prayāga (65 17). It is said in the Matsya-purāṇa¹³⁶³ (111. 4-10) that when Rudra dissolves the world at the end of the Kalpa, the holy place of Prayāga is not destroyed, that Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Maheśvara (Śiva) stay in Prayāga, that to the north of Pratiṣṭhāna Brahmā stays in it under guise, that Viṣṇu stays there as Veṇī-Mādhava, that Śiva stays there as the Vaṭa (banyan tree) and that therefore the gods with the Gandharvas, the Siddhas and great sages always protect the sphere (*maṇḍala*) of Prayāga by guarding it against evil actions. The Matsyapurāṇa, therefore, recommends that a pilgrim should go to Prayāga which is protected by all the gods, stay there for a month, avoid sexual intercourse, worship gods and pitṛs and thereby secure his desired objects (104. 18). The same Purāṇa highly eulogises the gift at Prayāga of a *kapilā* cow properly decked (105. 16-22) with clothes, ornaments and jewels. The Padmapurāṇa (Ādi 42 17-24) has the same verses as the Matsya on this subject Similarly, the marriage of a daughter in the *ārṣa* form at Prayāga is highly spoken of in Matsya (106. 8-9). The Matsya (105. 13-14 and 106. 10) says generally that if a man makes a gift of a cow, of gold, of precious stones, of pearls and of other things that he owns his pilgrimage becomes fruitful (*saphala*) and he collects religious merit (*puṇya*) and that when a man makes gifts according to his ability and wealth, the fruit of his pilgrimage increases and he remains in heaven till the end of the world. The Brahmāṇḍa¹³⁶⁴ assures pilgrims that whatever gifts are made according to one's ability at Kurukṣetra, Prayāga, at the mouth of the Ganges where it falls into the sea, on the Ganges, at Puṣkara, at Setubandha, at Gaṅgādvāra and in Naimiṣa tends to confer inexhaustible rewards. In the Vanaparva¹³⁶⁵ it is stated that this sacrificial ground (of Brahmā) is honoured even by the gods, that even a small thing donated here assumes greatness (i. e. produces the rewards of large gifts).

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¹³⁶³ प्रयागे निवसन्त्येते ब्रह्मविष्णुमहेश्वराः।...उत्तरेण प्रतिष्ठानाच्छद्मना ब्रह्म तिष्ठति। वेणीमाधवरूपी तु भगवांस्तत्र तिष्ठति ॥ माहेश्वरो वटो भूत्वा तिष्ठते परमेश्वरः। ततो देवाः सगन्धर्वाः सिद्धाश्च परमर्षयः । रक्षन्ति मण्डलं नित्यं पापकर्मनिवारणात् । मत्स्य. 111. 4-10. Vide कूर्म I. 36 23-26, पद्म, आदिखण्ड 41. 6-10 for similar verses.

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¹³⁶⁴ कुरुक्षेत्रे प्रयागे च गङ्गासागरसङ्गमे। गङ्गायां पुष्करे सेतौ गङ्गाद्वारे च नैमिषे। यद्दानं दीयते शक्त्या तदानन्त्याय कल्पते॥ ब्रह्माण्ड q. in त्रिस्थली० p 24.

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¹³⁶⁵ एषा यजनभूमिरिह देवानामपि सत्कृता। तत्र दत्तं स्वल्पमपि महद्भवति भारत॥ वनपर्व 85 82 = 83 77 of the cr. ed which reads तत्र दत्तं सूक्ष्ममपि

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The confluence of the three rivers came to be associated with *oṃkāra*,¹³⁶⁶ the mystic syllable that stands for *Brahma*. It is said in a purāṇa passage (probably Brahmapurāṇa) that the three parts of *om* (a u m) respectively are Sarasvatī, Yamunā and Gaṅgā and that the waters of three rivers represent Pradyumna, Aniruddha and Saṅkarṣaṇa Hari.

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¹³⁶⁶ ओमित्येकाक्षरं ब्रह्म परब्रह्माभिधायकम् । तदेव वेणी विज्ञेया सर्वसौख्यप्रदायिनी॥ अकार शारदा प्रोक्ता प्रद्युम्नस्तत्र जायते। उकारो यमुना प्रोक्तानिरुद्धस्तजलात्मक । मकारो जाह्नवी गङ्गा तत्र सङ्कर्षणो हरिः। एवं त्रिवेणी विख्याता वेदबीजं प्रकीर्तिता॥ q. by त्रिस्थली० p. 8.

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It may be noted that, in spite of the fact that the Matsya, Kūrma (I. 36-39), Padma (Ādi chapters 41-49), Agni 111 and other Purāṇas contain several hundred verses on Prayāga, the Kalpataru (on tīrtha), the earliest extant digest on tīrthas, quotes only the Matsya (104. 1-13 and 16-20, 105. 1-22, 106. 1-48, 107. 2-21, 108. 3-5, 8-17 and 23-34, 109. 10-12, 110. 1-11, 111. 8-11, in all about 151 verses) and Vanaparva chap. 85. 79-87 and 97 and does not add a single word of explanation or discussion. But the other digests profusely quoting mostly from Purāṇas discuss at some length several topics and a few words must be devoted to some of those topics.

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One such topic is tonsure at Prayāga It is stated by the Gaṅgāvākyāvalī (p. 298) and the Tīr Pr. (p. 335) that, though the author of the Kalpataru says nothing about tonsure at Prayāga, yet as śiṣṭas (respectable and learned people) and the writers of digests accept it as necessary, certain authorities would be set out. The two verses quoted by most1366a writers are 'one should tonsure the head at Prayāga, offer piṇḍas at Gayā, make gifts in Kurukṣetra and should commit (religious) suicide at Benares. What is the use (or necessity) of piṇḍa offerings at Gayā or death in Kāśī, or gifts at Kurukṣetra, if one has tonsured one's head at Prayāga?". Elaborate discussions are held by all these works about the exact intention of the verses, about the application of the maxim of *rātrisattra*¹³⁶⁷ to them and about the results derived from tonsure. They have to be passed over here from considerations of space. The Tristhalī-setu (p. 17) holds that the verse only praises the rite of tonsure at Prayāga and the fruit thereof is simply the removal of sin. The Tri. S. refutes (p. 17) the application of *rātrisattra-nyāya* to these verses, while Tīr. C (p. 32) applies it. Some of the conclusions drawn by the Tri S. are that in one and the same yātrā at Prayāga (even if a man stays there for some days) ceremonial tonsure takes place only once, that widows have to tonsure their heads, that in the case of women whose husbands are living only two or three finger-breadths of tresses are to be cut and offered at the *Triveṇī*, that even1367a boys whose *upanayana* has not been performed have to undergo tonsure provided the *cūḍā* rite has already been performed. The Tristhalīsetu (p. 22) notes that certain traditionalists,¹³⁶⁸ relying on passages that aver that all sins cling to the roots of a person's hair, say that cutting two or three tresses would be merely *kartana* and not *vapana* (tonsure), that even women whose husbands are alive must shave themselves at Prayāga, that such women should make a braid of all their hair, should deck the braid with saffron and other auspicious materials, bow to their husbands and with the husband's permission have the head tonsured, that then they should place the cut hair in their joined hands, place thereon a golden or silver veṇī and pearls and coral and should cast all these into the confluence (Veṇī) of the Ganges and Jumnā after repeating the mantra 'May all my sins be destroyed by this offering of my braided hair into the Veṇī! may my blessedness (the auspicious state of wifehood) always increase in the lives to come'. The Tri. S. states that women do not tonsure their head at any tīrtha except at Prayāga and the only reason for this is that it is the practice of śiṣṭas. Vide above pp 122–124 for tonsure as expiation for sins. The Nāradīya (Uttara) 63. 106 provides the same rule as Parāśara (in note 278 above) for women. The Prāyaścittatattva of Raghunandana prescribes the complete tonsure of the head for women at Prayāga.

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1366a प्रयागे वपनं कुर्याद्गयायां पिण्डपातनम्। दानं दद्यात् कुरुक्षेत्रे वाराणस्यां तनुं त्यजेत्॥ किं गयापिण्डदानेन काश्यां वा मरणेन किम्। किं कुरुक्षेत्रदानेन प्रयागे वपने यदि॥ q. by गङ्गावा p. 298, तीर्थचि. p. 32, त्रिस्थली= p. 17, तीर्थप्र p. 335. These two verses occur in नारदीय (उत्तर) 63. 103-101

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¹³⁶⁷ रात्रिसत्रन्याय occurs in जै. IV. 3 17-19. There is a passage in the पञ्चविंशब्राह्मण 23. 2. 4 'प्रतितिष्ठन्ति य एता रात्रीरुपयन्ति' Here in the पञ्चविंश रात्रिसत्र is enjoined but no fruit thereof is expressly promised. The question arises whether in the absence of an express reward, heaven should be understood as the reward (because as explained in Jai IV 3. 15-16 *svarga* is the reward of all sacrifices for which no express reward is mentioned) or whether 'प्रतिष्ठा (stable position) which occurs in the above arthavāda passage should be held to be the reward of रात्रिसत्र. The reply is that here the reward is प्रतिष्ठा and not स्वर्ग i. e. though there is no express mention of the reward in the passage about rātrisattra, the *arthavāda* passage should be construed as laying down the reward. In the two verses, there is a *vidhi* in the words प्रयागे वपनं कुर्यात् and the second verse is an अर्थवाद. The question is what reward is promised in it. If रात्रिसत्रन्याय applies, then मुण्डन secures all the fruits of गयापिण्डदान, कुरुक्षेत्रदान and काशीतनुत्याग. If it does not apply then the only fruit is पापाभाव.

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1367a अनुपनीतानामपि प्रयागे वपनं कार्यम् । यस्तु पुत्रास्तथा बालान्स्नापयेत्प्राय-पेत्तथा। यथात्मना तथा सर्वं दानं विप्रेषु दापयेत्॥ इति मत्स्यपुराणवचने तृतीयपादस्य मुण्डनाविधिविधायकत्वात्। त्रिस्थली० pp 23-24. यस्तु पुत्रास्तथा० is मत्स्य 106.6.

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¹³⁶⁸ सांप्रदायिकास्तु... तस्मात्सभूलमेव केशवपनमिह स्त्रीणामिति। अत्रापि नोन्मुक्त-केशवपनं किंतु वेणीं कृत्वा कुङ्कुमादिमङ्गलद्रव्यालङ्कृता भर्तारं नमस्कृत्य तदनुज्ञाता वापयेत्। तां च वेणीमञ्जलौ निधाय यथाशक्तिकृतां स्वर्णमयीं रूप्यमयीं वा वेणीं मुक्ताप्रवालादि च निधाय-वेण्यां वेणीप्रदानेन सर्वं पापं प्रणश्यतु। जन्मान्तरेष्वपि सदा सौभाग्यं मम वर्धताम्। इति पठित्वा वेण्यां क्षिपेत्॥ त्रिस्थली० p 22, प्रयागे स्त्रीणामपि मुण्डनं न तु वक्ष्यमाण-वचनाभ्यां केशानां द्व्यङ्गुलच्छेदमात्रम्॥ प्रायश्चित्ततत्त्व p. 493.

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It appears probable that the provision for the casting of *veṇī* (braided hair) on the part of women whose husbands were alive was suggested by the word *Veṇī* applied to the confluence of the two rivers, where the river Ganges appears to make a bend or curve for some distance.¹³⁶⁹

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¹³⁶⁹ ओमित्येकाक्षरं ब्रह्म परब्रह्माभिधायकम्। तदेव वेणी विज्ञेया सर्वसौख्यप्रदायिनी॥ स एव तीर्थराजोऽयं त्रिवेण्या यत्र सङ्गमः। त्रिस्थली० p. 8.

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One important question that very much exercised the minds of ancient and medieval Indian writers was whether and when suicide, particularly at sacred spots like the confluence of the Ganges and Jumnā or at the foot of the Akṣaya Vaṭa at Prayāga, would involve no sin.¹³⁷⁰ This matter has already been dealt with at length in H. of Dh. vol. II. pp 924-928 and vol. III. pp. 939, 948-949. Only a brief treatment by way of a summary of the pages and a few notes will be added here. The general sentiment of Dharmaśāstra works is to condemn suicide or an attempt to commit suicide as a great sin (vide H of Dh vol II. page 924 for texts). The Āp. Dh. S. (I. 10 28 15-17) mentions the view of Hārīta which condemns suicide even as prāyaścitta for committing a mahāpātaka (like incest) and puts killing another or killing oneself on the same footing Manu V. 89 and Yāj. III. 154 condemn suicide by denying after-death rites to those who commit it, but Manu allowed suicide in various ways as prāyaścitta for mahāpātakas (vide Manu XI. 73, 90-91, 103-104). But exceptions to the condemnation of suicide are found in the smṛtis, epics and purāṇas. They may be grouped under several heads. (1) Suicide as an exception in various ways by those guilty of mahāpātakas (viz. brāhmaṇa murder, drinking of *surā*, theft of brāhmaṇa's gold and incest), vide H. of Dh. vol. II. pp. 924-925 for smṛti and other texts.

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(2) Starting on the Great Journey (*mahāprasthāna-gamana* or *mahāpathayātrā*) by a forest hermit (Manu VI. 31, Yāj. III. 55) suffering from incurable diseases and unable to perform the duties of his order (3) An old man or one who cannot observe the rules of bodily purification or who is so ill as to be beyond medical skill may kill himself by throwing himself from a precipice or by fire or by drowning or fasting or start on the Great Journey into the Himālaya or by jumping from the branches of the Vaṭa tree at Prayāga (Aparārka p 877 quoting Ādi-purāṇa and Atri-smṛti verses 218-219 q. by Medhātithi on Manu V. 88 and Mit. on Yāj III. 6) (4) Even a householder, otherwise all right, may resort to suicide by the means stated (in No. 3) if his life's work is done, if he has no desire for the pleasures of the world and does not desire to live, or if he is a Vedāntin¹³⁷¹ and convinced of the ephemeral nature of life and may kill himself by fast in Himālaya. (5) Religious suicide was allowed at the confluence of the two great rivers Gaṅgā and Yamunā, at the Vata there and at some other tīrthas (6) A wife dying by *sahagamana* or *anumarana*. As to *Satī*, the Nāradīya (pūrvārdha 7. 52-53) provides that a woman should not burn herself on the funeral pyre of her husband if she has a young child or young children, if she is pregnant or if she has not attained puberty, or if she is in her monthly illness at the time.

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Not only did common men believe in the promise of the Purāṇas that those who killed themselves at Prayāga (at the saṅgama or near Vaṭa) secured mokṣa (freedom from the everlasting cycle of births and deaths) which was the highest of the four puruṣārathas (goals of human existence), but even great poets like Kālidāsa held the view that, though *mokṣa* or *kaivalya* or *apavarga* requires correct knowledge and realisation of the Supreme Spirit according to the Vedānta, Sāṅkhya and Nyāya systems, death at the sacred saṅgama led to mokṣa even without 'tattvajñāna.' In H. of Dh. vol. II pp. 925–927, historical examples of kings such as Yaśaḥ-karṇadeva, Candella Dhaṅgadev and Cālukya Someśvara committing suicide at Prayāga or the Tuṅgabhadrā have been given. The king Kumāragupta of Magadha is said to have entered the fire of dry cow-dung cakes. This is in accordance with the prescriptions in the Matsyapurāṇa 107. 9–10 (=Padma, Ādi-khaṇḍa 44 3) which states¹³⁷² 'the man who, suffering from no diseases, having no deficiency as to his limbs and being in full possession of his five senses, encompasses (his death) in cowdung fire remains honoured in heaven for as many years as there are pores on the whole of his body.'¹³⁷³ The Rājataraṅgiṇī VI. 14 refers to officers entrusted with the duty of supervising suicide by fast (prāyopaveśa).

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¹³⁷⁰ प्रयाग ..विभो॥ श्रवणात्तस्य ..प्रमुच्यते ॥ तत्राभिषेकं यः कुर्यात्सङ्गमे संशितव्रतः। पुण्यं सकलमाप्नोति राजसूयाश्वमेधयोः॥ एषा यजन ..महद्भवति भारत॥ न वेद... प्रयागमरणं प्रति॥ दशतार्थिसहस्राणि षष्टिकोट्यस्तथापराः। येषां सांनिध्यमत्रैव कीर्तितं कुरुनन्दन। चातुर्वेद्ये च यत्पुण्यं सत्यवादिषु चैव यत्। स्नात एव तदाप्नोति गङ्गायमुनसङ्गमे॥ वनपर्व 85 79–85. After quoting the last verse and several other verses the त्रिस्थलीसेतु observes (p 30) 'एतेषु सर्वेषु वचनेषु यद्यपि प्रयागशब्दस्याविशेषत उपादानं तथापि तदन्तर्गततत्तत्तीर्थस्नानफलस्य वाक्यान्तरैरुक्तत्वात् स्थलमात्रे च जलाभावेन स्नानासम्भवाद्देह्युपलक्षकः प्रयागशब्दः'. The same verses occur in पद्म (आदि 39 72–78) स्कन्द (काशी० chap 7, 63 and 65) says 'तद्विष्णोः परमं पदं सदा पश्यन्ति सूरयः। एतच्चैतत्प्रयते वेदे तत्प्रयागं पुनः पुनः॥ इयं वेणी हि निःश्रेणी ब्रह्मणो वर्त्म चार्यतः।?, तद्विष्णोः...... . सूरयः।—ऋक् I 22.20.

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¹³⁷¹ शरीरमुत्सृजेत्तत्र विधिपूर्वमनाशके। अध्रुवं जीवितं ज्ञात्वा यो वै वेदान्तगो द्विज ॥ अभ्यर्च्य देवतास्तत्र नमस्कृत्य मुनींस्तथा। तत सिद्धो दिवं गच्छेदू ब्रह्मलोकं सनातनम् ॥ अनुशासन 25. 63-64. तत्र refers to हिमालय as the context shows

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¹³⁷² गङ्गायमुनयोर्मध्ये कर्षाग्निं यस्तु साधयेत्। अहीनाङ्गो ह्यरोगश्च पञ्चेन्द्रियसमन्वितः। यावन्ति रोमकूपाणि तस्य गात्रेषु देहिनः॥ तावद्वर्षसहस्राणि स्वर्गलोके महीयते॥ मत्स्य 107 9, कूर्म I 38. 3-4, नारदीय, उत्तर, 63.154 (reads करीषाग्निं तु धारयेत्), पद्म I 44. 9 (reads पञ्चाग्निं यस्तु) कर्षाग्नि is short for करीषाग्नि for metrical reasons कूर्म I. 38.3 reads 'करीषाग्निं च साधयेत् ' Vide Gupta Inscriptions No. 42 p. 200, the Ahsaḍ Stone Inscription of आदित्यसेन of मगध, which states that his fifth ancestor Kumāragupta plunged himself in the slow-burning fire of dried cowdung cakes as if in water at Prayāga. शौर्यसत्यव्रतधरो यः प्रयागगतो घने। अम्भसीव करीषाग्नौ मग्न स पुष्पपूजितः॥ p 203 (of the text). घने means घने सत्यापि. The learned editor was probably unaware of the provisions about suicide at Prayāga by being burnt with dry cowdung cakes in the Matsya and other purāṇas.

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¹³⁷³ The Ain-i-Akbari (tr. by Gladwin and published in 1800) speaks of the following as the meritorious kinds of suicide (vol I. p. 531 and p. 802 of the Popular edition, edited by J. Mukhopadhyaya). These are five in number viz. (1) starving; (2) covering himself with cowdung and setting it on fire and consuming himself therein, (3) burying himself in snow; (4) to plunge into water at the Gaṅgāsāgara-saṅgama, enumerate one's sins and pray till alligators come and devour the man, (5) cut his throat at Allahabad at the confluence of the Ganges and the Jumnā.

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The important verse on which reliance is placed for sanctioning religious suicide at Prayāga may be translated¹³⁷⁴ as follows. 'You should not set aside (pass over) your wish about dying at Prayāga on account of the words of the Veda or the words of the people.' The words of the Veda¹³⁷⁵ are Vāj. S. 40 3 (=Īśāvāsyopaniṣad 3) which literally translated means 'there are worlds of Asuras enveloped in blinding darkness, those who have killed themselves repair after death to those worlds' This verse does not in the context appear to refer to a person committing suicide, but rather to a person who kills his soul by remaining in ignorance of the true Self. But even learned writers and poets took it to refer to suicide (vide Uttararāmacarita, Act IV after verse 3). Another passage of the Veda on which reliance may be placed is the one in the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa X. 2. 6. 7 'one ought not to yield to his own desire and pass away before the full extent of life, for it (such shortening of full life) does not make for the (heavenly) world' By 'the words of the people' are meant smṛti passages condemning suicide such as Gaut. 14. 12, Vas1375a 23. 14-15, Manu V. 88 (which says that no water is to be offered to those who kill themselves), Viṣṇu Dh S 22. 56 (ātmatyāginaḥ patitāś-ca naśaucodakabhājaḥ)

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¹³⁷⁴ न वेदवचनात्तात न लोकवचनादपि । मतिरुत्क्रमणीया ते प्रयागमरणं प्रति ॥ वनपर्व 85.83, नारदीय (उत्तर) 63 129, पद्म (आदि 39.76 reads न देव°), अग्नि 111 8 (reads मतिरुत्क्रमणीयान्ते प्रयागे मरणं प्रति) मत्स्य. 106.22 reads न देववचना .. प्रयागगमनं प्रति) and पद्म, आदि 43.22 reads प्रयागगमने मति. The कूर्मपुराण I. 37.14 is न मातृवचनात्तात न... दापि । मति .प्रयागगमन प्रति ॥. पद्म, आदिखण्ड 33.64 reads न लोकवचनात् पित्रोर्न चैव गुरुवादत । मतिर्न क्रमणीया स्यादविमुक्तगति प्रति ॥. This entirely changes the meaning and avers that if one has a desire to go to Kāśī, one should not heed the words of one's parents or elders or of the people (dissuading him from going).

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¹³⁷⁵ असूर्या नाम ते लोका अन्धेन तमसावृता. । तास्ते प्रेत्याभिगच्छन्ति ये के चात्महनो जना.॥ वाज सं 40.3, The ईशावास्योप reads असूर्या (sunless). Vide for आत्महन् the sūtra of वसिष्ठ quoted below. यो वा शत वर्षाणि जीवति स हैवैतदमृतमाप्नोति...तस्मादु ह न पुरायुष स्वकामी प्रेयादल्रोक्य हैत उ वा लोकाः । शतपथब्रा. X 2 '6.7 q by मेधातिथि on मनु V 88 (आत्मनस्त्यागिना चैव निवर्तेतोदकक्रिया) and VI. 32. The printed text of मेधातिथि and कुल्लूक reads स्वःकामी (desiring heaven).

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1375a य आत्मत्याग्यभिशस्तो भवति सपिण्डानां प्रेतकर्मच्छेद. । काष्ठजलनलोत्-पाषाणशस्त्रविषरज्जुभिर्य आत्मानमवसादयति स आत्महा भवति ॥ वसिष्ठ 23. 14-15

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There is no doubt that some of the smṛtis, the Mahābhārata¹³⁷⁶ itself and some purāṇas do recommend (or at least do not condemn) suicide in certain circumstances. A few purāṇa passages may be quoted here. Two verses of the Kūrma state "That goal (or state), which a wise man that is devoted to Yoga and that has become an ascetic (or has forsaken all actions) reaches, is secured by him who gives up life at the confluence of the Gaṅgā and Yamunā. Whoever dies in the Gaṅgā whether wilfully or unintentionally is born after death in heaven and does not see hell'.¹³⁷⁷ The Kūrma is quite clear 'Mokṣa may be secured or not after a thousand births elsewhere but in Benares mokṣa can be secured in a single birth' (I. 32. 22) The Padma¹³⁷⁸ is quite emphatic 'a man who, knowingly or unknowingly, wilfully or unintentionally, dies in the Ganges secures on death heaven and 'mokṣa'. A verse of the Skanda asserts 'He who abandons his life in this sacred place in some way or other does not incur the sin of suicide but secures his desired objects.' The Kūrma (I. 38 3–12) refers to four modes of suicide and promises residence in heaven and various other rewards for thousands of years, viz. by (1) burning oneself in the slow fire of dry cowdung cakes, (2) by entering the water at the confluence of Gaṅgā and Yamunā, (3) by hanging with head down in the stream and feet up and drinking the waters of the Ganges, (4) by cutting off his own flesh and giving it as food to birds. The famous Chinese traveller Hiouen Thsang (about 629-645 A. D.) clearly refers to this practice of religious suicide (vide Beal's 'Buddhist Records of the Western world,' vol. I. pp. 232-234). The Kalpataru on Tīrtha (composed about 1110-1120 A. D.) devotes a special section to Mahāpathayātrā (pp. 258-265). Gradually, the idea of securing heaven and *mokṣa* by committing suicide at Prayāga or Benares appears to have spread to other tīrthas. Vanaparva¹³⁷⁹ speaks of suicide at Pṛthūdaka (Pehova in the Karnal district of Punjab, 14 miles from Thanesar) The Brahmapurāṇa¹³⁸⁰ calls upon *dvijas* who are intent on securing *mokṣa* to commit suicide at Puruṣottama-kṣetra. The Lingapurāṇa¹³⁸¹ says 'if a brāhmaṇa kills himself on Śrīśaila he destroys his sins and attains *mokṣa* as at Avimukta (Benares); there is no doubt about this'. The Padma promises¹³⁸² a similar reward for suicide by fire or by fast at the confluence of Narmadā and Kāverī (a small river, not the great South Indian river).

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¹³⁷⁶ Vide the references given under No. 2 and 3 of the five classes of excusable or permitted suicides on p. 604 above. The Mahābhārata has a *parva* called Mahāprāsthānika in which it is narrated (chap 1. 24) that Yudhiṣṭhira with his four brothers, queen Draupadī and a faithful dog started on the Great Journey towards the Himālaya and that they fell down dead one after another, Draupadī being the first and Bhīma the last.

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¹³⁷⁷ या गतिर्योगयुक्तस्य संन्यस्तस्य मनीषिणः । सा गतिस्त्यजत: प्राणान् गङ्गायमुनसङ्गमे ॥ अकामो वा सकामो वा गङ्गायां यो विपद्यते । स मृतो जायते स्वर्गे नरकं च न पश्यति ॥ कूर्म. I. 37 16, 39. The first verse is read in पद्म, सृष्टिखण्ड 60,56 as या गति.. सत्त्वस्थस्य मनीषिण । सा गङ्गायां तु शरीरिण ॥ नारद (उत्तर) 43 97 is the same as पद्म.

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¹³⁷⁸ ज्ञानतोऽज्ञानतो वापि कामतोऽकामतोऽपि वा । गङ्गाया च मृतो मर्त्यः स्वर्गं मोक्षं च विन्दति ॥ पद्म, सृष्टि 60 65 q by त्रिस्थली० p. 47. यथा कथञ्चित्तीर्थेऽस्मिन् प्राणत्यागं करोति यः । तस्यात्मघातदोषो न प्रामुयादीप्सितानपि ॥ स्कन्द, काशी० 22.76. The कल्पतरु on तीर्थ p. 258 quotes from वायुपुराण 'यो वाहिताग्निप्रवरो वीराध्वानं (०ध्वानं?) गतोपि वा । समाधाय मनः पूर्वे मन्त्रमुच्चारयेच्छनैः ॥ त्वमग्ने रुद्रस्त्वं सुधामहोदधिस्त्वं सर्वे मारुताः क्षिममीयिरे । त्व वातैर्याप्तित्सगरी यस्त्वं प्रष्ठिमायीरूप पातयन् माम् ॥ The mantra as printed makes no sense The editor should have separated the words properly even if the mss were unsatisfactory It appears to be Ṛg. II. 1. 6 (= Tai. S. I 3. 14. 1) त्वमग्ने रुद्रो असुरो महो दिवस्त्वं शर्धो मारुतं पृक्ष ईशिषे । त्वं वातैररुणैर्यासि शंगयस्त्वं पूषा विधतः पासि नु त्मना ॥.

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¹³⁷⁹ उत्तमं सर्वतीर्थानां यस्त्यजेदात्मनस्तनुम् । पृथूदके जप्यपरो नैव श्वो मरणं तपेत् ॥ गीते सनत्कुमारेण व्यासेन च महात्मना ॥ वनपर्व 83 146, 147 q. by तीर्थकल्प p. 180 (reads श्रुतं मे सर्व०).

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¹³⁸⁰ तस्मात्सर्वप्रयत्नेन तस्मिन् क्षेत्रे द्विजोत्तमा । देहत्यागो नरै कार्यः सम्यङ्मोक्षाभिकाङ्क्षिभिः ॥ ब्रह्मपुराण 177. 25, vide also ब्रह्मपुराण 68. 75 and 177 16-17.

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¹³⁸¹ श्रीशैले संन्यजेद् देहं ब्राह्मणो दग्धकिल्बिष. । मुच्यते नात्र सन्देहो ह्यविमुक्ते यथा शुभम् ॥ लिङ्ग (पूर्वार्ध 92 168-169).

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¹³⁸² अग्निप्रवेशं यः कुर्याद्यश्च कुर्यादनशनम् । अनिवर्तिका गतिस्तस्य यथा मे शङ्करोऽब्रवीत् ॥ पद्म., आदि. 16 14-15

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Gradually there was a revulsion of feeling against suicide at Prayāga or Kāśī or starting on the Great Journey. Among the actions forbidden in the Kali age are included 'starting on the Great Journey' and 'suicide of old people jumping from a precipice or by fire' (vide H. of Dh. vol. III. pp. 939, 958-59). Some of the later medieval writers try very hard to combat the view that religious suicide is permitted¹³⁸³. Nīlakaṇṭha, the commentator of the Mahābhārata, holds that Vanaparva 85. 83 (na vedavacanāt &c) refers to natural death at Prayāga and not to wilful death and that the Khila verse ('Sitāsite' quoted above on p. 596) has the same meaning. Then he propounds two alternative interpretations of Vanaparva 85.

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¹³⁸³ Vide a learned paper on 'suicide at Prayāga' by Prof K. C. Chattopadhyaya in Journal of the U. P. Historical Society, vol. X, pp. 65 ff.

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83, viz. that this passage allows those who are suffering from an incurable disease to commit suicide at Prayāga instead of dying by falling from a precipice and the like or that this verse does not apply to brāhmaṇas but only to the other three varṇas.¹³⁸⁴

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¹³⁸⁴ शूद्राश्च क्षत्रिया वैश्या अन्त्यजाश्च तथाधमाः। एते त्यजेयुः प्राणान्वै वर्जयित्वा द्विजं नृप। पतित्वा ब्राह्मणास्तत्र ब्रह्महा चात्महा भवेत्। q. by त्रिस्थली० p. 52, which remarks that these verses are not found in any authoritative source and they involve a contradiction, in as much as क्षत्रियs and वैश्यs are allowed to kill themselves though they are *dvijas*. This is q. also by भट्टोजि in त्रि से. सा. सं p 33

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Both the Gaṅgāvākyāvalī (pp. 304-310) and the Tīr. C (pp. 47-52) hold that all varṇas have the authority to resort to suicide at Prayāga. The Tīr. Pr. holds a long, learned and highly polemic discussion on the subject of religious suicide at Prayāga (pp. 346-355). Its own view appears to be that a brāhmaṇa should not commit this suicide at Prayāga on account of the prohibition contained in Kalivarjya verses and that members of the other varṇas may do so. The Tristhalīsetu also enters upon a long discussion (pp. 47-55) and its conclusions are that in suicide at Prayāga for the attainment of *mokṣa* or other rewards (such as heaven) there is no sin, that this suicide at Prayāga is not forbidden1384a to brāhmaṇas as some think (since Agni 111 8 reads 'na vedavacanād *vipra*'), that persons whether seriously ill or in good health¹³⁸⁵ may resort to suicide at Prayāga, that no one has authority to commit suicide at Prayāga after abandoning to their fate one's old parents, young wife and children that require support, nor should a woman who is pregnant or who has young children or who has no permission from her husband, commit suicide at Prayāga.¹³⁸⁶ It is refreshing to find Nārāyaṇabhaṭṭa, perhaps the most learned and renowned Pandit of his age steeped in all the lore of ancient India, make, in spite of the overwhelming weight of śāstric authority in favour of suicide at Prayāga, exceptions that surely appeal to reason, sentiment and common sense.¹³⁸⁷ Nārāyaṇabhaṭṭa probably followed traditions several hundred years older than his times. Alberuni in his work on India composed about 1030 A D. says about religious suicide that 'it was resorted to by those who are tired of life, who are distressed over some incurable disease, some irremovable bodily defect or old age or infirmity. This however no man of distinction does, but only vaiśyas and śūdras. Burning oneself is forbidden to brāhmaṇas and kṣatriyas by a special law. Therefore these if they want to kill themselves do so at the time of an eclipse in some other manner or they hire somebody to drown them in the Ganges.' (tr. by Sachau, vol. II. p 170). The Tri. S. S. provides that a man desirous of committing religious suicide at Prayāga should first perform a prāyaścitta, should perform his own śrāddha upto the offering of piṇḍa if he has no relative entitled to perform it, should fast that day, should make a saṅkalpa next day preceded by a writing (to inform people of his desire to die in that way) and enter the holy waters contemplating on Viṣṇu. On his death, his relatives have to observe āśauca only for three days (and not for ten) and on the 4th day the śrāddhas of the 11th day are to be performed for him.¹³⁸⁸

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1384a तथा च हेमाद्र्यादिष्वादिपुराणवाक्यानि ब्राह्मणस्यापि मरणविधायकानि। वृद्धः शौचस्मृतेर्लुप्त. —इत्याद्युपक्रम्य गच्छेदन्महापथं वापि तुषारगिरिमादरात्। प्रयागवटशाखायां देहत्यागं करोति वा॥ स्वयं देहविनाशस्य काले प्राप्ते महामतिः। उत्तमान्प्राप्नुयाल्लोकाञ्छात्मघाती भवेत्क्वचित्॥ एतेषामधिकारस्तु सर्वेषां सर्वजन्तुषु। नराणामथ नारीणां सर्ववर्णेषु सर्वदा॥ त्रिस्थली० p 53

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¹³⁸⁵ तस्मादातुरानुप्रादेरनातुरस्यैवाधिकारः। किं तु वृद्धौ पितरौ तरुणी भार्या पोष्यमपत्यं च विहाय नाधिकारः। एव स्त्रिया अपि गर्भिण्या बालापत्याया भर्त्राननुज्ञाताया वा नाधिकार इत्यादि ज्ञेयम्। त्रिस्थली० p. 55

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¹³⁸⁶ काश्यादिमरणात्मुक्तिरित्यत्र प्रयोजकत्वे पञ्चमी। तज्जन्यादात्मज्ञानादेव मोक्षोत्पत्ते। ज्ञानेन विना मिथ्याज्ञाननिवृत्तेरसम्भवात्। 'अत्र हि जन्तो. ..रुद्रस्तारकं ब्रह्म व्याचष्टे' इति श्रुतेश्च। यत्तु काश्यां देहावसाने रुद्रोपदेशश्रुतेरस्तु ज्ञानापेक्षा न तु सर्वत्र। प्रयागमरणान्नो विनेवात्मसाक्षात्कारमपवर्गोदयात्। .. तदसत् विना ज्ञानं मिथ्याज्ञाननिवृत्तेरसम्भवात्। तीर्थप्र. (*Continued from the last page*) p. 313; the passage of the जाबालोपनिषद् is: अविमुक्तं वै कुरुक्षेत्रं देवानां देवयजनं सर्वेषां भूतानां ब्रह्मसदनम्। तस्माद्यत्र क्वचन गच्छति तदेव मन्येत तदविमुक्तमेव। इदं वै कुरुक्षेत्रं देवानां...सदनम्। अत्र हि जन्तोः प्राणेषूत्क्रममाणेषु रुद्रस्तारकं ब्रह्म व्याचष्टे येनासावमृतीभूत्वा मोक्षीभवति।'. In the Bhau Daji collection of mss at the Bombay Asiatic Society there is a ms. called अविमुक्तनिरुक्तिसार (cat. No 1047) which contains 15 verses and comments thereon intended to explain the purport of the Jābālopaniṣad passage quoted and also some other passages from the same In this work कुरुक्षेत्र occurring in जाबालोपनिषद् is explained as 'कुत्सितं रावयतीति कुरु पापं तस्य क्षेपणार् उत्ति कुरुक्षेत्रं पापनाशनमित्यर्थः' and देवयजनं as ब्रह्मोपास्तिस्थानम्.

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¹³⁸⁷ काम्यमध्यत्र मरणम्। अत्र तु सर्ववर्णानामधिकारः । गङ्गावा. p 305 and तीर्थचि. p. 47. It is a most remarkable thing that the treatment of प्रयागमरण in both these works is word for word the same, except that the तीर्थचि. quotes the verses न वेदवचना० from the पद्मपुराण while the गङ्गावा quotes them from the मत्स्य. It appears probable that the तीर्थचि० borrows from the गङ्गावा. since वाचस्पति appears to have been a younger contemporary of Vidyāpati who helped विश्वासदेवी in composing गङ्गावा. Both were closely connected with the several kings and queens of the कामेश्वर dynasty of Mithilā and it is difficult to assert with confidence who borrows from whom. In New I A. vol VII. at p. 53 Prof. G. C Basu while describing a newly found ms of a work called व्याडिभक्तितरङ्गिणी ascribed in the colophon to विद्यापति states that that work mentions the द्वैतनिर्णय of वाचस्पति. So it is not unlikely that विद्यापति helped विश्वासदेवी by taking a part from the तीर्थचिन्तामणि of वाचस्पति Vide H. of Dh. vol. I pp. 739-740, Journal of Dept. of Letters, Calcutta University, vol. XVI, New I. A. vol. VII pp. 49 ff, I. H. Q vol. XX (1944) pp. 211 ff for the date and works of विद्यापति and H. of Dh vol. I. pp. 404-405 for the date of वाचस्पति

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¹³⁸⁸ वृद्ध शौचस्मृतेर्वृत प्रत्याख्याताभिपक्वक्रियः। आत्मानं घातयेद्यस्तु भृग्वग्न्यनशनादिभिः। तस्य त्रिरात्रमाशौचं द्वितीये त्वस्थिसञ्चयम्। तृतीये तूदकं कृत्वा चतुर्थे श्राद्धमाचरेत्॥ अत्रि 218-219 q by मेधा० on मनु V. 89 कल्प० (on आशौच p. 87) quotes these slightly differently and remarks वैधै तु देहत्यागे वृद्ध० .. माशीच कर्तव्यो चोदकक्रिया इति वचनाद्भवत्येवोदकादिक्रिया.

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The psychological background behind the religious suicide at Prayāga and other places is not difficult to realise. Centuries of philosophical thought had made a very deep impression on the minds of all people that the soul has to submit to a never-ending cycle of births and deaths. Ancient scriptures had offered a release in two ways viz. by *tattvajñāna* and by suicide at a tīrtha. Death had no great terror for the pilgrim who submitted to various inconveniences and privations ungrudgingly. If one is determined to put an end to *saṁsāra* by taking one's life, what nobler environment could have been imagined or indicated than at Prayāga, where two mighty rivers flowing from the sacred Himālaya unite and carry on unceasingly their work of fertilizing the land and bringing prosperity and solace to millions of needy and anxious people?

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While on this topic of religious suicide, it would not be out of place to briefly refer to the discussion in the digests about the meaning of the statement in the purāṇas that those who die at Prayāga are not born again (e. g. Matsya 180. 71 and 74). The answer is foreshadowed in the Matsyapurāṇa itself (182. 22-25) which¹³⁸⁹ says: At the time of death, when the vital parts of the human body are being shattered, memory must fail a human being that is about to be pushed on (to another body) by the vital breath (when it leaves the mortal coil). But at the time of death in Avimukta (Vārānasī) Lord (Śiva) himself whispers (higher knowledge) in the ears of his devotees that are about to be pushed (into new bodies) by (accumulations of their actions). A man dying near Maṇikarṇikā pool reaches the desired goal; he being guided by the Lord reaches the goal which is difficult of attainment by those whose minds are not pure.' In the Kāśīkhaṇḍa it is expressly stated that mokṣa does not directly result in these cities (viz. Kāśī &c ). But in spite of these warnings the popular belief fostered by the literal meaning of hundreds of Purāṇa passages is that mokṣa results from dying at Prayāga or in Kāśīkṣetra.

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¹³⁸⁹ The स्कन्दपुराण, काशी० has the following verses which repeat what the Matsya (182 22-25) says viz Śiva whispers into the right ear of a man dying at Kāśī the knowledge of *brahma* that will save his soul ब्रह्मज्ञानेन मुच्यन्ते नान्यथा जन्तव. क्वचित्। ब्रह्मज्ञानमये क्षेत्रे प्रयागे वा तनुत्यजः॥ ब्रह्मज्ञानं तदेवाहं काशीसंस्थितिभागिनाम्। दिशामि तारकं प्रान्ते मुच्यन्ते ते तु तत्क्षणात् ॥ chap. 32, verses 115-116. साक्षान्मोक्षो न चतासु पुरीषु प्रियभाषिणि। स्कन्द, काशी० 8 3 (अगस्त्य tells लोपामुद्रा). The मत्स्य० verses are अन्त्काले मनुष्याणा छिद्यमानेषु मर्मसु। वायुना प्रेर्यमाणाना स्मृतिर्नैवोपजायते॥ अविमुक्ते ह्यन्तकाले भक्तानामीश्वरः स्वयम्। कर्मभिः प्रेर्यमाणाना कर्णजापं प्रयच्छति। मणिकर्ण्य व्यजन्देहं गतिमिष्टा ब्रजेन्नर. । ईश्वरेरितो याति दुष्प्रापामकृतात्मभि. ॥ 182 22-25 The words अन्तकाले .. जायते refer to the general rule The verses अविमुक्ते० state the special case of death in Avimukta The त्रिस्यली० p. 297 quotes these verses and reads अविमुक्ते त्वन्तकाले

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The practice of religious suicide has a very respectable antiquity. In the 4th century B. C. Kalanos, the Indian Gymnosophist from Taxila who had accompanied Alexander from India, burnt himself alive on a funeral pyre at Sousa, when being over 70 years old, he was afflicted with a malady that made life more and more burdensome. *Vide* J W McCrindle's 'Invasion of India by Alexander the Great' (New Edition 1896) pp. 46, 301, 386-392. Strabo informs us of a gymnosophist from India named Zarmanochegas of Broach who accompanied an embassy to Augustus Caesar at Athens and consigned himself to flames (*vide* 'Invasion of India by Alexander' p. 389). Hiouen Thsang (Beal's 'Buddhist Records of the Western World' vol. I. pp. 232-234) refers to suicide at Prayāga. The Jains, while on the one hand they laid the greatest emphasis on 'ahiṁsā' (non-injury), encouraged religious suicide (called 'Sallekhanā') in certain cases¹³⁹⁰.

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¹³⁹⁰ *Vide* I A. vol II. p 322 'Jain Inscriptions at Sravana Belgola', where some verses are quoted from the Ratnakaranda of which the following one may be noted. उपसर्गे दुर्भिक्षे जरसि रुजायां च निष्प्रतीकारे । धर्मार्य तनुविमोचनमाहु सल्लेखनामार्याः ॥.

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Some of the works, viz. the Kāśīmṛti-mokṣa-vicāra of Sureśvara (pp. 2-9), the Tristhalīsetu (pp. 50-55) and the Tīrthaprakāśa (pp. 313-318) discuss at some length how mere death (either involuntary or voluntary) in Vārāṇasī or Prayāga would lead to mokṣa Considerations of space prevent a complete statement of their views Their arguments are briefly as follows:—Karma is of three kinds, viz *sañcita* (collected in former births), *prārabdha* (that has begun to operate by giving the soul the present body) and *kriyamāṇa* (to be done in this body and in future). The Upaniṣads and the Gītā¹³⁹¹ declare that, just as waters do not stick to a lotus leaf, so evil deeds do not cling to a man who knows this (knowledge of *brahma*), that the fire of knowledge reduces to ashes all *karma* and that *mokṣa* results from the realization of the Supreme Spirit (Vedānta-sūtra IV. 1. 13). From this it follows that a man who has realized the Highest Reality will not be affected by the acts done by him after realization and his accumulated actions (sañcita) will be destroyed by that realization. The present body in which the soul realizes *brahma* was due to that part of his *karma* which had begun to operate. When the present body perishes in the case of a man who has realized *brahma* he attains final release, since no actions remain for producing effects. To the man who dies a natural death in Benares is given at the time of death the Tāraka (saving) mantra The Matsyapurāṇa says:¹³⁹² those who enter fire according to the rules in Avimukta (i. e. Benares) enter the mouth of Śiva and so also those determined devotees of Śiva who die by fast in Benares do not return (to this world) even after millions of *kalpas*. Therefore all those who die in any way at¹³⁹³ Benares receive Grace from Śiva after their death That leads to *tattvajñāna* (correct spiritual knowledge) which leads to mokṣa In rare passages it is expressly stated that *mokṣa* cannot¹³⁹⁴ be immediately secured (by dying) in these cities. The Tāraka-mantra is variously explained. According to Sureśvara, Tāraka-mantra is the mystic syllable *om* which is a symbol of *brahma* as stated in the Tai. Up. (I. 1.8 *Om-iti brahma*) and the Gītā (8. 13 Om-ityekākṣaram brahma). The Tri. S. gives another explanation besides this. According to Rāmatāpanīya Upaniṣad and¹³⁹⁵ the Padmapurāṇa the mantra is 'śrī-Rāma-Rāma-Rāmeti.'

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¹³⁹¹ यथा पुष्करपलाश आपो न श्लिष्यन्त एवमेवविदि पापं कर्म न श्लिष्यत इति। छा उप IV. 14 3; भिद्यते हृदयग्रन्थिश्छिद्यन्ते सर्वसंशया । क्षीयन्ते चास्य कर्माणि तस्मिन् दृष्टे परावरे॥ मुण्डकोपनिषद् II 2 8, यथैधांसि समिद्धोऽग्निर्भस्मसात्कुरुतेऽर्जुन । ज्ञानाग्निः सर्वकर्माणि भस्मसात्कुरुते तथा ॥ भगवद्गीता ॥ IV 37

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¹³⁹² अग्निप्रवेशं ये कुर्युुरविमुक्ते विधानतः । प्रविशन्ति मुखं ते मे न सन्दूिग्ध वरानने ॥ कुर्वन्त्यनशनं ये तु मद्भक्ता कृतनिश्चया । न तेषा पुनरावृत्तिः कल्पकोटिशतैरपि ॥ मत्स्य 183 77-78 q by कल्पतरु on तीर्थ p 21

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¹³⁹³ 'ज्ञानादेव तु कैवल्यम्' इत्यादि श्रुतिस्मृतिभ्यो ज्ञानाभावे मोक्षाभावाद्बिश्वेश्वराख्यगुरूपदिष्टतारकादेवात्रात्मज्ञानोत्पत्ति । तदुक्त काशीखण्डे । ब्रह्मज्ञानेन मुच्यन्ते नान्यथा जन्तवः क्वचित् । ब्रह्मज्ञानं तदेवाहं काशीसंस्थितिभागिनाम् । दिशामि तारक मान्ते मुच्यन्ते ते तु तत्क्षणात् । त्रिस्यली० p 292 which quotes काशीखण्ड 32 115-116 Similar statements occur in काशीखण्ड 21. 98 विपन्नानां च जन्तूनां यत्र विश्वेश्वरः स्वयम् । कर्णे जाप प्रकरुते कर्मनिर्मूलनक्षमम् ॥ and काशीखण्ड 61 117-118, 64 98. The गरुडपुराण (प्रेतखण्ड, 6 60-61) says 'तीर्थराजस्ततः काशी महादेवो दयानिधिः । मृताना यत्र जन्तूता कर्णे जपति तारकम् ॥'

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¹³⁹⁴ साक्षान्मोक्षो न चैतासु पुरीषु प्रियभाषिणि । स्कन्द, काशी 8 2 (अगस्त्य to लोपामुद्रा) तारक प्रणव तारयतीति तार स्वार्थे कम्प्रत्यय.। संसारसागरादुत्तारकं तारकं च तद् ब्रह्म इति तारकं ब्रह्म उच्यते। काशीस्मृतिमोक्षविचार p 3

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¹³⁹⁵ रामतापनीये तु श्रीराममन्त्र एव तारकशब्दार्थ उक्तः। मुमूर्षोर्दक्षिणे कर्णे यस्य कस्यापि वा स्वयम्। उपदेक्ष्यसि मन्मन्त्रं स मुक्तो भविता शिव ॥ अग्रे तु श्रीशब्दपूर्वकस्त्रिरावृत्तो रामशब्द एव तारकतयोक्तः। मुमूर्षोर्मणिकर्ण्यन्तर्र्थोदकनिवासिनः। अहं दिशामि ते मन्त्रं तारकं ब्रह्मवाचकम्। श्रीरामरामरामेति एतन्तारकमुच्यते॥ त्रिस्थली० p. 291.

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There are several sub-tīrthas that fall under Prayāga. The most important of them is the famous Vaṭa (banyan tree) called Akṣaya-Vaṭa (the imperishable Vaṭa). The Agni (111. 13) states 'if a man dies at the foot of the Vaṭa and in the Saṅgama he goes to the city of Viṣṇu'. Special reference is made to abandoning one's life at the foot of the Vaṭa. The Kūrma¹³⁹⁶ says 'He, who abandons life at the foot of the Vaṭa, passes beyond heavenly worlds and goes to the world of Rudra'. The following are the sub-tīrthas of Prayāga and only references are given to the works in which they are described: (1) the two Nāgas called Kambala and Aśvatara which according to some are on the spacious (vipula) bank of the Jumnā and according to others on the southern bank of the Jumnā (Vanaparva 85 77, Matsya 106. 27, Padma, Ādi 39 69, Agni 111. 5, Kūrma I. 37. 19), (2) Pratiṣṭhāna on the eastern side of the Ganges, being the same as the Sāmudra-kūpa (Vanaparva 85. 77, Matsya 106. 30, Kūrma I. 37. 22, Padma, Ādi. 43, 30; Vanaparva 85. 114 appears to suggest that Pratiṣṭhāna is another name of Prayāga; (3) Sandhyāvaṭa (Matsya 106. 43, Kūrma I. 37. 28, Agni 111. 13); (4) Haṁsaprapatana to the north of Pratiṣṭhāna and to the east of the Ganges (Matsya 106. 32, Kūrma I. 37, 24, Agni 111. 10, Padma, Ādi 39. 80 and 43. 32, (5) Koṭitīrtha (Matsya 106. 44, Kūrma I. 37. 29, Agni 111. 14, Padma, Ādi 43. 44; (6) Bhogavatī, the Vedi of Prajāpati to the north of Vāsuki (Vanaparva 85. 77, Matsya 106.46, Agni 111. 5, Padma, Ādi 39. 79 and 43. 46; (7) Daśāśvamedhaka (Matsya 106. 46, Padma, Ādi 39. 80); (8) Urvaśīpulina, suicide at which led to ¹³⁹⁷ various rewards quoted below (Matsya 106. 34-42,¹³⁹⁸ Padma, Ādi 43. 34-43, Agni 111. 13, Kūrma I. 37. 26-27); (9) Ṛṇapramocana, on the northern bank of Yamunā and to the south of Prayāga (Kūrma I. 38. 14, Padma, Ādi 44. 20); (10) Mānasa on the north bank of the Ganges (Matsya 107. 9, Padma, Ādi 44. 2, Agni 111 14); (11) Agnitīrtha on the southern bank of the Jumnā (Matsya 108 27, Kūrma I. 39.4, Padma, Ādi 45. 27); (12) Viraja on the north bank of Yamunā (Padma, Ādi 45. 29); (13) Anaraka ¹³⁹⁹ to the west of Dharmarāja (Kūrma I. 39. 5).

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