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History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c34: Jewellery - Inlay Work And Studding Of Gems

History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c34

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English

Contents

Jewellery - Inlay Work And Studding Of Gems

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Love for Beauty is an inherent quality in all human beings. It is this aesthetic impulse which prompts an individual to create, possess and enjoy all that is beautiful. Jewellery is, no doubt, an aid to personal beauty and this is probably the reason that the art of jewellery has all through been associated with the development of human civilizations. Besides, jewellery has also been considered as an insignia of personal status. Even the icons of gods and goddesses are provided with numerous jewels and jewellery. With ancient pastoral society of India, the herds of cows, large stables of horses, elephants and precious gems were recognised as the four main treasures. Hence, the possession of costly gems and jewellery and its luxurious use on festive and ceremonial occasions in India have been associated with the rank and status of its owner in the society.

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There are other reasons too for giving a boost to the craft of jewellery in ancient India. The medicinal qualities of various precious stones and metals were found conducive to human health. Similarly, the common astrological belief in India that every planet has its own gem and the wearing of that gem will pacify the particular planet probably augmented the use of gems and jewellery amongst the opulent class of Indian society.

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Thus, the wearing of Nine Gems (Nava Ratna) viz; diamond (Hīrā), Ruby (Mānikya), Cat's eye (Vaiduryam), Pearl (Muktā), Zircon (Gomedha), Coral (Mūngā), Emerald (Markatam), Topas (Pukharāja) and Sappire (Nīlam) had attained astrological sanction amongst the Indians.

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Besides, the possession of gems and jewellery in ancient India was further inspired by an element of personal safety against future odds of poverty as well as natural mishaps in one's life. The gems and jewellery have always a re-sale value and the same can be converted into cash as per the need and wish of the owner. The malleable quality of the precious metals, like gold and silver, however, proved to be detrimental to the continuity of old forms. The frequent melting of old ornaments led to an extinction of ancient jewellery of India. However, the ornaments made of base metals have preserved the ancient forms of Indian jewellery. Today, it is difficult to get good specimens of old Indian jewellery except in temples of southern India, wherein the temple-jewellery is still kept intact. Again, the treasure- troves and archaeological excavations have also occasionally brought to light some of the precious remains of ancient Indian jewellery which not only exhibit high excellence and perfection that the craft had attained but also throw adequate light on the economic prosperity. The old jewellery also throws light on social norms including the social customs and traits, motivations and behaviour, concepts and ideas and myth and philosophy of the people.

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The art of jewellery in ancient India forms an interesting study. Both the archaeological and literary sources throw ample light on the subject, right from Indus Valley period to the beginning of British rule in India. A metallic figure of a dancing girl from Mohenjodaro would suggest the use of various ornaments, such as the necklaces, armlets, wristlets and bangles during the Indus Valley civilization. Ivory seems to have been the main medium for producing bangles and other ornaments at Mohenjodaro and Harappa. Further, the excavations at Mohenjodaro and Harappa have yielded a large variety of beads of numerous shapes and materials. The strung beads were worn as armlets, bracelets, necklaces and girdles during Indus Valley period. The beads of the precious metals, like gold and silver must have been scarcely used, as they are found in less quantity. The beads of semi-precious stones, like jadeite, carnelian, jasper, steatite, quartz, agate, onyx and black chert have been found in abundance. The beads of less costly material, such as the terracotta, shell, wood and clay must have been used by the poor people. The glass beads have also been found.

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It is no less amazing to note the diversity of techniques applied in producing such a large variety of beads in ancient India. The beads are fashioned in cylindrical, globular, tubular, short barelled, rectangular, oval and semi-circular forms. Apart from the science of metallurgy, the people of Harappa and Mohenjodaro possessed a good knowledge of the use of various hard stones. It is somewhat difficult to imagine about the tools and technique employed to manufacture beads from such semi-precious stones, like the quartz and jadeite etc., which are harder than the steel. They probably practised the methods of rubbing and abrading the pebbles with particles and pieces of harder stones and bringing them to desired forms. Similarly, they might have used the drills and borers of quartz and other harder stones to carve out holes in the beads presenting lesser hardness. The technique of soldering the edges of two convex discs to produce double convex beads can also be noticed. At Harappa, the special type of beads were made by cementing two or more stones together. The steatite beads are sometime given special treatment of heating to whiten the surface. Such beads are termed as “burnt” steatite beads. There are painted steatite beads also. The fast colours were produced by applying mineral solutions and thereafter heating them under high temperature. The beads were also glazed and polished to present a glossy surface.

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Archaeological data about the jewellery of early Vedic period is somewhat scanty. However, there are stray references, gleaned through the hymns, which provide a vague idea of the jewels and jewellery of ancient period. The Vājasaneyi Saṃhitā (XXX) and the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa (III.4) do present an account of various arts and crafts, which include workers in gold and so also the profession of jewellery (Apte, 1965). Similarly, there are references in Vedic literature regarding ornaments, such as the Pra-varta or ear-rings and a niṣka, probably a kaṇṭhī or a small necklace worn around the neck, jewels (mani) and conch-shells were also used as amulets during the period (Apte, 1965).

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Ramesh Chunder Dutt has brought out numerous references from Ṛgveda, wherein certain names of ornaments are mentioned. Accordingly, the lighting ornaments of the Marutas are compared with jewellery (Anji), such as the necklaces (Srak), the crowns (Sipra Hiraṇmayī) (Dutt. 1893). The science of metallurgy had advanced considerably. A passage in the Chāndogya Upaniṣad specifies various metals. It reads, “As one binds gold by means of silver, and lead by means of tin, and iron by means of lead, and wood by means of iron, and also by means of leather” (Dutt, 1893).

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It was during the rule of the Mauryas that India was, for the first time, brought under one political power. It added not only to the political stability of the country but also to increased resources, economic growth and an all-round prosperity of the people. This fact has very well been brought out by various foreign writers in their respective chronicles. Both Megasthenes and Nearchus speak eloquently about the love of Indians for ornate jewellery. They had appropriate ornaments made of silver, gold, pearls, gems and other precious stones to be worn on every part of the body. The Jātakas mention eighteen important handicrafts, including those of the workers in precious stones and jewellery. Strabo further testifies that the Indians indulge in jewellery (Cunningham, 1962). Although, there is not much archaeological evidence available at the moment to give further details about the concrete forms and character of the Mauryan jewellery, yet it may be inferred that the traditions of the Mauryan jewellery must have continued during the Sunga period also.

Early historic jewellery

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The Buddhist monuments at Bharhut, Sāñcī, Bodhgayā and Amarāvatī, which are attributed to the Sunga and Sātavāhana phase of Indian history, provide ample evidence on Indian jewellery through their intricate stone carvings. The jewellery, as noticed through the carvings of the figurative sculptures, is important for two significant reasons, viz; firstly the forms of jewellery have been continued throughout the ages with little or no change and secondly, the identification of various ornaments worn by the male and female figures at Bharhut can easily be made with the help of ancient literature of India. Another important fact which can be brought out by studying early sculptural art of India is that the trait of wearing beautiful jewellery was common with the male and female sections of the society. Further, the jewellery was worked in precious and semi- precious metals and the same was encrusted with the pearls and glittering gems for the royal use.

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A careful scrutiny of the Sunga and Sātavāhana art would reveal that a large variety of ornaments to be used on the head, ears, neck, arms, waist and feet had come in vogue. The forms, motifs and designs of ornaments were drawn either from Nature or the sectarian symbols. For example, the ear-rings are very often shaped like a full blown lotus flowers and petals. The numerous animal motifs, such as the snout of a crocodile, lion’s head and coil of a serpent have been imitated to shape the numerous ornaments of the *Śātavāhana* period. At Bharhut, the famous Buddhist symbol, *Tri-ratna*, is very often found depicted in the personal jewellery of male and female figures.

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Again, the ornaments, like ear-rings, necklaces, armlets and bracelets, seem to have been commonly worn by both the male and female members of the society. However, the forehead ornaments, long necklaces, girdles and anklets were worn only by the fair sex. The males probably used an embroidered cloth, *saṣ* or *pataka* to tighten the waist. The nose-ring is probably a later addition to Indian jewellery.

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*Forehead ornament*: The female sculptures from Bharhut are invariably shown wearing a star-shaped ornament just below the parting of the hair on the top of the forehead. The term, *Lalāṭikā*, as used in ancient Sanskrit literature, has been interpreted as a jewelled ornament on the forehead (Sivaramamurti 1956). Similarly, the gem *Cūḍāmaṇi* or the *Makarika* (crocodile gem) are found adorning the foreheads of the female sculptures of Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda (Sivaramamurti, 1956).

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*Ear ornaments*: Ear rings were used by men and women both. Sometimes, the ear-rings are shaped as *Tri-ratna* symbol. Even today, the Christians wear the cross as ornament. Cunningham has described a special type of ear-rings used at Bharhut, wherein the middle portion was formed of two spiral tubes and ending with a four petalled flower (Cunningham, 1962). Agrawala has identified them with *Prakaravapra Kuṇḍalas*, as mentioned in the Virata Parva of *Mahābhārata* (Agrawala, 1965). The crescent- shaped *kuṇḍalas* (*mṛṣṭakuṇḍalas*), which find mention in the *Jatakas*, are found represented in Amaravati sculptures (Cunningham, 1962).

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The actual specimens of this kind of *Kuṇḍalas* were excavated from Taxila by Marshall (Marshall, 1902-3). The *Vallikā*, as mentioned in the *Cullāvagga*, has been identified with modern *Ballikās* or *Bālā* (Sivaramamurti, 1956).

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*Necklaces or Kaṇṭha-bhuṣaṇa*: The necklace seems to have been the most popular ornament amongst men and women in ancient India. The necklaces were made of gold, beads, pearls and other precious stones. Kauṭilya in his *Arthaśāstra* has mentioned a large variety of necklaces, including their characteristics and names (Shamasastry, 1923-24). The necklaces were generally composed of numerous strings, popularly, known as *Yaṣṭi* and the central part of it was adorned with a large gem, called *nāyakamani*. A necklace comprising of gold coins was named as *Niṣka*, which was also the name of a gold coin (Apte, 1965).

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The necklaces used to be both, short and long. The short necklaces were known as *kaṇṭhi* or *kaṇṭha*, a name which is still retained in Indian vernacular. In the Bharhut sculptures, the short necklaces are broad and flat, going around the neck. They might have been made of plain gold. The other varieties of necklaces were probably made of gold beads, pearls and precious gems. The necklaces were made either of one string (*ekāvalī*) or more than one string. If the central gem is large sized pearl, the necklace was called *śīrsak*. A necklace composed of alternating pearls and gold globules was termed as *apavaritaka*. *Ratnāvali* was a variegated necklace composed of gems, pearls and gold globules (Kauṭilya’s *Arthaśāstra*, Shamasastry, 1923-24).

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Another notable variety of necklace used in Maurya and Sunga age is the *Phalakahāra* which comprised of three or five slab like gems, rectangular in shape and set at regular intervals of pearls. It consisted of numerous strings as noticed from the sculptures of Bharhut and Amaravati (Sivaramamurti, 1956).

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*Bracelets*: The armlets or bracelets were commonly worn by men and women of the Sunga period. They seem to have been made of gold and encrusted with precious gems. The bracelets were known as *Valayas*. According to the *Gāthāsaptaśati*, the *valayas* were considered as a symbol of auspiciousness for the ladies whose husbands were alive. The bracelets seem to have been named after the material employed and sometimes even after the workmanship. For example, the *Ratnavalayas* (*Mūdrārākṣasa*, Act IV, 5 p. 192) were the bracelets set with precious stones and cerals, the *Saṅkhavalayas* were made of conch and the *Jalavalaya* (*Gāthāsaptaśati*, I, 80) were the bracelets showing perforated workmanship. The bracelets made of ivory were also in vogue. The most elaborate bracelets, as worn by the Yaksa, Yaksis and Naga figures at Bharhut, consist of spirals of ten coils each, with a jewelled plate on the outside of the wrist and on the inside a curious arrangement of four perpendicular wires attached to a loop, for keeping the spiral closed (Cunningham, 1962).

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Like bracelets, the armlets were also known as *Valayas* due to their ring-like shape. The various shapes, based on the creeper and *makara* motifs, of armlet are mentioned in ancient Sanskrit literature (Sivaramamurti, 1956).

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*Girdles*: There are numerous references to female girdles in early Sanskrit and Pali literature. The various names of female girdles seem to have been based on the number of strands in the ornament or the tinkling sound produced at the time of movement. The names, such as *Mekhalā*, *Kāñci*, *Saptakī*, *Rasanā* and *Sārasanā*, which are found mentioned in *Amarakośa*, are said to have signified the number of strands composing the girdle (Sivaramamurti, 1956). For instance, the term, "*Saptakī*" denotes a girdle with seven strings. "*Rasanā*" is probably the tinkling girdle with small bells suspended downwards. Sivaramamurti believes that the *Rasanā* or *Rasanākalapa* probably resembled a *mekhalā* but was fashioned like a cord or chain with numerous links composing it (Sivaramamurti, 1956). Similarly, the names *Kāñci* or *Kakṣa*, as Cunningham suggests, denote the specific girdles composed of brilliant red seeds of *Guñja* or *Abrus Precatorious* (Cunningham, 1962). The same scholar, on the basis of early Buddhist literature, takes the term *Mekhalā* as being "set with gems in newly burnished gold and silver" (Cunningham, 1962). The other names of girdles, such as the *Maddavīna*, *Kalābuka*, *Muraj* and *Deddubhaka* had their special characteristic qualities (Cunningham, 1962). The *Maddavīna* type of girdle had a rich, jewelled border. The *Kalābuka* was composed of many strips plaited together. The *Muraj* had drum-shaped knobs and the *Deddubhaka* had knobs in the form of a water snake.

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Initially, the girdles seem to have been composed of beads, including those of gold and silver. The same might have been followed by chains of gold and silver with jingling bells, specially used by the dancing girls. This is how, as Cunningham takes it, the lady's girdle assured the elaborate and costly form of five, six and seven strings of gold beads (Cunningham, 1962). These girdles are found worn by the various female figures of the Bharhut stupa. The most elaborate girdle, worn by the goddess, Sirima, represents similar motif and design in construction.

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*Anklets*- Anklets were popularly worn by the ladies of the Sunga and Sātavāhana periods. The most common variety appears to be formed of spiral coils, piled one over the other (Cunningham 1962). The various names, such as Mañjīra Tulākoṭi, Nūpura, Pādangada, Haṃsaka and Pālipada in Sanskrit and Pali languages would suggest a large variety of anklets in ancient India (Sivaramamurti, 1956). However, the popular form of anklets noticed at Bharhut can be identified with the ancient term, Mañjīra, which are supposed to resemble the coiled strings of the churning stick (Sivaramamurti, 1956). Sometimes, the anklets were embedded with small bells, Kinkiṇīs to produce the jingling sound. In the temptation of the Buddha, some of the dancing Apsaras are said to have, “tinkled the bells on their feet” (Cunningham, 1962).

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*Finger Rings*: The Finger rings or Aṅguliyaka are found worn by the female figures at Bharhut. However, the same are not to be noticed at Amaravati in its earlier phase. The finger rings appear at Amaravati only during the 3rd century, A.D. (Sivaramamurti, 1956).

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The foregoing description of Indian jewellery would reveal that the Indians, both male and female, had great love for ornaments right from the Indus Valley period. In the initial stages, the beads of semi-precious stones in different shapes and sizes were used as an aid to personal beauty. The beads of gold and silver were sparingly used by the rich people. The advances of metallurgy in Vedic era, made it possible to use largely gold and silver for fashioning of intricate jewellery. At the same time, the other materials, like ivory, wood, clay and terracotta were also used to fashion jewellery for the poor section of the society. Coming to Maurya-age, the major parts of the country were united under one paramount rule. The vast resources of the country and intimate relations of the Maurya emperors with west Asian monarchs might have introduced some new traits and traditions of west-Asian origin in Indian jewellery. Some of the ancient jewellery found from Taxila would suggest such a cultural blending.

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The beginning of the Christian era is full of political turmoil and confusion in Indian history. The various nomadic tribes, such as the Bactrian Greeks, Sakas, Parthians and the great Kuṣāṇas had crossed the Indian borders and established their kingdoms in whole of the north-western regions of the country. This provided a further opportunity for the west and central Asian cultural norms and traditions to penetrate into Indian soil. Again, the opening of sea-routes led to the development of Indian foreign trade with the Roman empire as its chief customer.

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The huge quantity of Roman gold was coming to India every year as a result of the brisk trade. The art of jewellery and work in precious stones were attaining unprecedented heights. However, the scant archaeological material is hardly adequate to form an idea of the alien forms or techniques, if any, introduced in Indian jewellery due to the cultural contact with west and central Asian world. Some of the jewellery pieces from central India, presently kept in the National Museum, New Delhi, are akin to the jewellery found from Himachal Pradesh and Punjab. Thus, the north-western regions seem to have preserved the ancient modes and traditions for the last two thousand years. However, the Buddhist motifs, floral designs and animal and bird forms in these ornaments might suggest the Indian influence which might have travelled along with the migration of Buddhism to central Asian regions. The forms like, belt buckles, amulets and medallions are definitely of central Asian origin and the lavish use of semi-precious stones, like ruby, turquoise, coral and lapis lazuli bespeak of the characteristic quality of that region.

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The jewellery found at Sirkap and Bhir, the two notable centres of the Taxila region, comprises of necklaces, pendants, earrings, bracelets, clasps, rings and hairpins, etc. The necklaces, made of many pieces strung together by thread or wire, can be attributed to Indo-Parthian and Kuṣāṇa period. The gold beads are usually hollow with small holes to be filled in with lac. In one of the elaborately made necklaces, “the larger pieces are centered with oval medallions of crystal cut-en-cabochen in a beaded border enclosed by two fish, facing one another with minute circlets of inlaid white cells between their heads and tails” (Jamila B.B., p.48). This probably indicates the beginning of ‘Kundan’ work which later found much favour with the Mughals in India. The metals i.e. gold, silver and copper have been used to fashion the ancient forms of jewellery from Taxila. The falling down festoons from the necklaces and ear-pendants are made of thin entwined wire and are also sometimes studded with semi- precious stones, like the garnet, amethyst and corals. The various manufacturing techniques, like the filigree, repousse, moulding, heating, soldering and encrusting of stones are found employed in making the ornaments. The delicacy and boldness of design, accurate and precise modelling and the perfect finish of ornaments from the Taxila excavations would suggest that the art of jewellery had been fully evolved there.

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The art-motifs employed in the jewellery pieces from Taxila are varied indeed. They exhibit a fine blending of the Hellenistic and Indian traditions.

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The figures of Eros and Psyche riding the sea-lions in one of the gold pendants found from ancient Taxila might suggest “the traces of important and strong Greek influence which are not found in Southern and Eastern parts of India” (Jamila, B.B. p.53). Ofcourse, the Greek motifs are blended with the Indian lotus, crescent, lotus buds and other flowers. The Greek motifs in Indian jewellery must have been introduced by the Indo-Greek and Parthian rulers of Taxila.

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The religious motifs, like the *Cakra* or Wheel, *Triratna* and *Svastika* are also noticed. The other motifs represented are the rosettes, the creepers and the circles. Sometimes, the pendants are shaped in forms of a ‘crescent’, ‘tiger’s claw’ and the ‘peepal leaves’.

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In South India, the jewellery of the Ikṣvāku period from Nagarjunakonda is somewhat plain and simple as compared to that of the Taxila region. A necklace and ear-rings made of gold, along with the Buddhist caskets, were recovered from the Nagarjunakonda excavations in the Krishna Valley. The technique employed to fashion the Nagarjunakonda jewellery, datable to 2nd century A.D., is confined to Filigree. The beaten gold wires are fastened together and soldered to produce ornaments. The notable discovery of goldsmith’s entire stock-in-trade, which included moulds of various designs and crucibles etc., from the Site 58 at Nagarjunakonda, is a positive evidence to show that the craft of jewellery had fully come into vogue in the Deccan of Ikṣvāku period (Sarkar & Misra 1972). Similarly, the gold necklace from the Stupa-site at Gummadidurru, with fifteen beads including spacers, would further strengthen the above statement (Sarkar & Misra 1972).

Jewellery of the Gupta period

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With the emergence of the mighty Gupta emperors on the scene, the political condition of the country attained solidarity and stability for a considerable period. Science and technology made rapid strides, resulting in an overall enrichment of people’s lives. The stable political conditions and the material progress raised the living standards of the people in general and the nobility in particular. It aroused aesthetic impulse of the people who craved for the finer aspects of life and thereby set norms for beauty. The various treatises on the numerous arts and crafts were composed giving technical expertise and their characteristic features. It was an era of artistic effulgence and perfection.

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Accordingly, the art of gems and jewellery reached the culminating points during the Gupta-age. The earlier ornaments were continued and modified and so also many fresh forms were introduced to suit the new social traits and traditions. The use of precious stones with splendorous shades on the glittering surface of the gold became the characteristic feature of the Gupta jewellery. It necessitated the *Ratnaparīkṣā* or the examination of jewels, which was included among the sixty-four subsidiary branches of knowledge in Vatsyayana’s *Kāmasūtra*. The Buddhist chronicle, *Divyāvadāna*, prescribes this science as a part of training to the sons of trading merchants (*Divya*, p. 26, 99-100). Another important work, *Bṛhat-Saṃhitā* of Varāhamihira, gives a vivid account of different gems, their provence, colours and other characteristic features (Kern, 1865). The numerous literary sources provide countless references to the use of gems for various purposes, such as their appliance in jewellery, costumes, furniture, seals and other objects of household. The gems were encrusted as well as inlaid on the objects of exceeding beauty. The art of cutting and polishing the precious stones was pursued with great vigour and industry.

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Jewellery seems to have been in great demand during the Gupta period. The ornaments were worn all over the body. The *Amarakośa* gives a long list of the names of ornaments for the head, forehead, the ears, the neck, the arms, fingers, waist and feet.

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*Head Ornaments*: During the Gupta age, the Kirita was a well known head ornament for the kings (Kālidāsa, *Raghu*, VI). The gems, *cūḍāmaṇi* and *makarika* (crocodile shaped jewel) were commonly worn by the ladies on the parting of the hair, the former at the back end and the latter on top of the head (Sivaramamurti, 1956). The ornament, *cūḍāmaṇi* was shaped like a full-blown lotus with petals, all composed of pearls and precious stones. The ornaments, like the *ratnajāla* (jewel festoons) and *muktajāla* (pearl festoons) woven in the hair of the ladies, are mentioned by Kālidāsa (*Raghu*, IX). This type of ornaments are noticed in the wall paintings of Ajanta and Bagh.

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*Ear ornaments*: The ear-rings or *kuṇḍalas* were of many shapes. The *makara kuṇḍala*, showing the fantastic animal with curled snout, was very popular during the Gupta age. The *manikuṇḍalas* or the ear-rings fitted with jewels were greatly admired (Kālidāsa, Rtu, II, 19). The festooning of hair with hanging pearl strings is not noticed before the Gupta-age. Hence, it must be a novelty of this period. The ear-rings shaped as leaf (patra-kuṇḍalas) seem to have been greatly in fashion. The leaf- shaped kuṇḍalas of gold (kanakapatra) are also described in literature (Sivaramamurti, 1956).

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Necklaces : The most common necklace of the Gupta period, as seen in the sculptures, was the ‘ekāvali’ which consisted of a single string of pearls, variegated by a large sapphire in the centre. Kālidāsa has noted the beauty of this ornament when he says, “Remarkable is the beauty of the pearl itself, nothing to say when combined with the radiant sapphire” (Raghu, XVI). Varāhamihira mentions a large variety of necklaces, wherein they were named after the varying number of strings. For instance, the Induchandā (1008), Vijayachandā (504), Devachandā (81), Rasmikalapa (54), Gucha (32) and the like comprised of multiple strings (Bṛh; S. LXXX). Nakṣtramālā was a necklace having seven pearls in one string.

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Girdles: The girdles were mostly made of gold. The name hema for the girdle might suggest its material as well. Hemasūtra was probably a chain of gold with precious stones in the centre. The other types of girdles, i.e, the mekhalā, kāñci, kinkiṇī and rasanā have already been referred to above. In fact, the ‘rasanā’ with a melodious sound of chains and the kinkiṇī with a jingling sound of small bells had attained greater popularity in Gupta period (Kālidāsa, Megh. XIII).

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Bracelets & Armlets: The various names such as the valaya, aṅgada and keyūra were common for the bracelets and armlets during Gupta-age. The bracelets and armlets were made of gold and encrusted with precious stones. The Keyūras were shaped as animal’s heads. If it was without tassels, it was known as Aṅgada.

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Anklets : The term nupūra and maninupūra are found mentioned in the literature of the Gupta period (Kālidāsa, Raghu, XVI). The maninupūra must be studded with gems. Bāṇabhaṭṭa mentions the word, “Tulakoṭi” which means the anklets with two ends, each bearing a slight cubical enlargement as noticed at the ends of a balance beam (Sivaramamurti, 1956).

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Finger Ring : The finger-ring or aṅguliyaka seems to have become popular during the Gupta-age. The finger-rings with a jewelled top manibandhana has been mentioned by the poet, Kālidāsa (Sakuntalam, VI).

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The Gupta-age witnessed perfection in every field of Indian art. The high ideals and standard set by the artisans of the Gupta era invariably inspired the artists of the subsequent centuries to follow the same age-old forms, motifs and designs in their art and crafts. The cycle of progress had reached the highest point and it was now moving in the reverse direction. The most articulate sparingly used jewellery of the Gupta era, as seen through the wall-paintings and sculptures, is put to exotic use in sculptures of the subsequent periods. No doubt, some of the names and forms of the ancient jewellery are continued in literature and art of early medieval period of Indian history. For example, the terms, cūḍāmani, makara-kuṇḍalas, nūpūra, mekhalā and ekāvali, etc. were commonly used during the period of Harsa Vardhana. Some new names of ornaments also occur in literature.

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During the 9th and 10th centuries, A.D., there does not seem to have occurred much change in ancient forms of Indian jewellery. The ornaments were in great demand. Abu Zaid, who came to India during the period under consideration, remarked that the kings and nobles wore costly ornaments which were made of gold and studded with rubies, emeralds and pearls (Abu Zaid, p.14).

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The kings preferred gems mostly of red and yellow colours (Kazim, VIII). Pearls were profusely used as festoons in jewellery. The kings maintained a band of artists and skilled craftsmen in the court. Rajasekhara, a poet of the Gurjara-Pratiharas mentions the presence of the jewellers, gem-setters, and goldsmiths amongst artisans seated at western end of the royal court (Kazim, X). Amongst the favourite ornaments of the ladies, the *Cūḍāratna* or *Śikhāmani* was put on the hair; *Niṣka* was a necklace made of coins or the big golden beads; *Manilatā* was a golden chain studded with gems; *kuṇḍalas* were the ear-ornaments; *kaṭisūtra* was a golden chain for the waist and the ‘*Nūpura*’ or ‘*Manjirā*’ were the anklets (Kazim, V.). Some new names to be met in the literature of this period are the *Dalāvitaka* and *Sīsapatraka*. These are mentioned as ear-rings, which must have been shaped like lotus petals and leaves (Damodara gupta, 1924, p. 65). The *Valayakalapi* were the bracelets shaped as peacock (Damodara gupta, p. 345). The *Tittibhika* was a neck ornament worn by the ladies of the period (Damodara gupta, p. 739).

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The early Muslim invaders from the Arab (Bagdad) did not leave any abiding impact on Indian culture. The Muslim rulers in India, prior to the Mughals, were constantly engaged in warfare to establish their political suzerainty. The historians too were obsessed with the political situations and left little record of arts and crafts. The extant specimens are not of much artistic significance. The Mughals, had a great regard for the Persian cultural norms and their interest heralded a new era and opened wider horizons for the Indian craftsmen. The Indian artisanship, which was passing through the stage of depression and stagnation, received a new lease of life. It acted with fresh vigour and enthusiasm to develop new techniques and perfection and thereafter produced masterpieces in fields of Indian art and crafts. Although, no significant new forms seem to have been introduced in Indian jewellery yet, the craftsmanship had considerably improved. The sophisticated taste and the magnificence shown by the Mughal emperors to Indian artisanship, gave an unprecedented impetus to the art of Indian jewellery. The talented artists of India used their indigenous skill and artistry to fashion the most beautiful ornaments. This happy blending of the alien taste and Indian workmanship provided a new look and extraordinary charm to the crafts of Indian jewellery.

Tools and Implements

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The Indian goldsmith, popularly known as Sunār, works entirely with a small set of indigenous tools and implements at his command. All his work is basically manual where he depends entirely on his personal experience, dexterity and judgement. The profession was hereditary, carried from father to son without much external influence. The basic elements of the craft, the traditional forms, motifs and designs of ornaments and the indigenous materials for his work were based on oral instructions and experience. Every village had a family of goldsmiths who would fulfil the basic needs of the rural community. Ofcourse, the urban-based goldsmiths were comparatively more exposed to outside influences in so far as they could copy the forms, motifs and designs of ornaments provided to them as models for fashioning new types of ornaments suiting the taste and traits of their new customers.

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The urban-based craft of jewellery in India was a team work, wherein a band of skilled workers were involved to complete the work right from purifying the metal to the encrustation of finished gems. The work of refining of the various metals was done by a particular class of goldsmith, known as Nyariya. He did the work of melting old ornaments or purifying gold and silver from alloy. The work of a goldsmith was to prepare the skeleton ornament and send it to the ‘Citera’ for engraving. After completing the patterns on gold, the piece was sent to gariā who would chase patterns and designs. This work was called ‘Gadhat’. The ‘murassakār’ or ‘kundanasāz’ was engaged for studding of the gems. Again, a different set of workers, called ‘mināsāz’ were engaged for enamelling. This type of specialisation in the city brought about much better finish than achieved in villages where a single individual Sunār, used to undertake the entire process single-handedly.

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The tools and implements of goldsmith are few and simple. The apparatus for heating and melting the metals include a furnace (angethā), crucibles (gharyā) blowpipe (nāl or phuṅkanī) and small curved blowpipes (bangual). After melting the metal the Sunār uses a long narrow trough with a handle known as reza or Pargahani with which he converts the metal into a long bar. For hammering, there is an anvil (nihai) and the hammer (hathaurā). He has various long and small tongs (cimṭā or cimṭi), pincers (samsī or Zambūrī), scissors (katrīs), file (retī) and the chisels (chhenī) to do his job. For drawing wires, the Sunār uses the wire-drawer (Jantra), which is an iron plate perforated with circular holes of different sizes through which the metal bar is drawn out until it is gradually reduced to the thickness of an ordinary wire. A cube (kensulā) of brass or bell metal (kānsa) with circular hollows at the side is used to hammer out the small plates of metal into separate halves of round ornaments, such as the ghungru (small chain bells), which are appended to the chains, bracelets and anklets. There are the dies (thāppā) of various shapes and sizes required for ornaments. The dies are used to bring out the patterns by hammering and heating. The dies are named after ornaments such as the thāppā cūri (a bracelet mould) and thāppā tābiz (amulet mould) and so on.

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In addition to the above equipment and tools, the Indian goldsmiths used certain other instruments to do the filigree work. The heavy pincers (siari), light pincers (atamgir or pilas) are used for pulling wire. The qualam (pointed iron pen) is required for chasing the patterns. A set of Sālais are used for chiselling and engraving. The Bālanca is a hand brush made of hog’s hair for cleaning. The Meghnala or the mica plates are required for arranging and soldering the wires of filigree work. The Tāra Gola Nali is a wooden cylinder to which the gold and silver wires are wound around. The Hatol is another instrument in the shape of a iron needle which gold and silver wires are wound for making chains.

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The few indigenous chemicals used by the Sunār in the process of his work are the Suhāgā (borax) as a flux in melting metals and the mango parings (amachul) to clean and brighten the objects. The application of salt is completed with the help of sal ammoniac (nausādar) and alum (phitkarī). Finally, the mānik ret (ruby dust) is rubbed over the ornament to level the surface of the finished articles.

Various Techniques

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The process of fashioning the jewellery in India involved various technique. The metal required for the fashioning of an ornament had to be first examined for the its purity through a special technique, called assaying. The familiar method for assaying was to rub the metal on the touch stone (*kasaūṭi*). The rubbing of the metal on the *kasaūṭi* left a mark of certain colour which used to suggest the purity of the metal or the amount of alloy of other metals contained in it. Similarly, the alloying was sometimes found necessary to give a certain hardness to the metal for working intricate patterns and design on its. The gold was alloyed with copper or silver and the silver was alloyed with copper or zinc. The soldering was done to join the different parts of the ornament together. The gold, silver and copper were mixed in soldering gold ornaments and silver and zinc in silver ones. The techniques is locally known as “*Taṅkā*”.

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The different types of works in fashioning the Indian jewellery can be divided into four major categories. Firstly, the *Sunār* hammers down the metal into desired shape or form of an ornament. He may also cast it in a die. Secondly, the patterns are brought out by chasing or embossing. Thirdly, the enamelling on the back of the ornaments and fourthly, the studding of gems.

Casting

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At first, a resin model of ornament is prepared with the help of fingers alone. It is afterwards enclosed in a mixture of clay and cowdung. The enclosed model is provided with containing the metal and later placed on the fire. After gradual heating, the molten metal enters through the vent and reaches the resin model. The resin model melts ultimately and gives place to a similar model of molten metal. Thus, an exact replica or the resin model is produced in gold or silver. This is probably the crude form of the present ‘cire-perdue’ or lost wax method.

Dies or Thappā Technique

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However, the ordinary method is to melt the metal and to hammer it into a desired form. This method is suitable to produce solid (*thos*) ornaments. However, if the object is hollow (*polā*), the two halves are produced and then joined together with solder. The patterned ornaments, like the ear-rings with floral designs, bracelets and amulets and produced by putting small circular pieces of molten metal on the dies (*thāppā*) and hammering them until the metal takes the shape required for an ornament. All the smaller units prepared in this process are put on plain pieces of metal at the back and joined together with solder. The ornament is again put in the fire for a few minutes and taken out for cleaning and brightening the surface. Later, it was passed on to *nakās* for engraving artistic design on it, which were to be enamelled.

Gilding

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The *Mulammas* or the beaten gold-leaf were applied by the skilled craftsmen called, *Mulammasaz*. It is the technique of gold- gilding. After heating, the gold leaf is set with the help of an agate piece called, *Mahari* or *Mahara*. The ornament is then sent to Zilasaz who gives the finishing touches to the surface.

Filigree

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The filigree is one of the earliest techniques employed in India for fashioning the ornaments. The work is done in pure silver. The metal is cast into long bars. The long silver bars are cut into small pieces and the same are beaten and drawn into wires, with the help of a *Jantra*. The wires are taken one by one and carefully arranged and cemented on a sheet of mica to produce parts of intricate designs and patterns. Later, the different parts are united by soldering. lastly, the process of cleaning and brightening the surface is completed to give a snowy appearance.

Enamelling

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The enamelling is another technique which has been practised in India since remote antiquity. The enamel beads from the various Buddhist sites, like Sankisa, in India trace the history of enamelling to early historic period. Such enamelled beads are divided into two groups, viz; the white enamel on a black or cornelian ground and the black enamel on grey or white agate background. The enamel patterns are chiefly pentagonal, hexagonal, circles with dots in the centre, or else five rows of tiny spots or bands of two or three in number running round the beads. The circle and dot pattern is so arranged on the round beads as to form the tried symbol.

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The enamelling in medieval India was generally applied in grooves. The motif or patterns were drawn by the Citera or artist and the piece was handed over to the goldsmith, who completed his work leaving grooves to be enamelled. The enameller or *Mīnākār* first cleaned and burnished the plate and when applied his colours in order of their hardness or the power of resisting fire, beginning with the hardest or that which most resists the fire. All the known colours can be applied to gold. The black, green, blue, dark yellow, orange, pink and peculiar salmon can be applied to silver. The white, black and pink colour only can be applied to copper. In order of hardness, the colours are white, blue, black, yellow, pink, green and red. The pure ruby red, being the most fugitive, requires a great care and precision of an experienced craftsman. The Jaipur enamellers were the best in handling this colour. The pink enamel of Banaras was equally famous.

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The colours are mineral oxides which were obtained in opaque vitreous masses from Lahore. They are ground in postle and mortar and mixed with water. The colours are then filled in the grooves very cautiously with a brush much in the same way as a picture is painted. The paint, if over-flowed, is carefully wiped with a pieces of cotton. The articles is then left in the fire for half an hour or so, when the enamel firmly sets in. It is then rubbed by *kurand* or corundum-bone or *sohan*. The article is next repolished by heating it gently. The last process is to rub it with the file and clean it with the acid of tamarind or lemon. The enamelling was generally done at the back of Mughal ornements.

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Another famous centre for a different kind of enamelling was at Pratapgarh. Sir George Watt has described this technique, as he says, "The article is made of a piece of green or red coloured glass, or thick layer of enamel, the crude material which is imported from Kashmir”, he further writes, “A frame of silver wire, of the exact size and shape of the glass, is next made, and across this is attached a sheet of fairly thick gold leaf. This is then embedded on lac and the pattern punched out and chased on the gold. The glass is then semi-fused, and while still hot the rim of silver and film of gold are slipped over the edge and pressed on to the surface of the glass. The article is again heated, until a sort of fusion takes place and the gold and glass become securely united. before mounting the article, a piece of silver tin-foil is placed underneath the glass to give it brilliancy”.

Inlay Work

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The origin of inlay work in India goes back to remote antiquity. There has been a wrong notion among the scholars that the inlay technique in India came from Damascus and hence, the name damascening. In fact, the origin of inlay work in Damascus appears to be quite late, not earlier than 13th century, as compared to its old Indian origin. The technology of a limited use of silver and copper inlay on bronze or brass objects in the Near East may indeed have migrated from the Abbasid heartlands during 11th-12th A.D. which, in its own turn, was influenced from Kashmir, a geographically much closer and adjoining region. The flowering of bronze casting technique in Kashmir is to be associated with the Karmotas, who assumed power in Kashmir sometime in 7th century A.D. The great Karmota king, Lalitaditya ruled over Kashmir in the first half of 8th century A.D. and it is possibly in his reign that the fine datable Buddhist images are largely found. Both silver and copper inlay was used, the silver mostly for the eyes and copper for the inlay of the garments. Buddhism appears to have continued in the eastern Iran and Afghanistan for a few centuries after the Islamic conquest and many such images must have been cast there during Islamic times also.

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The influence of Kashmir on inlay-work of the Near Eastern Islamic world during the early Islamic period therefore would be a more logical conclusion. Perhaps this tradition, rather than the Abbasid, was responsible for the introduction of small quantities of inlay into Samanid and Ghaznavid bronzes.

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The inlay of turquoise and copper for the eyes of lion-shaped incense burners, presently housed in the Louvre and Hermitage and signed by ’Al ibn Muhammad al-Taji are, indeed, reminiscent of the early Buddhist tradition. The pre-eminent tradition of the Samanid and Ghaznavid lands for the production of cast-bronze objects in a wide variety of shades would suggest that the thriving Buddhist tradition producing huge quantities of cast images in these lands prior to the advent of Islam might be responsible for the subsequent neighbouring Islamic tradition of inlay workmanship. It is only in the second half of the 12th and the beginning of 13th century that Khurasan and Herat in particular, produced inlaid bronzes and brasses of hitherto unparalleled splendour and intricacy. Here the quality of the casting and the sheet working is superb which would suggest a long-standing tradition in the past. The inlaid objects of brass and copper found from Iraq and Syria follow the Iranian tradition. Damascus followed the same tradition during the 13th century A.D. Hence, it will not be incorrect to suggest that the inlay technique in the Near East and the Arab world had reached from Kashmir which had an earlier tradition of bronze casting.

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Inlay is meant to fill the depression by use of silver or copper wire on the surface of another metal. In India, inlay has generally been practised on the finished objects of metal, stone and wood. The main purpose of inlaying was to beautify the surface of art objects, may it be ornaments, weaponry or wooden furnitures, and for delineating floral motifs, human and animal figures and abstract motifs and designs in contrasting colours.

Studding of Gems (Māṇikya-bandhan)

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India has a hoary tradition of fashioning precious and semi- precious stones. The discovery of crystal reliquaries from a number of Buddhist sites belonging to 3rd-2nd century B.C., are adequate proof to the technique of stone carving in India. The process of fashioning some precious and semi-precious stones to produce exquisite art forms is one of slow and patient abrading with the help of abrasives which are powdered out of harder stones. Thus, the term carving is erroneous, as the precious stones were never cut with steel. The abrasives used right from the ancient times are quartz, sand, crushed almandine, garnets, corundum, diamonds and, in modern times, Carborundum. Thus abrasives are prepared by pounding, grinding and sifting of raw materials and later on turned into paste ready to be applied. Tools are generally made of wood and metal. Amongst the tools commonly used by the craftsmen are the lap wheels and diamond drills of various sizes. The difference between the Chinese craftsmen and Indian artisans is that in China they used treadle lathe in place of the bow lathe which is still used in India by those craftsmen who have not succumbed to the electric motor. After fashioning the object in its desired shape, polishing was done to provide it with a glossy surface. The work of polishing was done mostly with the help of a stone, known as “Mohari”.

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After the completion of the enamelling, the hollow ornament is filled with shellac on which precious stones are set. The ornament was sent to a different craftsmen, Māṇikya-bandhaka or the Kundansāz, who used to set the precious stones over it. “The grooves are initially made for this setting in the form of an artistic scroll. A piece of thin silver sheet (dāk) alloyed with three ratis of pure gold to a tola, to prevent it from tarnishing, is cut to shape, made concave and then highly polished. This is then fixed in each groove to give lustre to the stone. Upon it is placed the stone and then it is set. In the case of coloured stones, if its colour is light, the dāk is tinted with transparent colour, or the back of the stone itself is given a tint called Joban. The purest gold leaf is employed for this setting, which is well pressed around the gems with a steel bit, forming an edge around them. The thinner this edge is, the better it looks. In ancient India, the precious stones were generally set in their original shape. However, if a spot was detected, the entire piece was covered with facets in order to hide the flaw. As it has been pointed out by a scholar, “upto 14th century, pierced stones cut on cabochon were the greatest fashion”. The gems were later set by the Kundansāz by using lac, tinsel or gold foil, prepared by the Bindligar. In fact, the Kundan is the ancient name given to the fine variety of purified gold, the foils of which were set at the base to hold the gem in its place firmly. Later, the work itself was known as *Kundan*- work. In ancient jewellery, sometimes the crystal is found encrusted in place of precious gems. With the advent of the British rule in India, the gems are set more with ‘open claw’ technique, which leaves the underside of a stone clear. The polishing was done keeping in view the original shapes and colour of the stone. The chased surface of the ornament was rubbed with agate to produce a smooth and glittering surface.

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