Pramāṇa · Search · About · API

Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c25: 17. Mining in Ancient India: Non-Ferrous Ores and other Minerals

Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c25

Language
English

Contents

17. Mining in Ancient India: Non-Ferrous Ores and other Minerals

v1.c25.2

In the previous chapters, we have referred to the various metallic and non-metallic artefacts in ancient India, most of which were indigenously produced, and many fabricated on the archaeological sites themselves. Whether raw materials were also locally available, is a matter of closer investigation. The issue of artefact — local ore correlation, which has been touched upon in the earlier chapter 10, is far from settled. Whereas the local slags, residues and the objects at different stages of manufacture are evidences of indigenous production, the issue of raw material can be settled only through mining archaeology.

v1.c25.3

The problem of ancient mining archaeology is indeed very complex for the following reasons. In the Pre-Historic Period, mining was done mostly on surface zones and placer deposits which were eventually consumed; even the residues on suspected depressions and open-cast mines (e.g. of iron ores) cannot be C-14 dated in the absence of datable biological samples.

v1.c25.4

Gradually, mankind learnt to follow the dip of the ore-body underground, and started digging or (underground) mining. Such ancient mines need not be ‘excavated’ any further, but merely explored. Datable antiquities in the debris of the ancient mine-shaft should be investigated. Mining archaeology of this type has barely begun in India.

v1.c25.5

Only a few metallic ore mines in India have been C-14 dated (vide Table 17.1). Unfortunately, many ancient mine-sites have been incorporated in the modern mines and thus lost for investigation. Biological residues were not preserved for C-14 dating, and thus such ancient workings remain undated. Several copper mines of this category are listed in Table 17.2. Numbers 34 and 35 yielded lead and silver; gold was extracted from No. 38.

v1.c25.6

Table 17.1

v1.c25.7

Some C-14 Dates Related to Metallic Ore Mines in Ancient India (Half Life of C-14 5730 years)

v1.c25.8

| Date | Site | Comments | Source |
| 1260 ± 160 BC | Rajpura-Dariba, Udaipur, Rajasthan | Sample PRL-208 (b) | Chakrabarti (1986:194) |
| 1130 BC | - do - | Silver-rich Pb-ore main Target around 100 m depth; also nearby Zn-Cu ore | Willies (1987:90) |
| 1050 ± 150 BC | - do - | South Lode 100 m timber support. Sample Aogeissus sp examined at NPL, Ahmedabad | Paliwal et al. |
| 760 ± 150 BC | Hatti, Karnataka | Gold field sample PRL-253 | Chakrabarti (1986:194) |
| 375 ± 85 BC | Rajpura-Dariba | Bamboo sample dated by Teledyne Isotope, U. S.A. East Lode 263 m timber support. Pb/Ag ore; also Cu-Zn | Paliwal et al. |
| 360 ± 105 BC | - do - | TF-117 sample; copper working depth 64 m, layer 436 | Agrawal and Kusumgar (1975) |
| 250 ± 100 BC | - do - | PRL-208 (a) East Lode 4-5 m Acacia sp wood sample. Extensive timber work on the east side for a length of 150m extending south-east corner | Chakrabarti (1986:194) PRL C-14 date list Paliwal et al., Willies (1987:92) |
| 120 BC ± 280 | Rajpura-Dariba | South Lode 100 m depth, rope. Dated by Teledyne | Paliwal et al. |
| AD 150 | Rajpura-Dariba | East lode 254 m. depth | Willies (1987:90;1989:32) |
| 370 BC | - do - | PRL-210 | Chakrabarti (1986:194) |
| 250 ± 60 BC | Rampura-Agucha | Pb-Zn mine. Primary target was argentiferous galena. | Willies (1987:92) |
| 430 ± 100 BC | - do - | - do - | Paliwal et al. |
| 380 ± 50 BC | Zawarmala, Rajasthan | Terminalia sp wood support from 30 m depth. BM 2356 sample | Paliwal et al. |
| 170 BC | Mochia mine, Zawar | PRL 932 sample. Zn-Pb ore mining | - do - |
| | Zawarmala | Terminalia sp sample BM 2381 Zn-Pb ore mining A sample from a set of steps | - do - Willies (1987:84) |

v1.c25.9

| Date | Site | Sample | Reference |
| 200 and 140 BC | - do - | 'Timber chamber' and burnt wood in 'Main Chamber' samples | Willies (1987:86) |
| 140 ± 60 BC | - do - | Timber from Scaffold BM 2148 | Paliwal et al. |
| AD 60 ± 50 | - do - | Timber from Launder BM 2149 | - do - |
| AD 1750 ± 60 | - do - | Zinc smelting site charcoal BM 2223 | - do - |
| AD 1810 ± 50 | - do - | Balaria mine timber BM 2338 | - do - |
| 140 BC ± 200 | Ambamata, Banaskantha, Gujarat | 12 m distance in No. 3 West drive. 65 m depth PRL-53. Copper-Lead-Zinc ore | Agrawal et al. (1976:135) Shekar (1983:178) |
| AD 1130 ± 100 | - do - | Wood sample from bore-hole A-100. PRL-66 | - do - |
| AD 30 ± 70 | Hatti, Karnataka | Site no. 1, Gold ore | Agrawal et al. (1975-76:139) |
| AD 110 ± 70 | - do - | Site no. 2, Gold ore | - do - |
| AD 170 ± 35 | Ingaldahal, Karnataka | Copper mine 30-40 m. depth Wood sample BM 2364 PRL-252 | - do - |
| AD 220 ± 110 | - do - | - do - | Chakrabarti (1986:194) |
| AD 475 ± 115 | Kolar, Karnataka | Sample TF 879. Champion reef 50 m depth, Gold ore. | Agrawal et al. (1975-76:139) |
| AD 685 ± 90 | - do - | Sample TF 1199. Superficial excavations. Gold ore | - do - |
| AD 1070 ± 80 | Bandlomattu Hill, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh | TF 805. Copper ore | Agrawal et al. (1976:135) |
| AD 1320 | Bandlomattu Hill, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh | TF 806 Copper ore | - do - |
| AD 1070 ± 85 | Kumbaria, Banaskantha, Gujarat | Charcoal, Dumps behind Jain temple TF 1222 Charcoal (A C-14) | - do - |
| AD 1440 ± 90 | - do - | TF-1221 Charcoal (A C-3) | - do - |
| AD 1440 ± 90 | Mailaram, Khammam, A.P. | TF 373. From a slag heap 1 m depth. Copper metal (?) | - do - |
| AD 1640 ± 80 | Kaladgi, Hassan, Karnataka | PRL-254. Copper mine | - do - |

v1.c25.10

Table 17.2

v1.c25.11

Some Undated Ancient Copper Mines and Workings in India

v1.c25.12

| Name and Location | Comments |
| RAJASTHAN | |
| 1. Ganeshwar area mines e.g. Chiplata, Baleshwar, Dariba etc. near Neem-Ka-Thana, Rajasthan. | Pre- and Mature-Harappan workings associated with Jodhpura OCP culture (2800-2500 BC) vide chapter 2 and fig. 17.2 |
| 2. Baleshwar, Jaipur Distt. 27°43' 43" N 75°57' E | A dozen narrow, deep circular shafts located along a band of hard, black quartzose schist. Large slag heaps |
| 3. Agar, Alwar Distt. 27°19' N, 76°12' E | Circular lined shafts 10-35 m depth. About 1 m ton slag assaying 4000 ppm copper |
| 4. Bairat, Alwar 27°26' N, 76°11' E | Old workings depth 35 m shafts extending 800 m in strike |
| 5. Baldeogarh, Alwar 27°08' N, 76°23' E | A number of old workings, 10 m. deep extending 300 m length. Large copper slag heap |
| 6. Dariba, Alwar 27°10' N, 76°23' 30" E | Old mines worked up to 75 m deep, extending 400 m Chalcopyrite, appreciable quantities of Ni and Co. Nearby river Sota named after blue cobalt sulphide mineral. |
| 7. Nalladeshwar, Alwar 27°15' N, 76°27' E | A large number of old copper workings with narrow, deep, well-lined shafts. Considerable amount of slag |
| 8. Mawaika Poora, Bharatpur 26°28' N, 77°34' E | Trenches 3.5-9 m wide, 12 m depth extending 400 m Slag heaps |
| 9. Bidasar, Bikaner 28°15' N, 72°55' E | Pyrite schist with chalcopyrite. Several slag heaps |
| 10. Bagor, Jhunjhunu, 27°58' 30" N, 75°46' 40" E | Old workings, central shaft of a once prosperous mine |
| 11. Ajitsagar, Jhunjhunu 27°59' N, 70°51' 15" E | Reported to be one of the largest mining centres in the past |
| 12. Akwali, Jhunjhunu 27°56' N, 75°45' E | A large number of big old mines |
| 13. Dhanaota, Jhunjhunu 27°44' 30" N, 75°29' 45" E | Old shafts up to 35 m in depth, in operation till the end of the 19th century. |
| 14. Nothoka, Sikar 27°49' N, 76°05' E | Old shallow shafts, old adit 30 m in length. |
| 15. Khetri Copper Belt, 80 km long extending from Singhana 28°06' N, 75°54' E in the NNE to Raghunathgarh 27°30' N, 75°21' E in the SW | Reports of copper being mined in the Khetri area during the Maurya period (4th/3rd century BC). Old mines resemble 'rat holes' with tortuous narrow drifts. Many pits or depressions now filled. 5-6 m tonnes mined in the |

v1.c25.13

Madhan-Kudhan, Kolihan, Babai areas during the period AD 1590-1895. Singhana village has 0.7 m ton slag assaying 0.3-0.5 per cent Cu.

v1.c25.14

Waterlogged multi-metal load. Earliest C-14 dating, see Table 17.1. Copper as well as Lead, Silver and Zinc ore.

v1.c25.15

Extensive old working for copper have been reported to be present along the hill tops.

v1.c25.16

Near Delwara, ancient copper mining at Vilota and mining and smelting at Piplia, Delwara and Kotri (deepest opening 125 ft deep), slag heaps

v1.c25.17

Old copper working at Velvi, a village near Lassadia. Smelting but no mining at Ahar and Bansda.

v1.c25.18

One of the most reputed localities for ancient copper mining. Of the four old workings, the Raja's mine used to have a peak production of 300 kg ore, bearing 25 per cent copper, per day.

v1.c25.19

Extensively mined in the past. Several old adits here and in the neighbouring Dobri mine

v1.c25.20

Slag heaps near the village assaying 1.65 per cent copper.

v1.c25.21

Three old adits, one driven by Wilkon during 1905-10 yielded fairly rich ore.

v1.c25.22

An old mine exists. Copper slag is found all around the village.

v1.c25.23

A number of old copper workings. Quartz, malachite, dolomite rejects in dumps around the old workings.

v1.c25.24

A line of old copper workings down to 50 m and extending for about 122 meters. Chalcopyrite chalcocite and native copper ore. Mining and by smelting seraks or lay Jains 2000 years ago up to 3rd-6th century AD. Later Kuṣāṇa type copper coins. Also gold from sand of Subarnarekha river. Suvarṇa= gold.

v1.c25.25

16. Dariba, Udaipur 24°57' N, 74°10' E

v1.c25.26

17. Chanpura near Rakhabdeo, Udaipur, 24°05' N, 73°40' E

v1.c25.27

18. Delwara-Keroli area 18-24 miles NNE of Udaipur

v1.c25.28

19. Lassadia area 50 miles SE of Udaipur

Uttar Pradesh

v1.c25.t1.1

20. Pokhri, Chamoli district, 30°21' N, 79°12' E

v1.c25.t1.2

21. Dhanpur, Chamoli 30°13' N, 79°06' E

v1.c25.t1.3

22. Dandhakhan, Chamoli 30°13' N, 79°10' E

v1.c25.t1.4

23. Chamethi, Chamoli 30°23' N, 79°11' E

v1.c25.t1.5

24. Bafila, Almora dist. 29°54' N, 79°58' E

v1.c25.t1.6

25. Thela, Almora 29°4' 30" N, 79°47' 00"E

Bihar

v1.c25.t2.1

26. Rakha Mines, Singhbhum district, 22°38' N, 86°22' E

v1.c25.t2.2

| Name and Location | Comments |
| 27. Mosabani, Singhbhum 22°29' N to 22°31' N, 86°28' E | Old workings in this area are among the largest met within the belt and stretch between Mosabani and Badia. 60 ft depth, 4 ft wide. 5-6 diam old rotten timber found by Dunn (1937) — not C-14 dated. |
| 28. Garadi, Singhbhum 22°43' N, 86°14' E | An old circular shaft and a furnace. |
| 29. Dhobani, Singhbhum 22°31' N, 86°26' 30" E | A number of large old workings, some 30 m wide and up to 12 m deep |
| 30. Rajdah, Singhbhum 22°41' N, 86°17' E | Number of old workings for copper, a few of them fairly deep |
| 31. Ramchandra Pahar, Singhbhum, 22°43' N, 86°12' 30" E | Plenty of old workings in chloritic schists |
| 32. Bāragandā (12x4= 48 pits), Hazaribagh, 24°05' N, 86°03' 30" E | Extensive old workings extending over a length of 1200 metres, width 4m Copper 1.5 per cent. Number of slag heaps. Ancient mining was contemporaneous with that in Singhbhum copper belt. |
| GUJARAT | |
| 33. Rupavati mine in Kaṭhiāwār | Native copper or oxide minerals of copper might have been used in 1800 BC. site of Rangpur. |
| ANDHRA PRADESH | |
| 34. Agnigundala, Guntur, A.P., 16°11' N, 79°44' 30" E | Long open trenches linear belt of 2 miles, open cast mining, reached a depth of 100 ft.. All phases from mining to crushing and smelting. Smelting of copper as well as lead and silver. Nearby Bandlomattu mine C-14 dated AD 1070-1320. |
| 35. Gavulabhavi, Cuddapah, A.P. | Lead deposit, linear pits and trenches, shafts and inclines. Surface diggings 280 m along the strike. Underground mine 100 m length, maximum depth 50 m. |
| KARNATAKA | |
| 36. Kalyadi, Hassan district, 17 km. from Arsikere, 13°18' N, 76°05' E | 5th-3rd century BC megalith settlement mine. One vertical shaft depth of 6 m. After reaching 20 m, the trenches seem to have spread out horizontally as open trenches. Mining, crushing, washing and smelting done for copper ore. |
| 37. Kallur | Indication of copper-smelting around 1200-1000 BC. |
| 38. Wynad, Tamil Nadu | Gold field, Vertical shafts, sometimes 70 ft deep. |

v1.c25.t2.3

Circumstantial evidences suggest that Rajasthan provided the earliest copper ores to Chalcolithic India (fig. 17.1 and Tables 17.1-17.2). This area sustained the Pre-, Mature- and Post-Harappan chalcolithic cultures of the North-Western India over a considerable period of centuries. As we have discussed in chapter 2, the Pre-Harappan Jodhpura OCP Culture received copper ores and artefacts from the mines around Ganeshwar area (fig. 17.2). R.C. Agrawala *et al.* (1982, 1984) have explained the strategic positions of the mines of Chiplata, Baleshwar, Dariba (the word means copper mine — so many Dariba’s in Rajasthan!) etc. around the Ganeshwar hilly area in which originated the navigable rivers of Sabi, Sota, Kasaunti, Dohan, Kantli etc. These rivers are dotted with ancient mines and might have carried the end-products and ingots to the Harappan sites of the Sarasvati and the Indus river system.

v1.c25.t2.4

After the decline of the Harappan civilization, the traditions moved eastward (where there were not too many mineral deposits) and southward across Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. The Southern Rajasthan site of Chalcolithic Ahar (discussed in chapter 7) thrived on the neighbouring mines, and served successive civilizations at Lothal (chapter 6), Atrañjikhera (chapter 11) etc.

v1.c25.t2.5

Muzumdar and Rajaguru surveyed the ancient copper workings around the site of Ahar close to Udaipur. The following copper-bearing areas were studied:

v1.c25.t2.6

(a) 18-24 miles NNE of Udaipur — villages near Delwara. About 17 old openings were found near Kotri, Vilota and Delwara; 25 old openings near Keroli-Piplia area. The deepest opening (125 ft deep) was near Kotri. Vilota showed mining activity only but no smelting, whereas Kotli, Piplia and Delwara showed both mining and smelting; large heaps of slag were found in these areas. Rejected malachite-stained quartz pieces showed that very careful selective mining was done.

v1.c25.t2.7

(b) 50 miles SE of Udaipur — one old copper working at Velvi, a village near Lassadia. It seems that there was mining activity alone and no smelting.

v1.c25.t2.8

(c) 31 miles East of Udaipur — a large quantity of scattered copper slag pieces was seen but no old copper working. This Bansda, Bhinder area, like the Ahar site itself, was basically a smelting site depending on copper ores from the neighbouring areas.

v1.c25.t2.9

Apart from clay retorts, crucibles etc., many slag pieces were found which could be classified as

v1.c25.t2.10

(i) Heavy and massive type containing more iron, some copper, and silicates.

v1.c25.t2.11

[Figure: RAJASTHAN Miles 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 50 0 50 100 150 km H A R Y A N A PUNJAB Harappa GANGANAGAR Kalibangan Siswal Mitathal DELHI Sothi Bhadra Rewari Sabaniya Pugal JHUNJHUNU CHURU BIKANER SIKAR Khetri Bairath Ganeswar Jodhpur NAGAPUR Kurada JAISALMER JODHPUR PALI Elana JALOR SIROHI U.P. ALWAR JAIPUR Noh BHARATPUR Nandlalpura Kotamohan SAWAMADHOPUR Pushkar AJMER TONK Ekalsingha Bāgor BHILWARA BUNDI KOTA CHITTORGARH Giland Ahar Padolya UDAIPUR Jhāpal DUNGARPUR BANSWARA G U J A R A T AHMEDABAD Surkotdo Lothal Desolpur Kot-Diji P A K I S T A N ▲ Ancient cities ● Modern cities ▲ Copper Hoard Fig. 17.1: Proto-historic Copper Sites in Rajasthan, second and third millennia BC.]

v1.c25.t2.12

Fig. 17.2: Jodhapura OCP and Ganeshwar Copper Culture Sites in Rajasthan.

v1.c25.t2.13

(ii) lighter type with less iron
(iii) glassy froth type as found 40 ft below in Ahar excavations.
(iv) pieces fused with burnt clay or sand.

v1.c25.t2.14

The mineralization in the Udaipur area shows apart from copper, also some lead, zinc, cadmium, silver etc. The glassy froth type of slag could be the residue after recovery of lead and silver. One copper artefact from Lothal (chapter 6) and another from Atrañjikhera (chapter 11) contained zinc; these could have been derived from the ore from the Udaipur area. It has been recorded that Ahar copper artefacts (chapter 7) contained as much as 1.62-1.64 per cent lead. We would mention about the Lead-Silver-Zinc ore ancient mines in Rajasthan and Gujarat separately later.

v1.c25.t2.15

D.P. Agrawal et al. (1976) provided some C-14 dates of ancient copper working in India which we have included in our Table 17.1. Rajpura-Dariba near Udaipur provides the earliest C-14 dated mine: 1260 ± 160 BC. The ore-body having Cu-Zn as well as Pb-Ag ore lenses was exploited till 1000 BC. It has not been possible to pin-point the mining areas which supplied copper to the Chalcolithic Cultures in the in the Peninsular (chapter 8) and Eastern (chapter 9) regions.

v1.c25.t2.16

Large scale mining was resumed around 400 BC as evident from Kautilya's Arthaśāstra (vide Vol. II, chapter 5), and continued through the Maurya, Śuṅga and Kuṣāṇa eras up to the second century AD. Rajpura-Dariba was again exploited for five centuries (375 BC to AD 110), if not longer, Rampura-Agucha for at least two centuries (370-250 BC) and Zawar Mines for at least five centuries. (430 BC to 60 AD and so on) (Table 17.1)

v1.c25.t2.17

Archaeological evidence suggests that there were a number of prosperous towns flourishing in Rajasthan during the Historical Period (400 BC-AD 400) close to the copper mining areas. Some of the important ones among them include Nagari near Chittorgarh, Nagar near Tonk, Pushkar near Ajmer, Bairat, Rairh and Sambhar near Jaipur. Nineteen ancient mine sites in Rajasthan, unfortunately undated, are listed in Table 17.2.

v1.c25.t2.18

The C-14 dates show that the Ambamata, Gujarat mine (140 BC) was exploited during the Śuṅga period for copper, lead and zinc ores and the Ingaldahal, Karnataka copper mine utilised for the periods AD 170-220, if not also earlier. Kalyadi and Kallur in Karnataka can claim great antiquity in copper mining.

v1.c25.t2.19

According to V. Ball (1881), the Seraks or lay Jains initiated copper mining in the Singhbhum and Hazārībāgh districts during the Historical Period, and the tradition persisted till the sixth century AD (vide Table 17.2). Late Kuṣāṇa type copper coins have been found in the Rakha Mine (No. 26). The Chamoli and Almora district (Uttar Pradesh) mines and the Kulu, Himachal Pradesh mines were also active during the sixth century AD and later periods. In the ninth century AD, the copper mines of Nepal became famous, and the product naipālī copper received eminence.

v1.c25.t2.20

The C-14 dates of 1070-1440 AD (Table 17.1) show the activities of the copper-lead-zinc producing mines of Bandlomattu-Agnigundala area in Andhra Pradesh, Ambaji and Kumbaria in Gujarat and Deri mine in Rajasthan.

v1.c25.t2.21

At Agnigundala, the old workings are spread over a linear belt of more than two miles and there were rock dumps, ore dumps, pounding stones, washing tanks, tailing dumps, smelting furnaces, crucibles or cupolas and evidences for excavation of copper and lead. (Ziauddin, 1961)

v1.c25.t2.22

In the Ambaji and Kumbaria (24°19-20' N, 72°51' E) areas of Gujarat and Deri (24°23' N, 72°50' E) area of Rajasthan, the mining and metallurgy of copper, and possibly also of lead, zinc, gold and silver, commenced in the second century BC. Evidences for the continuity of the activities during Kṣatrapa period of second to fourth century AD, and again intermittently from early eleventh century AD, corresponding to Solanki period in the earliest part, are also available. (Shekar, 1983)

v1.c25.t2.23

The present village of Kumbaria was formerly known as Arasan, derived from Ar or metal. In the book *Sri Arasan Tirth* by Vishal Vijayji (1961) is described how ‘the treasure of metals near Arasan’ was utilised by the Solanki dynasty and subsequent rulers (1030-1619 AD), and the wealth used in constructing a series of temples at Kumbaria, Delwara etc. (Shekar, 1983: 181-82).

v1.c25.t2.24

The developments in India beyond 1200 AD are beyond the scope of this review, but it may be recorded that according to *Āin-i-Akbarī*, the Khetri mining area was developed and exploited during Akbar’s time (*vide* item 15, Table 17.2 and Raghunandan, 1981 and 1988). The Table 17.2 lists several copper mines in different states, which are unfortunately undated; we do not know for sure, whether mining was initiated in these before or after AD 1200.

Gold Ore in Ancient India

v1.c25.s1.1

In the Harappan civilization, we come across not only copper but also a few other metals such as gold, tin, lead and silver.

v1.c25.s1.2

Gold has been used extensively for making ornaments in the Harappan culture. The gold used is rather pale in colour and it has been suggested that quite often it was used as electrum (mixture of gold and silver). Considering that gold from the Kolar and Hatti gold mines is also of light colour (electrum), it is justifiable to infer that surface collection of gold nuggets had started by the Harappan period. The Vedic literature refers to the light colour alloy, *rajata-hiranyam*. Clustering of the neolithic sites around gold mining areas, and recovery of gold ornaments from Tekkalkota (ear-rings) and Dāimābād confirm that the exploitation of these gold mines was continued, even after the Harappan period.

v1.c25.s1.3

Most of India's present gold output is from the quartz veins or reefs of Kolar mine. This tradition started in the first millennium BC. At Hatti, Karnataka, a narrow reef had been worked by the ancients to a length of some 1500 m and to a depth of 190 m by fire-setting alone. (Allchin, 1962) The PRL-253 sample from Hatti has been C-14 dated as 760 ± 150 BC. (It may be noted that around 1015 BC, King Solomon brought from India ‘gold, silver, ivory, apes and peacocks’). Various contrivances such as iron gauges, crucibles, stone crushers and windlashes appear to have been used as equipments to recover gold from the reefs; at times, amalgamation was also resorted to.

v1.c25.s1.4

During the pre-Christian era, Hatti and Maski in the Raichur doab were the main gold-workings. The neolithic sites of Piklihal, Kotekal, Maski etc. cluster around the Maski gold field on which we find Aśoka’s Minor Rock Edicts (three out of five rock edicts; the other two are on the neighbouring diamond fields of Yerragudi and Pattikonda). The Maurya association with Karnataka was evidently related to the royal demands of gold, diamond and gems.

v1.c25.s1.5

Hatti continued to yield gold in the post-Christian eras, and we have C-14 dates of AD 30 and AD 110 in Oakley’s 80 m depth shaft (*vide*, Agrawal, D.P. *et al.*, 1975-76: 139 and Table 17.1). The first C-14 dates for the famous gold field of Kolar have been obtained by D.P. Agrawal (1975-76). Champion reef at 50 m depth in Kolar was reached at AD 475 (Gupta Period) if not earlier. A later date of AD 685 in superficial layer suggests difficulty with the hard rock retreat mining.

v1.c25.s1.6

Active mining for reef gold went on in many gold fields of South India, such as Bellara, Kabligatti, Wynad and elsewhere. The famous inscription on the Tanjore temple shows that during the eleventh century AD gold (and not silver) was the most common precious metal in India. The metal was obtained from the mines by the eleventh-thirteenth century AD kings of South India, the Vijaynagara kings (1336-1560), and later by Ṭipū Sultān. Ball (1881: 182-83) described Wynad gold mine:

v1.c25.s1.7

The most remarkable are the vertical shafts, even in solid quartz, sometimes 70 ft deep, with smooth and quite plumb sides.... Stone were pounded with hand-mullers, and the pounded stone washed

v1.c25.s1.8

in a wooden dish and treated with mercury.

Gold in Alluvial Washings

v1.c25.s1.t1.1

Gold occurs as ‘placer’ metal (alluvial or detrital) in the auriferous sands and gravels of a large number of rivers which pass over auriferous rocks. This must have been a major source of gold in ancient India. The rivers of Panjab, Madhya Pradesh, Maharasthra, Bihar etc. yielded gold from the immemorable past to the recent times. We present below a summary prepared from Ball’s observations (1880) on gold in ancient India.

v1.c25.s1.t1.2

Eastwick (quoted by Ball) estimated in his book ‘Gold in India’ that Solomon received in 1015 BC, gold from Ophir in Malabar country. In the enumeration of nations and tribes which paid tribute to the Persian monarch, Darius (522-486 BC), “the Indians alone, we are told, paid in gold, all the others paying in silver”. The amount of the gold was 360 Euboeic talents. We have discussed in our chapter 15 the myth of ‘gold-digging ants as big as griffins’, first propagated by Herodotus, and explained that the Dardic people in Northern Kashmir and the Tibetans used to dig gold-mines during winter and under secrecy, surrounded by ferocious dogs. During Alexander’s time, Sopheithes (Saubhūti), the king around Jhelum possessed gold/silver deposits. Several centuries later, Pliny wrote: ‘Gold is very abundant among the Dardae (Dardic people in Kashmir)’.

v1.c25.s1.t1.3

Ball emphasized (1880: 225-26):

v1.c25.s1.t1.4

Evidence exists of the most conclusive kind of large quantities of gold having been amassed by Indian monarchs, who accepted a revenue in gold dust only, from certain sections of their subjects, who were consequently compelled to spend several months of every year washing for it in the rivers.

v1.c25.s1.t1.5

Even during the last (19th) century, the European geologists could observe and record some of the traditional gold-washing practices in India such as in Manipur (1832, *JASB*, p. 148), Gomti river (1835, *JASB*, pp. 279-82), Assam (1838, *JASB*, pp. 625-28), the river Vipāsā in Panjab (1847) etc. In the last-mentioned paper, J. Abbott described (*Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal*, Vol. 16, 1847, pp. 266-68) how gold was being extracted from the quartz-hornblende bearing granite and gneiss rocks pounded by the boulders in the mountainous stream of Vipāsā, where the rivulet Chukki joined the river. The attrition-product, ‘literally dust’, was sieved and elutriated to obtain the ‘black sand’ containing gold. In half an hour, nine men were producing about two pounds of very fine and sparkling black sand. Then the material was amalgamated, and the amalgam put upon a piece of ignited cowdung, when ‘mercury flew leaving the yellow gold’. This process might have been used in India for centuries. A bibliography on gold in India (*Indian Minerals*, volume 25, 1971, pp. 82-92; 170 references) contains many references to the nineteenth century observations on traditional gold washing and smelting in India.

Tin Ore in Ancient India

v1.c25.s2.1

The chalcolithic cultures in the Indus Valley and Post-Harappan sites of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Peninsular and Eastern India produced bronze objects containing tin, the source of which has not been precisely determined. We have quoted Chakrabarti (1979) in our chapter 15 and pointed out that tin ore could have been imported from the well-known mines of Afghanistan and Iran during the Harappan era, and again later during the prosperity of Taxila. During the post-Christian era, considerable amount of tin ore or metal could have been imported from South-East Asian countries such as Malaysia.

v1.c25.s2.2

Some tin ore was probably mined indigenously. Brown and Dey (1955: 167-68) and Krishnaswamy (1972: 346-49) indicated the existence of tin ore deposits in certain areas of Rajasthan, Karnataka and Bihar, which are in the neighbourhood of the archaeological sites yielding ancient tin-bronze objects. There was some tin ore in the Bhilwara and Udaipur districts. Colonel Tod had mentioned about such tin mines (*Annals of Rajasthan*, Vol. 1, p. 504) earning lot of revenue for the State of Udaipur, but Ball disbelieved the account, and thought that the metal alluded to zinc and not tin. In any case, existence of some tin ore in the area is not disputed.

v1.c25.s2.3

In Hazaribagh district, Bihar, the tin ore is found at Simritari, Pihra, Chappatand and Nurungo. In 1849, tin ore was actually being smelted at Purgo, near Parasnath. (Brown and Dey, 1955: 167) In Ranchi district, the deposits are found at Jonha, Silli and Paharsingh, and in Gayā district at Dhakanahwa and Dhanras. In Karnataka, small cassiterite deposits are reported to be present in the alluvia of the streams flowing from the northern part of the Kapatgod Hills, near Dambal in Dharwar district.

v1.c25.s2.4

Cassiterite is often found in the form of water-concentrated placer deposits, referred to as ‘stream tin’. Tylecote (1962: 63) suggested that the ancient metallurgists might have exploited (and exhausted) placer deposits of ‘stream tin’ rather than vein deposits which are hard to mine. Such surface accumulations in the proximity of the Aravalli and Chota Nagpur Hills might have been, according to Hegde, one of the sources of tin in ancient India.

Argentiferous Lead Ores in Ancient India

v1.c25.s3.1

In the earlier chapters we have reported the lead-and silver-bearing artefacts in ancient India. These metals were known even in the Pre-Harappan sites of Southern Baluchistan (*vide* chapter 2). The Harappans were acquainted with lead ores such as galena (sulphide) and cerussite (carbonate), and their smelting process which is simple on account of easy reducibility and low melting point of the metal. At Mohenjo-Daro, six per cent of the tools contained lead (assaying 1-32 per cent).

v1.c25.s3.2

Though Harappan gold contained some silver (electrum), the silver samples, more prolific than gold (D.P. Agrawal, 1984: 163), contained no gold but some lead and copper (*vide* Table 17.3). This means that silver was probably obtained from argentiferous galena rather than electrum. (Bhardwaj, 1979: 138) Forbes (1964: 175-232) concluded that the Pattinson Process (crystallization of lead from melt, leaving silver-rich residue)-cum-cupellation (oxidation of impurities in silver by hot air) route had been invented in the third millennium BC. This must have been followed to make Harappan silver, the starting raw material being argentiferous lead ore from Fāranjāl mine, Afghanistan or the Ajmer mine in Rajasthan.

v1.c25.s3.3

Table 17.3

v1.c25.s3.4

Per cent Composition of Some Ancient Objects Containing Silver

v1.c25.s3.5

| No. | Item | Ag | Pb | Cu | Au | Fe | Ni | S |
| 1. | Silver, Mohenjo-Daro | 94.52 | 0.42 | 3.68 | — | — | — | — |
| 2. | — do — | 95.52 | 1.40 | 3.08 | — | — | — | — |
| 3. | Lead, Mohenjo-Daro | trace | 99.70 | 0.15 | — | — | — | — |
| 4. | Silver, Gungeria | 96.30 | — | — | 3.70 | — | — | — |
| 5. | Punch-marked coin, Taxila | 84.14 | 0.15 | 13.01 | — | 0.15 | trace | 0.20 |
| 6. | — do — | 74.87 | 0.10 | 22.40 | — | 0.08 | trace | 0.10 |
| 7. | — do — | 72.08 | 0.23 | 25.16 | — | 0.20 | 0.15 | trace |
| 8. | — do — | 78.40 | 0.40 | 20.12 | — | 0.06 | 0.20 | trace |

v1.c25.s3.6

After the collapse of the Harappan civilization, the Post-Harappan sites continued to show lead but no silver in the artefacts. The 102 pieces of silver plates discovered with 424 copper implements at Gungeria, in district Balaghat (1100 BC-800 BC Pre-PGW level), assayed 3.7 per cent gold but did not contain any lead (Table 17.3). This suggests that silver might have been prepared from the South Indian electrum by chlorination with common salt or sulphidisation, and then cupellation of the silver chloride or sulphide.

v1.c25.s3.7

The punch-marked silver coins of Taxila again report lead, and also very significantly sulphur (Table 17.3), conclusively proving argentiferous galena to be the source of silver metal in the coins. Copper must have been added (13-25%) to debase the coins. The items 5 and 6 in Table 17.3 clearly show positive correlations between Ag, Pb and S and negative correlation between the three elements on the one hand and Cu on the other, indicating the extraneous nature of copper separately added to the silver matrix.

Ancient Lead-Silver-Zinc Mines in Rajasthan

v1.c25.s4.1

During 1982-89, a spectacular series of discovery was made in the field of mining archaeology in India by K.T.M. Hegde of Baroda University in collaboration with Hindustan Zinc Limited, Udaipur and his British colleagues such as P.T. Craddock of the British Museum and Lynn Willies of the Peak District Mining Museum. (Willies et al., 1984, 1987, 1989) Their findings about the ancient Zinc mine in Zawar would be presented in the next chapter. We may summarise their observations on the following ancient mines: (a) Rajpura-Dariba, (b) Rampura-Agucha, and (c) Zawar, related to the lead-silver ore, in this chapter.

v1.c25.s4.2

Rajpura-Dariba is about 80 km north-east of Udaipur (vide fig. 17.3a). Metamorphic calc-silicate rocks derived from mineralised sandy-dolomite rocks of Pre-Cambrian age from conspicuous ridges in this area, with the plain formed form thicker and weathered graphite schist. Ancient workings have been found in the South Lode (100 m depth; C-14 dated 1260-1050 BC, vide Table 17.1), North Lode, and East Lode (263 m depth, 375 BC onwards), now a depression filled with water and flanked by extensive waste heaps.

v1.c25.s4.3

The objective in the North Lode (fig. 17.3b) was mainly silver-rich anglesite and cerussite ore, though some copper ore might have been also mined. Both opencast and underground methods are apparent. The earliest working appears to be marked by narrow shafts sunk in pairs, often at intervals of only a few metres. There are evidences of the applications of stone maul, crushing stone and selective mining.

v1.c25.s4.4

In the South Lode (fig. 17.3b) firesetting used to be done using a timber platform at a depth of 100 m. The earliest C-14 dates of the timber (Table 17.1) conclusively prove that underground mining started in India in the thirteenth century BC, if not earlier. The dam and ladder provide clear evidences of the system of water removal. Remains of woven baskets (to carry up the broken ore) and of ropes about 2.5 cm diameter have been found in the workings.

v1.c25.s4.5

The East Lode (fig. 17.3b) has been almost quarried at the outcrop, the opencast now being a lake of several hectares. The water level was never more than a few metres below surface; this was lifted as a rare gift for agriculture in the neighbouring drought-stricken lands. The East Lode is characterised by extensive timberwork of 16 m height and for a length of at least 150 m, C-14 dated 375 BC to AD 110 (vide Table 17.1 showing one 120 BC date for the South Lode also), indicating five centuries of mining in this area reaching a depth of 263 m. At the north end of the pit, there are nine large mortar holes in the quartzitic rock, each about 30 cm across and up to twice as deep, with rounded bottoms. These were undoubtedly worked as stamps for the ore. The pea- to sand-sized product was found scattered in the adjoining area.

v1.c25.s4.6

Rajpura-Dariba showed enormous quantities of 20-30 m high mine debris and two vast heaps of glassy slag with average depths of 4-5 m and covering areas 500 m x 200 m and 650 m x 350 m (the slag volume measures up to more than one million cubic metre!). A piece of lead metal recovered from the slag dump was analysed and found to contain 97.5 per cent lead and 150 ppm silver. The evidences show ‘the gregarious nature of working’ of the Lead-Silver ore in the area during the successive Pre-Maurya, Maurya, Śuṅga and Kuṣāṇa periods of the Indian history. Copper-zinc ore was also noted in Rajpura-Dariba, suggesting the possibility of local production of brass in this area. (Paliwal *et al.*)

Rampura-Agucha Mines

v1.c25.s4.t1.1

Agucha village 25°50 'N 74°44 '15" E) is located 15 km south-east of the industrial town of Gulabpura. This is about 240 km from Udaipur, and near Bhilwara and Ajmer (fig. 17.3 a). A major zinc-lead deposit (assaying 12 per cent and 2 per cent in the said metals respectively) has been discovered in this area recently, but the ancient mining was done on the Rampura-Agucha deposit located 1.5 km north-east of the Agucha village.

v1.c25.s4.t1.2

Excavation by Willies *et al.* (1984, 1987, 1989) showed the clear base of a gossan at about 15 m depth from which marmatite, pyrite and sphalerite (ZnS) were selectively oxidised and leached, leaving galena-cerussite-anglesite ore body enriched in terms of silver. The very soft weathered gneiss could be easily cut by wedged-end chisels rather than gads. (Willies, 1987: 94) The timbers from Fig. 17.3: (a) Lead-Zinc ore mining areas in Rajasthan; (b) Ancient mine workings at Rajpura-Dariba.

v1.c25.s4.t1.3

3(a) STATE OF RAJASTHAN Jodhpur Ajmer Jaipur RAMPURA AGUCHA RAJPURA DARIBA Udaipur ZAWAR AMBAJI Devnimori Kota Ratlam 0 km 80 LW 1987

v1.c25.s4.t1.4

3(b) 1200 1100 1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 NORTH LODE Area Surveyed 300m Opencast beneficiation Opencast ancient beneficiation Main Shaft Modern Beneficiation Plant SOUTH LODE Modern Inclines slag waste from surface working waste from underground 521m 518m Cu + Pb slag Temple water in opencast revetment waste from opencast EAST LODE shaft Ancient Mine Workings at Rajpura-Dariba

v1.c25.s4.t1.5

the 30 m depth level have been C-14 dated as 370 and 250 BC (Table 17.1). Several carbonized woven baskets were found at the bottom of the pit. A substantial portion of the ancient working, so far revealed, is open-cast mine. Some of the water-logged bore-holes have been converted to well for irrigation.

v1.c25.s4.t1.6

Tiwari *et al.* (1984: 85) drew attention to the depths of 80-125 m in some places of the mine and to the striking evidences for selective mining. The deposit was worked towards its narrow northern extremity, and also at preferential locations in the south, following lead mineralisation and pure galena veins in preference to the zinc ore veins.

v1.c25.s4.t1.7

Tiwari *et al.* also pointed out the existence of huge slag dumps of 0.3-0.4 m. height occupying an area of 70,000 sq m. The analyses of four composite slag samples are provided in Table 17.4.

v1.c25.s4.t1.8

The petrographic thin sections of slag sample (such as No. 1) indicate the presence of quartz and feldspar grains which have not undergone much change, and thus suggest incomplete and low temperature smelting. Lead smelts at 327°C, and the simple smelting operation, as noticed and recorded by Dixon (1831) at Ajmer, might have been operational in the earlier centuries. The analysis of the slag sample No. 1 also reveals unrecovered lead as well as zinc. Probably silver was the main target of the smelting operation.

v1.c25.s4.t1.9

Table 17.4

v1.c25.s4.t1.10

Elemental Percentages in Rampura-Agucha Slag

v1.c25.s4.t1.11

| No. | Description | Lead | Zinc | Iron | Copper | Silver (ppm) |
| 1. | Composite sample from main ‘slag-spread’ | 4.20 | 2.80 | 8.30 | 0.10 | 28 |
| 2. | Same as above, but with ‘tarnished shades’ | 1.60 | 0.16 | 6.80 | 0.01 | 22 |
| 3. | Composite sample from the mounds | 1.90 | 0.87 | 4.70 | 0.01 | 25 |
| 4. | Slag attached to the earthen appliance used for smelting | 9.30 | 0.01 | 4.60 | 0.002 | 10 |

v1.c25.s4.t1.12

Discussing Pliny’s remark about ‘the Indian silver among the Setae’, Ball (1880: 231) commented that the galena deposits in Taragarh hill, Ajmer, Jodawas in Alwar and the Zawar Mines at Udaipur might contain some silver, “but, so far as I (he) could ascertain, there is no record of the mines having produced silver”.

v1.c25.s4.t1.13

The present data strongly suggest that silver was recovered from the extracted lead by the cupellation process. The slag dump area showed several retort-like pieces, which are cylindrical, approximately 20 cm long with walls about 4-5 cm thick and an innermost pipe like feature with a coating of dirty white material, mainly zinc sulphate. The used retorts had closed pointed ends. (Paliwal *et al.*) The analysis of slag sample No. 4 (Table 17.4), attached to the baked earthen appliance or cylindrical retort, assayed 0.01 per cent zinc and as high as 9.30 per cent lead. Considering the fact that the ore-body assays 12 per cent zinc and 2-3 per cent lead, Paliwal *et al.* rightly commented that an appreciable amount of zinc might have been obtained by smelting using the retorts and following the process better developed at the Zawar Mines.

v1.c25.s4.t1.14

There is no historical account of the ancient mining in this area, but there are three archaeological mounds: Rampura, Gardar-ka-Bagh and Agucha, the last one being the biggest and studied in detail by Nagarch and Trivedi (1981). The Agucha mound shows three distinct periods of occupation: I. Early Historical or Pre-Maurya Period with PGW/NBPW potteries, punch-marked coins, terracotta Mother Goddess, iron slag etc. II. Śuṅga and Kuṣāṇa period brick structure and III. Gupta Period artefacts. The slag pieces obtained from the mound (No. 3 in Table 17.4) assay quite similar to the slag spread near the mining area (Nos. 1 and 2). These data together with the C-14 date of 370 BC for the timber in the neighbouring mine clearly connect the antiquity of lead-zinc-silver mining in the area to the fourth century BC.

Pre-Mauryan era Lead Slag at Zawar Mines

v1.c25.s4.t2.1

The third mine-system investigated by Willies *et al.* is the Zawar Mines, 30 km south-west of Udaipur (*fig.* 17.3 a). The host rock at Zawar is a metamorphosed sheared dolomite, hard and compact, which, except within the weathered zone, had mainly been worked by firesetting. There was evidence of retreat working of the pillars. Dumping of waste was done systematically. The C-14 dates of the timber samples show that the Zawar Mala and Zawar & Mochia mines were active during 430-380 BC period and again during 200 BC-AD 60 period. There are also evidences for the mine being active in the seventh century AD and later for medieval period thirteenth-eighteenth century AD.

v1.c25.s4.t2.2

Zawar Mine area exhibits wide-ranging evidences for ancient mining and smelting of zinc ore, which we would present and discuss in the next chapter. Zawar has also yielded considerable evidence for the smelting of lead, in the form of at least sixteen deposits of slag, distributed along 13 km of the valley of the River Tiri, the main water course in the area. These slag deposits, containing several pieces of lead metal as smelting residues, are of two types: (a) glassy and (b) crystalline. Analyses are provided in Table 17.5.

v1.c25.s4.t2.3

Analysis of Crystalline and Glassy Lead Slags at Zawar Mine, Rajasthan

v1.c25.s4.t2.4

| Sample No. | Pb (%) | Zn (%) | Fe (%) | Ag (ppm) | Site | Morphology |
| 1 | 5.25 | 0.72 | 32.0 | 31 | 5 | Crystalline |
| 2 | 2.21 | 1.80 | 18.5 | 10 | 5 | Crystalline |
| 3 | 2.57 | 2.41 | 21.0 | 12 | 5 | Crystalline |
| 4 | 2.30 | 2.72 | 25.1 | 10 | 5 | Crystalline |
| 5 | 3.50 | 10.30 | 8.1 | 9 | 1 | Glassy |
| 6 | 4.73 | 10.56 | 9.4 | 8 | 1 | Glassy |
| 7 | 7.20 | 8.71 | 9.0 | 11 | 4 | Fine crystalline (stoney) |
| 8 | 7.02 | 8.26 | 8.1 | 8 | 4 | Glassy |
| 9 | 6.30 | 7.09 | 8.7 | 16 | 4 | Glassy |

v1.c25.s4.t2.5

The reserve of glassy slag is estimated to be 30,000-35,000 tons. (Straczek et al. 1967) The glass slag, not associated with zinc smelting debris, assays high in zinc (7-10 per cent) and contains sparsely crystalline phases such as zincian melilite Ca₂ZnSi₂O₇, Zincian olivine, magnesium-rich clino-pyroxene CaMgSi₂O₆ etc. The crystalline slags assay lower zinc per cent but much higher iron content. Scanning electron microscopy revealed the existence of fayalite, Fe₂SiO₄ and iron rich clinopyroxene CaFe Si₂O₆ (Freestone et al., 1985, 1987). The author of this monograph and his colleagues (Gangopadhyay et al., 1984) detected hemimorphite Zn₄(OH)₂ Si₂O₇, H₂O, willemite, Zn₂SiO₄, hydrozincite, Zn₅(CO₃)₂(OH)₆, esperite Ca₃Pb(ZnSiO₄)₄, larsenite, PbZnSiO₄ etc. as some of the major phases in the slag.

v1.c25.s4.t2.6

It may be inferred that the glassy slags were obtained in the early stages to recover lead (and silver) but not zinc. At a later stage, the value of zinc was realised, sphalerite removed carefully from the lead ores, and the resulting reduction of the flux content was compensated by adding more iron as pyrite which precipitated in the crystalline slag as fayalite (Freestone et al., 1987).

v1.c25.s4.t2.7

Chatterjee et al. (1981: B.78) recorded that in the modern Zawar mine, the run-of-mine ore assays 0.7-1.4 per cent lead, 3.5-4.4 per cent zinc and about 40 ppm silver yielding on beneficiation, zinc concentrate (assay 52 per cent zinc, 1.3 per cent lead, 140 ppm silver) and lead concentrate (assay 63.7 per cent lead and nearly 0.1 per cent or 980 ppm silver). Thus most of the silver is associated with the galena or lead sulphide fraction. The ancient zinc distillation retort residue assays 120-260 ppm of immobile silver (Freestone et al., 1985: 9) whereas the Table 17.5 shows that the lead slags assay 10 ppm or even less in silver. These data coupled with the fact that pieces of metallic lead were found in the slag, strongly suggest that lead-smelting was followed by recovery of silver from molten lead by a process such as cupellation.

v1.c25.s4.t2.8

The above trend was also exhibited in Rajpura-Dariba as well as Rampura-Agucha. The extensive mining traditions in the fourth-third century BC. India are recorded in Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra which would be discussed in our Vol. II chapter 5. The Arthaśāstra described the ores of lead (2.12.13), argentiferous galena (2.12.6) and silver (2.13.10-14), and also the uses of lead in purifying gold (2.13.47) and silver by the cupellation process (2.13.49). It is quite likely therefore, that the silver in the punch-marked coins, bent-bars and jewelleries found at Taxila, was obtained through the contemporary smelting practices at Ajmer and Zawar as described in the Arthaśāstra of the Maurya Period.

The Raw Materials for the Kṣatrapa Coins

v1.c25.s5.1

Agrawal et al. (1976: 135) and Shekar (1983: 178) have reported the C-14 date of 140 BC for the working of the copper-lead-zinc ore deposit at Ambamata, Banaskantha, Gujarat (vide fig. 17.3a and Table 17.1). There are extensive old workings in the areas of Ambaji (24º20 'N, 72º51 'E), Gujarat, Basantgarh and Deri (24º23 'N, 72º50 'E) in the neighbouring Sirohi district of Rajasthan. Large dumps of ancient slag, metallurgical tools, smelted metal and potteries have been found at Ambaji and behind the group of Jain temples in the adjacent Kumbaria (24º 19 'N, 72º 51 'E).

v1.c25.s5.2

The Ambaji deposit must have been exploited for copper, lead and possibly silver, during the pre-Christian era Śuṅga Period and the post-Christian era Kṣatrapa Period. This is strongly indicated from the analysis of the Ambāji metallic samples, Kṣatrapa era lead coins from Nagara (20º 41 '15" N, 70º 38 '33" E) and silver coins from the Buddhist site at Devnimori (23º 41 'N, 73º26 'E) (vide fig. 17.3 a and Table 17.6). The trace element analysis data (Table 17.7) clearly relate the Nagara lead coin with the Zawar ore and the Devnimori silver coin with the Ambaji ore.

v1.c25.s5.3

The data presented in Table 17.6 shows widely fluctuating ratios of Pb : Zn and Pb : Cu. Shekar (1983: 181) has attributed this trend to ‘deficiencies in extractive metallurgy, in obtaining pure fractions of individual metals from a multimetal ore as of Ambamata, rather than due to any deliberate attempt at debasing’. We do not agree with Shekar for the simple reason that India had already well-established traditions for selective mining and preparation of reasonably pure metals of copper, lead and silver. It is difficult to imagine the ancient smelter making silver ‘naturally’ containing 18 per cent copper (Table 17.6, sample No. 3) and smelting copper naturally containing 11-46 per cent lead (Nos. 4 and 5). Thus, the fluctuating ratios in Table 17.6 reflect, in our opinion, deliberate attempts for alloying.

v1.c25.s5.4

Forty-five lead coins were recovered from Nagara by Mehta (1968); similar coins from the identical Kṣatrapa era (2nd-4th century AD) stratigraphy had been recovered by Mehta from Vadnagar (1955) Shamalaji and Devnimori (1966). The last site yielded silver coins also.

v1.c25.s5.5

The lead coins from Nagara were circular, rectangular and square-shaped; these had variable thickness and weights ranging from 1.263 to 6.136 gm. Several of them showed the Kṣatrapa motif of bull on the obverse, mountain and moon motifs on the reverse. One coin was dated 285 in Śaka era or 363 AD. The comparative study of impurity patterns (some 25 elements) enabled Hegde (1968: 519) to correlate the Nagara lead coin with the Zawar galena ore except in terms of calcium which was found by him to be strangely absent (?) in the Zawar galena concentrate.

v1.c25.s5.6

Table 17.6

v1.c25.s5.7

Some Multi-metallic Samples of the Kṣatrapa Period (2nd to 4th century AD)

v1.c25.s5.8

| | | Elemental Percentages | | | | | Ratios | |
| | *Pb* | *Ag* | *Zn* | *Mg* | *Al* | *Cu* | *Pb/Zn* | *Pb/Cu* |
| 1. Nagara Lead Coin I | 97.40 | + | 1.26 | 0.26 | 0.38 | + | ~80 | large |
| 2. — do — II | 97.21 | + | 1.18 | 0.42 | 0.29 | + | ~85 | large |
| 3. Devnimori Silver Coins | 0.86 -1.21 | Bal- ance | 0.17 - 0.21 | N.D. | N.D. | 18.00 Balance | ~5 | ~ 0.05 |
| 4. Ambaji Copper Sample | 11.00 | N.D. | 0.85 | N.D. | N.D. | 13 | 0.13 |
| 5. Ambaji Smelted Sample | 45.97 | N.D. | 0.15 | N.D. | N.D. | 47.72 | 300 | 1.00 |

v1.c25.s5.9

+ means present. N.D. not determined. Balance: the rest out of a total 100.

v1.c25.s5.10

Table 17.7

v1.c25.s5.11

Trace Element Impurity Patterns and Kṣatrapa Coin-Ore Correlation

v1.c25.s5.12

| | Pb | Ag | Zn | Cd | Au | Cu | Ca | Cr | Co | Ni | Hg | Bi | Sn | Be | Ru | Pt | Mo | Ir | U |
| 1. Nagara Lead Coin | H | + | + | + | + | + | + | - | - | - | - | - | + | + | + | + | - | - | - |
| 2. Zawar Galena | H | 40 | + | 200 | + | + | - | - | - | - | - | - | + | + | + | - | - | - | + |
| 3. Devnimori Silver Coin | + | H | + | + | - | + | ND | + | + | + | - | + | - | - | - | - | + | + | + |
| 4. Ambaji Ore | H | 20 | H | 400 | - | H | ND | 2 | 15 | 15 | - | 5 | 5 | ND | ND | ND | 5 | ND | ND |

v1.c25.s5.13

Legend: H means High; + present; - Absent; ND Not Determined Figures in ppm. Fe, Al, Mn, As, Sb, V present in all samples.

v1.c25.s5.14

The above correlation is indeed good (*vide* Table 17.7). But then Hegde ran into difficulty when he tried to correlate the Devnimori silver coin with the Zawar galena ore. Since the correlation was negative, he hastily concluded (Hegde, 1967 and 1968: 518) that ‘the silver metal was not extracted from the indigenous source but was probably imported’. Later, Shekar (1983: 179-80) showed that the trace element pattern of the Devnimori silver coin clearly matches with that of the Ambāmātā deposit only a hundred kilometre away (*vide* fig. 17.3a and Table 17.7). Specifically, the elements found missing in the Zawar galena sample viz., Cr, Co, Ni, Bi and Mo were detected in the Devnimori coin and the Ambaji ore; gold present in the Zawar sample was not present either in the Devnimori or Ambaji samples. This is a classic example of the hazard in ore-artefact correlation; possibly the silver metal was not ‘imported’! Shekar explained the absence of tin in the silver coin (tin is present in the Ambaji ore) by suggesting that the volatile metal might have escaped during smelting.

v1.c25.s5.15

We have mentioned earlier that the C-14 dates (*vide* Table 17.1) indicate that not only copper but also zinc, lead (and possibly silver) were extracted during the medieval periods of AD 1070-1440 from the Ambāmātā deposit in Gujarat and Bandlomattu-Agnigundala area in the Andhra Pradesh. At Agnigundala, mining was done in the nature of long, open trenches as well as along the dip of the lodes reaching a depth of 30 m. (Ziauddin, 1961) The ancient Gavulabhavi lead deposit in the Cuddapah district, Andhra Pradesh, was developed similarly through 280 m long surface diggings and underground shafts reaching 50 m below the surface. (Rao and Rao, 1977)

v1.c25.s5.16

At Agnigundala, extensive mining, mineral processing (crushing, grinding and benefication) and smelting (of copper and lead) took place, which is evident from the rock dumps, slag heaps and appliances such as cupolas, crucibles and tube-like bodies, tapering somewhat and closed at one end. A few pieces of lead were found in the heaps assaying 99.5 per cent lead and 220 ppm silver. (Ziauddin, 1961: 120)

First 125 of 264 passages. Read on

Linked texts (25)