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Ancient Indian Education (Brahmanical and Buddhist) c12: Chapter V: The Period of Sūtra Literature

Ancient Indian Education (Brahmanical and Buddhist) c12

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English

Contents

Chapter V: The Period of Sūtra Literature

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**Changing Conditions.** We now leave the period of the *Brāhmaṇas* and come to that of the *Sūtras* which introduce us to new types and forms of literary activity called forth by the requirements of the times, by new social, religious, and political conditions. The rise of the Sūtra literature is connected with the necessities of self-defence and self-preservation of the old Vedic religion. We have already seen how in the first or *Chhandas* period the Vedic bards or Rishis, by giving free and full utterance to their inner intuitions and revelations, their inspired thoughts and sentiments, were giving to the Indians a new world of religious, moral, and political ideas; how in the second or *Mantra* period all that rich harvest was being garnered and preserved; and how the literary activity of the third or *Brāhmaṇa* period chiefly occupied itself in systematizing and interpreting the precious poetry of the earlier age which had already become unintelligible and sacred. The result was the growth of a vast and varied literature of commentaries round the original kernel of religion which none but specialists could extract and unfold, of a complicated system of theology and ceremonial of which the knowledge became more and more the exclusive property of particular families (of priests) in which it became hereditary.

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**Need of simplified Literature.** There was, however, a natural limit to this exuberant growth of literature in particular directions. The mass of matter became too vast; there appeared the risk of the substance of religion, the tenor and spirit of the whole, being lost in the details. Diffuse discussion of details had to be replaced by their concise collective summaries. The result was the creation of a new type of literature, the *Sūtras*, which were all thus written with a practical object. The Sūtra-kāras claim no inspiration for themselves. They made a scientific study of the literature handed down to them from previous times and they wanted to make the contents of that literature more easily accessible through the results of their own studies. Thus the style of composition which they necessarily adopted for that purpose was businesslike in the extreme. The utmost brevity was required in comprising within the smallest compass the vast mass of literary material that had to be handled in order that the memory might not be overburdened. Brevity was the soul of this new literary style and there is a proverbial saying (taken from the *Mahābhāshya*) that "an author rejoiceth in the economizing of half a short vowel as much as in the birth of a son". Thus arose in pursuit of this ideal of brevity a remarkably condensed and enigmatical style which was more and more cultivated as the literature of the Sūtras became more independent and popular with the growing appreciation of its advantages.

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**Conditions created by Buddhism.** Apart, however, from pedagogic considerations and educational requirements, there seems to have been in operation another factor connected with the political history of the period, which was contributing towards the growth of this new literature. That factor was connected with the rise of a new school of thought, viz. Buddhism, whereby Brahmanism was called upon to meet a novel situation to which it had never been accustomed before. It is, however, to be borne in mind that Buddhism, as Weber rightly points out, originally proceeded purely from theoretical heterodoxy regarding the relation of matter to spirit and similar questions. The early Buddhism was but one out of many sects then existing. There was as yet no schism but mere controversy such as we find in the *Brāhmaṇas* themselves between different schools of thought. Buddha himself, according to his own canonical biographer, learned the Rigveda and was well versed in the various branches of Brahmanic lore. Many of his pupils were Brahmins and no hostile feeling against the Brahmins finds utterance in the Buddhist canon, nor any slur cast on the gods and songs of the Veda. Matters, however, gradually became different in course of time when Buddhism addressed itself to practical points of religion, worship, and life, and ceased to concern itself with the settlement of mere theological or speculative issues. Then there began a real conflict between the two systems, a struggle for self-preservation and supremacy. At first the position of Brahmanism was seriously imperilled by certain disadvantageous circumstances of its own creation. For Buddhism developed into a system of easy devotion which was naturally resorted to with considerable eagerness and a sense of relief by that vast majority of people whom Brahmanism alienated and frightened away by the inaccessibility of the literature in which it was embodied, by its difficulty and complexity. At the same time that Buddhism attracted the ignorant among the Brahmins, it received with open arms the poor and the miserable of all classes. Thus Brahmanism was forced to forge a suitable weapon of defence against the onslaught which a new religion directed against its weak points. It was forced to find an easier and more popular medium for the imparting of its instruction and thereby remove the difficulties in the way of its propagation. Changes in the sacred literature of a people never take place except under the pressure of a grave necessity such as that of its self-preservation, and the object which the *Sūtras* were created to serve could be no other than to offer practical manuals to those who were discouraged by the too elaborate treatises of the *Brāhmaṇas* and yielded themselves as willing recruits to a rival faith that opened out to them easier means of religious instruction and ways to salvation.

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**The Sūtras a more suitable Vehicle of Old Knowledge.** These historical facts are, indeed, indicated by the internal evidence, the style, of the *Brāhmaṇas* and *Sūtras* themselves. The deliberately popular style of the *Sūtras* shows that the time was now gone when students would spend ten or twenty years of their lives in fathoming the mysteries and mastering the intricacies of the *Brāhmaṇa* literature. We miss, too, in the *Sūtras* that self-complacent spirit which pervades the *Brāhmaṇas*. It seems as if the authors of the *Sūtras* feel that their reading public will no longer be satisfied with mere endless theological swaggering but will demand something else. There may be deep wisdom in the previous literature but they feel that the people will not appreciate or accept wisdom unless it is clothed in a garb of clear argument and imparted in easier language. Thus their words contain all that is essential in the *Brāhmaṇas*, but they give it in a practical, concise and definite form. They represent in fact the quintessence of all the knowledge previously acquired and accumulated by the study and meditation of centuries. Their language is also firm, though no longer inflated, indicating a spirit of self-confidence that did not quail before the first attacks levelled by a popular religion. Lastly, a part of the *Sūtra* literature (the *Gṛihya-Sūtras* treating of the ceremonies of domestic life such as those relating to birth, death, and marriage) goes by the name of *Smṛiti*, i.e. that which is the subject of *memory*, as distinguished from *Śruti*, i.e. that which is the subject of *hearing*, in so far as the former impresses itself directly on the memory, without special instruction and provision for the purpose. It belongs to all, it is the common possession, the property, of the whole people; it is supported by the consciousness of all and does not therefore need to be specially inculcated. Not so is ritual which, in spite of its origin in the common consciousness, was developed in its details by the speculations of a special class which owned it as its exclusive property and monopoly, while custom and law were thrown open to all as common property. It is for this reason also that we find in these works a rich treasure of ideas and conceptions of extreme antiquity. Domestic manners and customs have been left untouched and handed down in their ancient form; there was no interest in changing them, for they were devoid of all political bearings [Weber, *Ind. Lit.*, p. 19].

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We shall now consider the evidence of the *Sūtra* literature regarding the education of the period.

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**Classes of Sūtra Works: New Subjects of Study.** In the first place, it gives us an idea of the number and variety of the *subjects of study* then existing. The *Śrauta Sūtras* are a continuation of the *Brāhmaṇas* on their ritual side, as the Upanishads are on their speculative side. The rites they deal with are never congregational but are always performed on behalf of a single individual called *Yajamāna* (sacrificer). The second branch of ritual Sūtras are the *Gṛihya Sūtras* treating of numerous ceremonies applicable to the domestic life of a man and his family from birth to death. Since these lay outside the scope of the *Brāhmaṇas*, the authors of the *Gṛihya Sūtras* had to rely on popular tradition in dealing with observances of daily life. The third branch of the Sūtra literature, based on tradition or Smṛiti, are the *Dharma Sūtras* which deal with the customs of daily life (*Sāmayāchārika*) and are thus our earliest legal literature. There is lastly a division of the Sūtras called the *Sulva Sūtras* connected with religious practice; they are practical manuals giving the measurements necessary for the construction of the *vedi*, of the altars and so forth. They show quite an advanced knowledge of geometry and constitute the oldest Indian mathematical works [Macdonell, *Sans. Lit.*, p. 264].

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**The Vedāṅgas.** The entire body of the Vedic works composed in the style of the Sūtras is according to the Indian traditional view divided into six branches called *Vedāṅgas* (members of the Veda). The names of these six subjects are first mentioned in the *Muṇḍaka-Upanishad* [i, 1, 5]. A consideration of the contents of these Vedāṅgas will give us an idea of the multiform literary activity of the period and the subjects of study then prevailing.

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**Śikshā.** *Śikshā* is defined by Sāyaṇa as the science of the pronunciation of letters, accents, and the like. Some of the headings in the seventh book of the *Taittirīya Āraṇyaka* are: "On Letters," "On Accents," "On quantity," "On the organs of pronunciation," "On delivery," "On Euphonic Laws." It was thus an important branch of knowledge which was necessary for the right understanding of the sacred texts, especially of the philosophical parts of the Veda as distinguished from the ceremonial parts (Karma-Kāṇḍa). Originally a part of the *Brāhmaṇas*, the subject came to be treated in independent scientific treatises called the *Prātiśākhyas* which, besides giving general rules for the proper pronunciation of the Vedic language in general, were intended to record what was peculiar in the pronunciation of different Vedic schools. A *Prātiśākhya* is thus a collection of phonetic rules peculiar to a *Śākhā* of a Veda, i.e. to one of the different texts in which each of the four Vedas had been handed down for ages in different families and different localities. Thus ancient dialectical differences, and even irregularities and exceptions, created by the freedom of a spoken language, were preserved and rescued from oblivion; general laws were derived from the collection of a large number of similar passages; and a start was thus given to that scientific study of language which reached its perfection in the grammatical masterpiece of Pāṇini.

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**Chhandas.** The second Vedāṅga is *Chhandas* or *Metre*, to which there are many scattered references in the *Brāhmaṇas*. But it is in the *Sūtras* (e.g. the *Śāṅkhāyana Śrauta Sūtra*, the *Rigveda Prātiśākhya*, and the *Nidāna Sūtra*) that an attempt is made to arrange the archaic metres systematically.

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**Vyākaraṇa.** *Vyākaraṇa* or Grammar was the third subject developed. The foundation was already laid in the *Padapāṭhas* which distinguish parts of compounds, prefixes of verbs and suffixes and terminations of nouns, in a word, the four parts of speech. The most important information regarding pre-Pāṇinean grammar is to be derived from Yāska's work.

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**Nirukta.** The fourth Vedāṅga is *Nirukta* or Etymology as represented in the work of Yaska, which is a sort of an etymological lexicography of Vedic terms. The *Nirukta* together with the *Prātiśākhyas* and Pāṇini's Grammar supplies the most interesting and important information on the growth of grammatical science in India. The *Nirukta* is in reality a commentary on the *Nighaṇṭu*, a collection of Vedic words and synonyms which, by virtue of their arrangement, largely explain themselves. Yāska had before him five such collections of which the first three contain synonyms, the fourth a list of specially difficult Vedic words, and the fifth, a classification of the various divine personages who figure in the Veda.

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**Kalpa.** The fifth Vedāṅga is the *Kalpa* or ceremonial of which we have already treated. The *Kalpa-Sūtras* are based entirely on the *Brāhmaṇas* of which they presuppose not only three distinct collections but also different *Sākhās* or recensions which in course of time had branched off from each of them. It is also to be noted that the Sūtras were intended by their authors for more than one *Charaṇa* or adapted to more than one *Śākhā*. No single *Sākhā* contained a complete account of the ceremonial and a reference to other *Śākhās* was absolutely necessary. Even if a Brahmin had studied the Saṁhitās and *Brāhmaṇas* of the three Vedas according to their various *Śākhās*, he would still have found it difficult to learn from them the correct performance of each sacrifice. To remove this difficulty the Sūtras were composed as a kind of grammar of the Vedic ceremonial useful for members of all *Charaṇas*. There were, of course, Kalpa Sūtras for the different classes of priests, viz. those for the Hotṛi, the Adhvaryu, and Udgātṛi priests. Another point to be noticed in this connection is that different communities, after adopting a collection of Sūtras as the highest authority for their ceremonial, became naturally inclined to waive minor points of difference in the *Saṁhitās* and *Brāhmaṇas* and thus coalesced into a new *Charaṇa* under the name and sanction of their *Sūtrakāra*. When once these new *Sautra-Charaṇas* were started, even the Saṁhitās and *Brāhmaṇas* which were current among their members came to be designated by the name of the new *Charaṇas*.

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**Jyotisha.** The last of the Vedāṅgas is called *Jyotisha* or Astronomy, of which the literature available is very scanty. As is always the case, the growth of this subject was due to religious requirements. The knowledge of the heavenly bodies was necessary to fix the days and hours of the Vedic sacrifices. The first impulse to astronomical studies came from the establishment of a sacred Calendar. Even in the *Brāhmaṇas* and *Āraṇyakas* we come across references to astronomical subjects, and the Vedic hymns point to observation of the moon as the measurer of time [cf. *Rv.*, viii, 3, 20; ii, 32 (phases of the moon); i, 25, 8 (intercalary or thirteenth month); *Vāja. Saṁ.*, vii, 30; xxii, 31; xxx, 10; 20 (*gaṇaka*); *Taitt. Br.*, iv, 5 (*nakshatra-darśa*)].

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**Other Supplementary Studies.** There were also other minor subjects of study developed during this period. The Sūtras had their supplements called *Pariśishṭas* which form an extensive literature. There were also developed for the proper understanding of the sacrificial ceremonial special types of literature called *Prayogas* or Manuals which describe the course of each sacrifice and the functions of the different classes of priests with reference to its practical performance and *Paddhatis* or Guides which follow the systematic accounts of the Sūtras and sketch their contents. There were also versified accounts of the ritual called *Kārikās*. There were further the *Anukramaṇīs* or Vedic Indices giving lists of hymns, the authors, the metres, and the deities in the order in which they occur in the various Saṁhitās.

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**Specialization.** It may also be as well noted in this connection that the age of the Sūtras was an age of scientific study and specialization. As will be explained more fully later on, at first the study of these Aṅgas was strictly subservient to the primary needs of the Veda-study, and education meant only the transmission of traditions from the teacher to the pupil and the committing to memory the sacred texts. In course of time, however, the content of this education began naturally to widen out, and each one of the several Aṅgas of the Veda began to develop, snapping the bonds of its connection with the Veda-study and declaring its independence in special Schools. Thus arose the special sciences and specialists. The sacrificial ritual itself led to the growth of some of the sciences. Geometry and Algebra arose out of the elaborate rules for the construction of altars. Sometimes it was necessary to erect a round altar covering the same area as a square one, giving rise to problems like squaring the circle. Astronomy and Astrology grew out of the necessity of finding out the proper times and seasons for sacrifice and other purposes. The foundation of Anatomy was laid in the dissection of sacrificial animals. Grammar and Philology had their origin in the care to preserve the sacred texts from corruption and fix the methods of their proper pronunciation. Thus each of the original Vedic Aṅgas was giving rise to a number of allied sciences through its specialized and scientific study in special Schools. Pāṇini's work is to be treated as the final outcome of a long process of grammatical development. New subjects also began to develop as a result of this freedom of thought and study. Law was the most important of them. The different legal Schools came to be represented on the Parishads regulating the life of the community. Experts in the new subjects like Nyāya, Mīmāṁsā, Nirukta, and Law are placed side by side with those proficient in the Vedas and Aṅgas as members of the same Parishad. The specialists were as necessary to the community as the Vaidikas. The latter possessed a complete verbal knowledge of the sacred texts but had an imperfect understanding of the meaning thereof and were like walking libraries. The former reduced the quantity of the sacred texts to be committed to memory and devoted the mental energy thus saved to specialized study of other subjects like sacrifices, grammar, law, or astronomy. Questions bearing on these could no longer be solved by the Vaidikas who were not fitted to put their learning to practical use. The performance of sacrifices needed the services of the Śrauti, the expert in sacrificial literature. The Jurist alone could decide doubtful points of law. Grammar in its developed form was adequate by itself to absorb the entire mental energy of a student. Thus the expansion of learning brought in the system of specialization.

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**Religion still shaping Literature.** The brief and broad survey we have made of the literary activity of the period shows to what a large extent that activity was still determined and shaped by the dominant considerations of religious needs. The variety of literary productions was but answering the variety of religious interests developed. Intellectual life was but the handmaid of the life spiritual. It had no independent course of its own. The mind was but a means of ministering to the spirit. Much of the literature of the period, as we have already seen, is but founded essentially on the *Brāhmaṇas* and must be considered as their necessary supplement as a further advance in the path struck out by the latter in the direction of a rigid ritualism and formalism. The stimulus to the growth of this literature came, as has been explained, from the needs of the preservation and propagation of the religion which was being assailed by a new and rival religion working on more proper lines. As regards that part of Sūtra literature which has no direct connection with the *Brāhmaṇas*, we shall still find that it has a *direct* connection with religion and such of its aspects as are not treated of in the *Brāhmaṇas*. The *Gṛihya-sūtras*, equally with the *Dharma-sūtras*, only aimed at giving its final form and shape to the Brahmanical polity or system of social life expressive of the individuality of the Vedic civilization which was thus secured against all attacks levelled by heretical religions. Similarly, the very advances in linguistic research for which the age of the Sūtras is so much noted received their impetus from the needs of religious life. The various works making up the linguistic part of Sūtra literature will be found to be connected with one or other of the following necessities for safeguarding the interests of religion : firstly, there was the need to fix the text of the Vedic prayers; secondly, to establish a correct pronunciation and recitation; thirdly, to preserve the tradition of their origin; and lastly, when in course of time the literal sense of the old texts became more and more foreign to the current language, or the spoken dialects of the day, to take precautions whereby the original sense might be secured and established and not lost. It is thus that we find that even the linguistic Sūtras stand on the same basis on which the *Brāhmaṇas* themselves stand. While the *Brāhmaṇas* are concerned with the elucidation of the relation of the prayer to the sacrifice, the Sūtras are concerned with the form in which the prayer itself was drawn up

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**Upa-Vedas.** Regarding the subjects of study, it is interesting to note that some of the Sūtra works furnish evidence showing the growth of a few secular subjects. There is a passage in Āpastamba [*Dh. Sū.*, ii, 11, 29, 11–12] which states: “The knowledge which Śūdras and women possess is the completion of all study. They declare that this knowledge is a supplement of the Atharvaveda.” According to the commentator, “the knowledge which Śūdras and women possess” is the knowledge of dancing, acting, music, and other branches of the so-called Arthaśāstra, the science of useful arts and of trades. The object of the Sūtras is to forbid the study of such matters before the acquisition of sacred learning. The same forbiddal is given also by Manu [ii, 168 (“other and worldly study” forbidden)] and by Vasiṣṭha [iii, 2] and Vishṇu [xxviii, 36]. It may be noted that Āpastamba knew the division of Hindu learning as taught in the Prasthānaveda of Madhusūdana Sarasvatī who points out that each Veda had a *Upa-Veda* or supplementary Veda and that the *Upa-Veda* of the Atharvaveda is the Arthaśāstra. It may also be noted that outside the circle of Brahminical studies there were thus existing the secular arts and sciences which were normally to be studied by the women of all castes and by the Śūdras, but it is also implied that they were not unworthy of study by the men of the three twice-born castes, provided they first completed their normal course of sacred studies. It may be further presumed that it was possible to find Brahmin teachers of these secular arts and sciences comprising the Arthaśāstra or *Upa-Veda* of the Atharvaveda, and we may compare in this connection the references given above from the Upanishads on this subject. Lastly, the theory of the *Upa-Vedas* is a clever way of connecting all branches of human knowledge with the Vedas as their ultimate and common source on which Hindu orthodox opinion is unanimous through the ages.

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**Sūtra Schools and Teachers.** We shall now consider the evidence available regarding the geographical background of the Sūtra literature and the noted teachers of the period.

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Firstly, we shall consider the evidence of the Sūtras connected with the Rigveda. The *Āśvalāyana Śrauta Sūtra* gives us some particulars. The name Āśvalāyana is probably to be traced back to Aśvala, the Hotṛi priest of Janaka, king of Videha, of whom we have already given a notice. Again, the formation of the word by the affix *āyana* probably points to the time of established schools (*ayana* ?). Names formed in this way occur but seldom in the *Brāhmaṇas* and only in their later portions and may be taken to betoken a late period. Among the teachers quoted is an Āśmarathva referred to by the scholiast on Pāṇini [iv, 3, 105]. Another teacher quoted is Taulvali expressly mentioned by Pāṇini [ii, 4, 61] as belonging to the *prāñchas* or “dwellers in the east”. At the end, there is an interesting enumeration of the various Brāhmaṇa-families distributed among the family stems of Bhṛigu, Aṅgiras, Atri, Viśvāmitra, Kaśyapa, Vasishṭha, and Agastya. The sacrifices on the Sarasvatī are also briefly touched upon. Lastly, it may be noted that Āśvalāyana is the author of the fourth book of the *Aitareya Āraṇyaka*; that he was the pupil of Śaunaka who is stated to have destroyed his own Sūtra in favour of his pupil's work which he considered to be so good. According to Weber, the Sūtra of Āśvalāyana along with the *Aitareya Brāhmaṇa* belonged to the eastern part of Hindusthan.

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The *Śāṅkhayana Śrauta Sūtra* wears in general a somewhat more ancient aspect, particularly in its fifteenth and sixteenth books where it assumes the appearance of a *Brāhmaṇa*. There is a *paddhati* to the *Śāṅkhāyana-Gṛihya* by Rāmachandra who lived in the Naimisha forest in the middle of the fifteenth century, and Weber holds that this Naimisha forest was the birthplace of the *Sūtra* itself.

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The *Gṛihya Sūtras* of the Rigveda are also those of Āśvalāyana and Śāṅkhāyana. They introduce us to three *female* sages: Gārgī Vāchaknavī, the familiar figure of the Upanishads; Vadavā Prātitheyī; Sulabhā Maitreyī (cf. *Saulabhāni Brāhmaṇāni* quoted by the scholiast on Pāṇini, iv, 3, 105). Again, the *Śāṅkhāyana-Gṛihya* mentions the following names: Sumantu-Jaimini-Vaiśampāyana-Paila-Sūtra-bhāshya[-Gārgya-Babhru]...; while the *Āśvalāyana* mentions: Sumantu-Jaimini-Vaiśampāyana-Paila-Sūtra-Bhārata-Mahābhārata-Dharmāchāryāḥ. We may notice here the tradition of the Vishṇu Purāṇa which assigns the Atharvaveda compilation to Sumantu, the Sāmaveda to Jaimini, the Yajurveda to Vaiśampāyana, and the Rigveda to Paila.

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Secondly, we shall consider such of the Sūtras of the Sāmaveda as give us evidence on the points we are dealing with. The *Lāṭyāyana Śrauta Sūtra* is probably connected by its very name with the country of Lāṭa lying quite in the west, directly south of Surāshṭra, and its western origin is borne out by other data too. Among the teachers cited are Śāṇḍilya (mentioned in the Chhāndogya), Dhānañjapya, and Śāṇḍilyāyana as expounders of the *Pañchaviṁśa Brāhmaṇa*; Gautama Sthavira; Śauchivṛikshi (a teacher known to Pāṇini), Kshairakalambhi, Kautsa, Vārshagaṇya, Bhāṇḍitāyana, Lāmakāyana, Rāṇāyanīputra, etc.; the Sāṭyāyanins and Śālaṅkāyanins (of the western part of India). There is also a reference to the Śūdras and the Nishādas (i.e. the Indian aborigines) who are treated better than later, being allowed to attend in person at the ceremonies although outside of the sacrificial ground. The general name given to these western, non-Brahminical Aryan tribes is *Vrātīnas* (cf. Pāṇini, v, 2, 21], and they are put on a par with the non-Brahminical peoples of the eastern parts, for we are told by Lāṭyāyana that the converted Vrātyas must transfer their wealth (and thereby their own former impurity) to such of their brethren as abide by the old mode of life or else to a "Brahmabandhu Māgadhadeśīya".

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The Sūtras of the Black Yajus do not give much evidence, except the *Prātiśākhya-Sūtra*, which mentions some peculiar names of teachers such as Ātreya, Kauṇḍinya (once by the Buddhist title of Sthavira), Bhāradvāja, Vālmīki, Āgniveśya, Āgniveśyāyana, and Paushkarasādi (cited in the *Vārttikas* to Pāṇini by Kātyāyana). The two last names as well as that of Kauṇḍinya are mentioned in Buddhist works as those of pupils or contemporaries of the Buddha. There is also an allusion for the first time to the Mīmāṁsakas and Taittirīyakas and to a distinction between two types of Sanskrit, Chhandas (Vedic) and Bhāshā (ordinary).

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Among the Sūtras of the White Yajus the first to be considered is the *Śrauta Sūtra* of Kātyāyana which mentions the following teachers: Laugākshi, Bhāradvāja, Jātūkarṇya, Vātsya, Bādari, Kāśakṛitsni, and Kārshṇājini, of whom the three last appear in the *Vedānta-Sūtra* of Bādarāyaṇa, while Bādari is also mentioned in the *Mīmāṁsā Sūtra* of Jaimini. Among other particulars given may be mentioned the reference to the custom of *dig-vijayas* [xx, 4, 26], to the sacrifices on the Sarasvatī, and the *Vrātya*-sacrifices at which figure the Māgadhadeśīya Brahmabandhu [xxii, 4, 22]. Next, in the *Prātiśākhya Sūtra* of the White Yajus are mentioned three grammarians, Śākaṭāyana, Śākalya, and Gārgya (all mentioned by Yāska and Pāṇini); also Kāśyapa (mentioned by Pāṇini); and, lastly, Dālbhya, Jātūkarṇya, Śaunaka, Aupaśivi, Kāṇva, and the Mādhyamdinas.

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**Educational System of the Sūtras.** We now proceed to consider the educational system and organization as reflected in the Sūtra literature which fortunately furnishes ample evidence on the subject. It is to be remembered at the outset that the Sūtra works do not introduce any innovations but only continue and embody the older traditions started from the Vedic age to which they only give their final form and shape in an age in which they were liable to be affected by the growth of differing systems of religion and social life. They sum up the entire previous development, and codify pre-existing traditions, unwritten laws, and customs as indicated in the sacred texts on which they are essentially based. They usher in the age of social legislation, of a rigid system of rules, regulations, and restrictions for the sake of the preservation of the culture they represent.

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**Vidyārambha.** The pupil's first introduction to education was made by his performance of a ceremony called *Vidyārambha* (also called *Akshara-svīkaraṇam*) at which he was to commence the learning of the alphabets for the first time. The ceremony was to be performed when the child attained his fifth year (*prāpte tu pañchame varshe*) and was open to children of all the castes. It consisted in the child offering worship to the deities (1) Hari, (2) Lakshmī, and (3) Sarasvatī (the goddess of learning), and also to (1) the *Vidyā* cultivated by his family, or ancestral learning (*sva-vidyā*), (2) the *Sūtra-kāras* of that particular *Vidyā* or subject, the sages who have promulgated that learning and in particular (3) the *Vidyā* or subject of his choice [*Smṛiti-Chandrikā*, Mysore ed., pp. 66–67].

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The ceremony of *Vidyārambha* followed that of *Chūḍā-karaṇa* or tonsure, and was followed by *Upanayana*. According to Kauṭilya [*Arthaśāstra*, i, 2], the *Vidyārambha* for a Prince who was duly tonsured (*vṛitta-chaulakarmā*) meant that he was to learn Writing (*Lipi*) and Numbers (*Saṁkhyā*).

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Upanayana. The formal and regular introduction to education was, however, made by the ceremony of Upanayana, which was ordained for all the castes,¹ Brāhmaṇa, Kshatriya, and Vaiśya, though under different rules. Members of these castes, however, who committed sinful deeds, as also the Śūdras, were not eligible for this ceremony [ib.].

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¹ *Baudhāyana, D.S.*, i, 2, 3, 10; *Āpastamba*, i, 1, 1, 6.

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Eligibility of Śūdras for Upanayana. But it may be noted that Baudhāyana [*Gṛ. S.*, ii, 5, 8–9], alone among the law-givers, admits the Śūdra, Rathakāra, to the ceremony of Upanayana. He says: “Let him initiate a Brāhmaṇa in spring, a Kshatriya in summer, a Vaiśya in autumn, a Rathakāra in the rainy season; or all of them in spring.” Baudhāyana here follows Vedic tradition. The ancient Vedic ritual in certain cases admitted Śūdras, and, particularly, the Rathakāra or carpenter who, according to all accounts, had Śūdra blood in his veins, to a participation in the Śrauta rites. The *Taittirīya-Brāhmaṇa* even mentions certain Mantras which are to be recited by the Ratha-kāra at the *Agnyādhāna* sacrifice. Baudhāyana [*Dh. S.*, i, 9, 17, 6] defines the Rathakāra as the offspring of a Vaiśya male and Śūdra female, and the hostility shown against the mixed castes, and the exclusion of the carpenter from the privilege of initiation or Upanayana (which is an expression of that hostility), as shown in the works of the Sūtra-kāras like Āpastamba, are to be regarded only as the outcome of the later doctrines of later ages.

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Age and Time of Upanayana. The normal age for Upanayana is 8 for a Brāhmaṇa, 11 for a Kshatriya, and 12 for a Vaiśya [*Manu* and *Yājñavalkya*]. Logākshi makes it 7, 9, and 11 respectively for these three castes. But these normal ages are different where the Upanayana is performed with reference to a particular aim (*kāmya*), as stated by Gautama. For a Brāhmaṇa whose aim is Brahmavarchasa, the age of Upanayana is 5 [*Manu* and Āṅgirasa]. Brahmavarchasa is the divine glory and spiritual pre-eminence or sanctity resulting from proficiency in *Brahma* or *Veda*. Where his aim is *Āyu* or longevity, the age of Upanayana should be 9 [Āṅgirasa]. For a Kshatriya whose aim in life is increase (vṛiddhi) of Power (Bala) and Life (Āyu), the age of Upanayana should be 12 [ib.]. A Vaiśya whose ambition in life is the attainment of Āyu, longevity, and *Iha*, “prosperity in Agriculture and other pursuits" (*Kṛishyādivishaya-cheshṭā*) should perform his Upanayana at the age of 14 [ib.]. These variations of age according to those of castes and aims are brought under a general rule applicable to all by Āpastamba [i, 1, 1, 21-6] as follows: "The age of Upanayana is to be 7 where the objective is *Brahma-varchasa*; 8 where it is *Āyu*; 9 where it is *Teja* or physical vigour; 10 where it is livelihood (*annādi*); 11 where it is vital force (*indriya*); and 12 where it is increase of live stock (*pashu*).

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It will appear that the ages are fixed in accordance with the different capacities and aptitudes for learning in the pupils and the studies of their choice determining the periods required for their completion. The age of admission to learning is, for instance, the lowest for a Brāhmaṇa in view of his high aims, and the difficult and extended course of study and discipline required for their realization. Where a pupil's paramount aim in life is its longevity, he should pay more attention to his body than his mind and begin study later. Education similarly begins later and is shorter in length where worldly aims are sought after.

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It is also to be noted that the maximum limit of age of Upanayaya is also fixed on the basis of the same considerations. It is 16 for a Brāhmaṇa, 22 for a Kshatriya, and 24 for a Vaiśya [Āpastamba, *Dh. S.*, i, 1, 1, 27; Gautama, i, 5, 11; Baudhāyana, i, 2, 3, 7-9; etc.]. The age of 16 is none too high for a Brāhmaṇa who has completed his preliminary training as preparation for Vedic study which is not elementary but advanced study. The age for higher study is always stated to be 16 in the Jātakas referring to admission of students at Taxila. The age of 16 is also considered as the maximum for a Brāhmaṇa from the moral point of view for which he stands. This point is brought out by Jaimini [*Grihya Sūtra*, i, 12] who forbids Upanayana after 16 on the ground that a pupil older in years will find Vedic study difficult and mind prone to sexual distractions for want of an earlier discipline by *brahma-charya* [*na atishoḍaśavarshaṁ upanayīta | prāsṛishṭavṛishaṇaḥ hi eshaḥ vṛishalībhūto bhavati*].

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Besides the age of Upanayana, its time also is different for different castes. According to Āpastamba, the Upanayana of a Brāhmaṇa should be performed in the season of Spring (*Vasanta*), that of a Kshatriya in Summer (*Grīshma*), and that of a Vaiśya in Autumn (*Śarat*). In the Jyotisha-śāstra, the general rule is stated that the Upanayana for all the castes should be performed in the five months from Māgha, perhaps because these constitute the auspicious portion of the year, known as Uttarāyaṇa. Āpastamba [*D.S.*, i, 19] also specially recommends the season of Spring for the Upanayana of Brāhmaṇas belonging to Yajuḥ-Śākhā.

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**Defaulters of Upanayana.** The defaulters, those who do not have their Upanayana performed within the age-limits prescribed, are condemned as *Sāvitrī-patita* and *Vrātya*, "devoid of Sāvitrī Mantra and the *vrata* or vow of Brahmacharya, and hence degraded, degenerate, and unclean." These persons are, therefore, to be "shunned with care" (parihāryāḥ prayatnataḥ) [Vyāsa]. This implies, as stated by Vasiṣṭha, that "no one should have any dealings with them (na abhivyavahāreyuḥ) such as teaching them or performing sacrifices for them", to which another text adds even matrimonial connections (adhyāpanaṁ yājanaṁ cha vivāhādi cha varjayet). This implies their complete social boycott and ostracism. Manu calls them *apūrta*, "unclean," with whom there can be no "brahma-sambandha", relationship by learning or religion [ii, 39, 40; x, 20; *Śāṅkhā.* *G.S.*, ii, 1, 9-13; *Āśvalā.* i, 19, 8-9, etc.].

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**Their Redemption.** These sinners are not, however, past redemption. They are reclaimed by performances of certain expiatory ceremonies and penances. Yājñavalkya prescribes the ceremony (*Kratu*) called *Vrātya-stoma*. Āpastamba [i, 1, 1, 28] prescribes an easier penance of observance of all restrictions which are imposed upon a Brahmachārī, such as continence and the like, for a period of two months. Vishṇu [liv, 26] prescribes three Prājāpatya penances, and Manu three Kṛichchhra penances [xi, 192]. Vasiṣṭha [xi, 76, 77] prescribes that "the *Patita-Sāvitrīka* must perform *Uddālaka Vrata*, subsisting for two months on barley-gruel (*yāvakena vartteta*), one month on milk (*payasā*), half-month on *āmiksha* (the solid part of milk extracted from its liquid, Bengali *chhānā*), eight days on *ghṛita*, six days on alms given without asking, three on only water, and one without any food or drink, by complete fasting. Or he may perform the Aśvamedha sacrifice or Vrātya-stoma" [*Smṛiti Chandrikā*, pp. 67-74].

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**Education Compulsory.** These penances and penalties attaching to the violation of this primary obligation of Upanayana only show to what extent education was valued by Hindu society and how it was sought by law to make education universal and compulsory among all the three castes which made up Aryan society in those days. They also imply by contrast the supreme efficacy of Upanayana as a purifying influence, a factor of moral and spiritual uplift.

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**Education a Second Birth.** The texts describe with great feeling how Upanayana accomplishes a second birth which is purer in its origin than man's natural birth. Here, as Manu says [ii, 146, 148], his mother is Sāvitrī, and father the Āchārya who imparts to him what is higher than the body, the Veda or Knowledge which builds up his mind and soul. "That birth which the teacher procures for him through the Sāvitrī is exempt from age and death." As Āpastamba states, "this birth is the superior birth, as it originates from knowledge. What father and mother generate is the mere body." Thus all are "twice-born" by Upanayana and become known as *Dvijas*. "The first birth is due to the mother, the second to *mauñjī-bandhana*" [Vasishṭha and Yājñavalkya]. Thus man is "reborn" by education in the life spiritual aptly called *Brahma-janma* by Manu. With this high conception of education and its effects by which man is refined (*saṁskṛita*) and spiritualized, there is no wonder that the man not taking education is deemed unworthy of social intercourse and an outcast.

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**Details of the Ceremony: Meaning of the term 'Upanayana'.** We shall now go into the details of the important ceremony of Upanayana and bring out their full educational significance.

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The term *Upanayana* (from *upa* + *nī*) literally means the introduction of the pupil, but it is not the introduction of the pupil to the teacher by his father or any other relation. The texts imply that it is the introduction of the pupil to *brahmacharya* by the teacher himself. The pupil enters upon (*upaiti*) *brahmacharya* or enters with the teacher and he who has thus entered upon studentship is designated *upeta* [*Śāṅkhā.* iv. 8, 1; Pāraskara, iii, 10, 10]. In this sense, the word *Upāyana* is sometimes used for the more usual term Upanayana [*Smṛiti-Chandrikā*, pp. 67, 68]. This sense is anticipated, as we have seen, in the *Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa* where [xi, 5, 3, 13] Śaucheya says to Uddālaka Āruṇi: "I will enter as a student with the reverend one (*upāyāmi bhagavantam*)." Āruṇi replies: "Come, enter (with me) (*ehyupehi*)," and "he initiated him" (*taṁ hopaninye*). In another passage [xi, 5, 4, 16], it is stated that, according to some, a teacher who has initiated a Brāhmaṇa as a student (*brāhmaṇaṁ brahmacharyaṁ upanīya*) should abstain from sexual intercourse, because a student who enters upon *brahmacharya* becomes as it were a *garbha* [*SBE.*, xxix, p. 58].

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The later text *Vīramitrodaya* describes Upanayana as "the ceremony by which a *dvija* is brought into contact with the following, viz. Guru, Vrata, Veda, Yama, Niyama, and the Devatās "

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The Student's Uniform. The first step in Upanayana is to impose upon the pupil certain external marks of differentiation concerning his dress, equipment, and appearance by which he is singled out and recognized.

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‘Ajina.’ The Brahmachārī is to wear *Ajina* or upper garment of the skin of certain animals. It should be the skin of *Krishna* or *Eṇa*, black buck, for a Brāhmaṇa ; of *Ruru*, or spotted deer, for a Kshatriya ; of *Vasta* or *Aja*, goat, for a Vaiśya [Bṛihaspati ; Yama ; Śaṅkha]. It may also be the skin of the cow (*gavyam*) for all, according to Pāraskara (*sarveshām vā gavyam*).

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‘Vāsa.’ Vāsa is the lower garment which may be made of the following materials, viz. (1) *śāṇa*, hemp ; (2) *kshauma*, fibre of *atasi* plant ; (3) *chīra*, *darbha*, or *kuśa* grass ; (4) *kutapa*, wool derived from mountain goats and used to make *kambala* or blankets ; and (5) *kārpāsa*, cotton. According to Vasishṭha, it may be only woven cotton cloth (*tāntavam*). But it should be woven or manufactured in the home of the pupil for purposes of the ceremony [*Vāsaḥ sadyaḥ kṛittotam* (Baudhāyana, *G.S.*, ii, 5, 11)]. This shows the use of loom and *khaddar* in every household in those days. According to *Taittirīya Āraṇyaka* [ii, 1], cloth could alternate with skin (*ajinaṁ vāso vā dakshiṇataḥ upavīya*).

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According to Manu, the Brāhmaṇa should use *Vāsa* of *Śāṇa*, the Kshatriya of *Kshauma*, and the Vaiśya of *Avika* or goat's wool. But most texts agree that different castes should use *Vāsa* of different colours. The Brāhmaṇa should use his *Kārpāsa* which is white, clean, and fresh, and coloured red with *manjishṭhā*. The Kshatriya should have his *Kshauma* cloth coloured yellow, and the Vaiśya *Kauśeya* cloth [Vasishṭha]. According to Āpastamba, the Brāhmaṇa should use cloth coloured with *kashāya*, a vegetable dye (*vṛiksha-kashāya-nirmitaṁ vārksham*), the Kshatriya *māñjishtha* cloth, and the Vaiśya *hāridra* cloth:

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‘Daṇḍa.’ The Brahmachārī is also to be equipped with a *daṇḍa* or staff of wood of lengths which are different for different castes. The different woods mentioned are Bilva, Palāśa, Vaṭa, Khadira, Pilava, Udumbara, Plaksha, Nyagrodha, Vetasa, Aśvattha, and, failing these, any wood fit for use in sacrifice (*yajñīya*). It should reach up to head in length for a Brāhmaṇa, up to forehead for a Kshatriya, and up to nose for a Vaiśya.

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But in all cases, it should be straight, beautiful, non-terrifying (*anudbegakara*), unburnt, and in its natural condition (*satvacha*) [Yama].

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‘Mekhalā.’ The Brahmachārī’s uniform also comprises a *mekhalā* or girdle made of different materials for different castes. It is *muñja* grass for the Brāhmaṇa, *jyā* (bowstring) for Kshatriya (symbolizing his military avocation), and *śaṇa*, thread for the Vaiśya. It may also be of rope used for yoking the oxen to the plough (symbolical of agriculture as his occupation).

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Symbolism of Uniform. There is spiritual significance behind each of these external marks prescribed for the Brahmachārī. Āpastamba states [*D.S.*, i, 1, 3, 9]: “He who wishes the increase of Brāhmaṇa power shall wear *Ajina* (skins) only; he who wishes the increase of Kshatriya power shall wear cloth only; he who wishes the increase of both shall wear both [cf. *Gopatha Brāhmaṇa*, i, 2, 4]. Hiraṇyakeśin [i, 1, 4, 6] calls the skin as “a chaste, mobile vesture”. The symbolism of *Vāsa* or garment is thus explained by Pāraskara [ii, 2, 7]: “In the way in which Bṛihaspati put the garment of immortality on Indra, thus I put (this garment) on thee, for the sake of long life, of old age, of strength, of splendour.” Hiraṇyakeśin [i, 1, 4, 2-3] extends still further this symbolism by stating that the student puts on the garment that he may be clothed “with long life, in the increase of wealth, and be a protector of human beings against imprecations”.

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The *Mekhalā* was made of a triple chord to indicate the protection of the three Vedas encircling the child. It was tied round his waist to the recitation of verses stating that it was a daughter of the deity *Śraddhā* (Faith) and a sister of the sages (*svasā ṛishīṇām*), born of *tapas* (*tapaso’dhijātā*) [*Av.*, 133, 4], the protector of purity (*ṛita*), and asceticism (*tapas*), against evil [Varāha, *Gṛ. S.*, 5]. Hiraṇyakeśin calls the *Mekhalā* “the blessed one who has come to us, who drives away sin, purifying, our guard, and our protection” [i, 1, 4, 4]. Gobhila [ii, 10, 37] and Pāraskara [ii, 2, 8] also call the *Mekhalā* the girdle of protection.

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The *Daṇḍa* also has a spiritual meaning. According to Pāraskara [ii, 2, 12–13], the student is to be equipped with it “for the sake of long life, holiness, holy lustre”, or because “he enters upon a long Sattra” [cf. *Śatapatha*, xi, 3, 3, 2; Kātyāyana, *Śr. S.*, vii, 4, 1–4]. *Mānava Gṛ. S.*, i, 22, 11 takes the staff as an aid to the traveller on the quest of Truth. *Varāha Gṛ. S.*, 6 takes it to indicate that, armed with it, the Brahmachārī will guard the Vedas. Aparārka (on Yājñavalkya, i, 29) takes a materialistic view of it as a weapon of defence to the Brahmachārī when he is out in the forests to collect firewood, in darkness, or unknown places like a tank or river.

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‘Yajñopavīta.’ The equipment of the Brahmachārī is completed by the *Yajñopavīta* or sacred cord to be worn by him in three sets of three threads each. These nine threads (*tantu*) are consecrated to the following nine deities who impart to them their own potency, viz. (1) Oṁkāra, (2) Agni, (3) Nāga, (4) Soma, (5) Piṭri, (6) Prajāpati, (7) Vāyu, (8) Sūrya, (9) All Deities together. The thread is to be made of cotton (*kārpāsa*) for a Brahmaṇa, of *śaṇa* for a Kshatriya, and of goat’s skin for a Vaiśya [Manu]. “He who does not know the divine origin and significance of the Upavīta will have all his religious ceremonies such as Snāna, Dāna, or Japa fruitless.” [See *Smṛiti-Chandrikā*, pp. 68–85, for most of above references.]

Dressing of Hair

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There are rules for the arrangement of the *hair* which were determined not by the individual choice of the student but by the custom of his family, school, or country. The following ways of arranging the hair are mentioned, viz. shaving the head, wearing the hair tied in a braid, or keeping merely a lock on the crown of the head tied in a braid (shaving the other portions of the head) [*Āpa.*, i, 2, 31–2; 30, 8, etc.].

Preliminary Queries

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When the intending pupil is thus properly dressed, he had to satisfy some preliminary queries put to him by the teacher before he initiates him. The first query was as regards his name and lineage. The second asked him to declare formally that he wants admission as a disciple. The form of the declaration is thus prescribed by Hiraṇyakeśin [i, 2, 5, 2]: “I have come hither to be a student. Initiate me! I will be a student, impelled by the god Savitṛi.” Pāraskara makes the teacher ask the pupil, “Whose pupil art thou?” and the pupil answer, “Yours” [ii, 2, 19–20]. The object of this was probably to make the pupil promise that he would abide by the rules of *brahmacharya* upon which he would be presently entering. According to Vishṇu [xxix, 5, 9, 10] the teacher must not admit to his teaching one whom he does not know. There are also laid down certain moral conditions qualifying a pupil for admission. “He must not be a scorner, a wicked man, or one of uncontrolled passions; he must be pure, attentive, possessed of a good memory, and chaste, who will not grieve nor revile the teacher, to whom the sacred knowledge can be revealed as to a keeper of one's gem" [cf. Manu, ii, 109 (ten persons eligible for Vedic instruction), 112–15].

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**Invocations.** The student is then committed to the charge of the gods with prayers varying also with his caste. The Brāhmaṇa is committed for the sake of great learning, the Kshatriya for great royalty, and the Vaiśya for great wealth [*Hiraṇya.* i, 1, 4, 8]. According to Śāṅkhāyana [ii, 2, 13–14], "those who are desirous of a host of adherents should be initiated with the verse: 'Thee, the Lord of Hosts' [*Ṛv.*, ii, 23, 1]," and "warriors, with the verse: 'Come here, do not come to harm'" [*Ṛv.*, viii, 20, 1].

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**Prayers.** Some of the prayers used in the performance of the ceremony indicate the objects of education. They are both religious and secular and such as are necessary for the harmonious development of a man's nature. The pupil prays to the gods for insight, offspring, splendour, strength, and vigour [*Āśval.*, i, 21, 4]. The gods invoked are named Bhaga, Yama, Aryamā, and Savitṛi. Savitṛi was invoked to ward off evils like disease and death [ib., *Gṛ. S.*, i, 20, 6 (*Deva Savitaresha Te Brahma-chārī sa mā mṛitaḥ*)], In the Śāṅkhāyana [ii, 3, 1] he prays for long life, offspring, and strength, increase of wealth, mastery of all the Vedas, fame, and bliss. Pāraskara [ii, 4, 3] makes him worship Agni with the following poetic prayer: "To Agni have I brought a piece of wood. As thou, Agni, art inflamed by wood, thus am I inflamed by life, insight, vigour, offspring, cattle, holy lustre." Hiraṇyakeśin [i, 2, 5, 13] has the prayer for offspring, valiant sons, splendour, wealth, wisdom, and pupils (for the student must develop into a teacher and help forward the spread of learning). There is also a special prayer for intelligence [i, 2, 6, 4]. He has also a similar prayer to Agni: "As thou art inflamed, Agni, through that piece of wood, thus inflame me through wisdom, insight, offspring, cattle, holy lustre, and through the enjoyment of food" [i, 2, 7, 2].

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