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Ancient Indian Education (Brahmanical and Buddhist) c8: Chapter I: Some Vedic Concepts and Terms

Ancient Indian Education (Brahmanical and Buddhist) c8

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Chapter I: Some Vedic Concepts and Terms

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‘**Key-words.**’ Vedic education is to be studied as an integral part of Vedic Thought and Life. It will be best understood in the light of certain concepts and technical terms in which are concealed and stored up the traditions governing the general philosophy and scheme of life of the Vedic age. These terms came to be established as the outcome of important movements and trends of thought which they reflect. In some cases, as will be seen below, they directly point to the educational principles and institutions which were typical of the culture of the age. They are the “key-words” of Vedic Culture, supplying the cue to much of Vedic Thought that appears to be somewhat mystical and mysterious, and strange to modern ways of thinking. A study of these is a necessary preliminary to an adequate appreciation of the system of Vedic Education, its ideals and institutions. These terms are, therefore, discussed at the outset.

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‘**Veda.**’ The term *Veda* is from root *Vid*, to know, and indicates that by which is obtained the knowledge of the ways and means of achieving spiritual ends (Alaukikaṁ purushārthopāyaṁ vetti aneneti). Its meaning is also defined in the following text:—

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Pratyaksheṇānumityā vā yastūpāyo na vudhyate |
Etaṁ vidanti Vedena tasmād Vedasya Vedatā ||

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“The end which cannot be known by the evidence of direct perception, inference, and the like, can be known through Veda and, therefore, this determines the character of *Veda*.”

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**Its Subject-matter: (1) ‘Dharma’ and (2) ‘Brahma’.** The subject-matter of Veda, therefore, is described as twofold: (1) *Dharma* and (2) *Brahma* which can be known only through the Veda and not through any other source [*Dharmabrahmaṇī Vedaikavedye* (Jaimini, Pūrva-Mīmāṁsā Sutra)]. *Dharma* is something which is not objective or within the ken of sense-perception. It is the fruit of the performance of prescribed rites and is something which is not visible (adṛishṭamiti sarvairabhidhīyate). Similarly, *Brahma*, too, has been explained as something which, as the Cause of Creation, can be known only through the evidence of Śāstras (Śāstrādeva pramāṇāt jagatojanmādi-kāraṇaṁ Brahmādhigamyate). There is also the Śruti text : NāVedavinmanute taṁ bṛihantam [*Tai. Br.*, iii, 12, 9, 7] ; "*He who does not know the Veda cannot comprehend Brahma*," because, as further pointed out, *Brahma*, being formless and causeless, cannot be known except through the Veda.

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The Veda imparts the knowledge of its aforesaid two subjects, *Dharma* and *Brahma*, in its three parts called (1) *Pūrva*- or *Karma-kāṇḍa*, (2) *Madhya*- or *Devatā* (*Upāsanā*)-*Kāṇḍa*, and (3) *Uttara*- or *Jñāna-kāṇḍa*.

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The term *Veda* is also taken to denote the whole literature made up of two different portions called *Mantra* and *Brāhmaṇa*, as pointed out in the following texts : "*Mantra-Brāhmaṇāt-makaḥ Śabdarāśir Veda iti*," "The Veda is that mass of words which constitute Mantra and Brāhmaṇa works" ; *Mantra-Brāhmaṇayor Vedanāmadheyam* [Āpastamba in *Yajña-pari-bhāshā*], "Mantra and Brāhmaṇa are both called *Veda*."¹

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¹ It is interesting to note that this orthodox Hindu view of the Veda being made up of *Mantra* and *Brāhmaṇa* has been practically accepted by Bloomfield who states [*JAOS.*, xv, 144] "that *Mantra* and *Brāhmaṇa* are for the least part chronological distinctions ; that they represent two modes of literary activity, and two modes of literary speech, which are largely contemporaneous. . . . Both forms existed together, for aught we know, from the earliest times ; only the redaction of the *Mantra* collections seems on the whole to have preceded the redaction of the *Brāhmaṇas*. . . . The hymns of the Rigveda, like those of the other three Vedas, were liturgical from the very start. This means that they form only a fragment . . . late texts and commentaries may contain the correct explanation."

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‘*Mantra*.’ Yāska [*Nirukta*, vii, 3, 6] derives the word *Mantra* from *manana*, "thinking," so that it means an "instrument of thought", speech, sacred text addressed to a deity. Yāska [*Ib.*, vii, 1, 1] further defines *Mantra* to mean the words employed by Ṛishis in praise of the Gods for fulfilment of those desires (*artha*) which are in their gift (*arthāpatyam*). Thus the Mantras are meant to be recited for the performance of worship in the form of what is called a *Yajña* or sacrifice. The entire Mantra portion of the Veda derives its usefulness from its practical application at the performance of sacrifices (*prayogasamavedārthasmārakā mantrāḥ*).

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Jaimini, in his Pūrva-Mīmāṁsā Sūtras, has pointed out that the Mantras have a double significance. They convey a mystical meaning and produce unseen results, for which their mere recitation according to the prescribed order of their words (*pāṭha-kramaniyama*) is sufficient (*Mantrāṇāṁ adṛishṭārtha-* *muchchāraṇa-mātram*; *uchchāraṇāt adṛishṭārthāḥ*). But they also convey a meaning for the fact that the sense of a sentence (*vākyārtha*) can always be deduced from the relations of its constituent parts like verbs and cases, whether the sentence is in Vedic or secular speech (*kriyā-kāraka-sambandhena pratīyamāno vākyārtho lokaVedayoraviśishṭaḥ*) [Jaimini, i, 2, 40]. Therefore, while the Mantras must be properly pronounced to secure their spiritual effects, their meanings also must be properly mastered with the aid of the six Vedāṅgas.

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The Mantras have a threefold meaning, (1) Spiritual (adhyātma), concerning Knowledge and Liberation (*jñāna* and *mukti*), (2) Etymological (Nairukta), concerning objective truths, and (3) Ritualistic (Yājñika), concerning Sacrifices. The *Yājñika* interpretation of Mantras is the subject of Pūrva-Mīmāṁsā, and the other two interpretations, of Uttara-Mīmāṁsā.

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‘**Āhāva**.’ The Vedic Mantras had been growing from time immemorial. Their earliest forms are known as *Āhāva*, a “call” to worship or *śaṁsana* in the words: “*Śaṁsāva* Om,” “Let us invoke the formless Parabrahma.” The priest called Hotā makes this call which is answered by the Adhvaryu priest by the words: *Śaṁsāmo Daivom*, “Yes, sir, let us now begin the invocation of the Supreme Being.” This reply to the *Āhāva* is technically called *Pratigara*. That *Āhāva* is the earliest Mantra is shown by the fact that it contains the Mantra of one letter, viz., *Om* or Praṇava which is regarded as the original Vedic Mantra and called *Akshara* in *Ṛv*., x, 13, 3.

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‘**Nivid**.’ Another early form of the Mantra is known as *Nivid*. Its origin is described in the *Aitareya-Brāhmaṇa*. Prajāpati, filled with desire for creation, gave himself up to *tapas* in silence for a year, and then uttered the first Word twelve times, from which emerged the Universe. This Word of twelve syllables is known as *Nivid*. *Nivids* are described as being ‘ancient’ (*pūrva*) and “many” in several passages in the Rigveda such as i, 89, 3; i, 96, 2; ii, 36, 63, and referred to in iv, 18, 7 and vi, 67, 10.

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‘**Saṁhitā**.’ The collection of Mantras is called *Saṁhitā*. For ages the Vedic Mantras remained one and undivided till the needs of worship which became more and more systematized called for an arrangement and a division in accordance with its scheme. Tradition ascribes this division to Kṛishṇa-Dvaipāyana Veda-Vyāsa, who made a fourfold division of the Vedic Mantras and created out of them four Vedic Saṁhitās known as Ṛik, Sāma, Yajus, and Atharva, which he imparted in the first instance respectively to his pupils named Paila, Vaiśampāyāna, Jaimini, and Sumantu.

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The principle of this division rests on that of division of labour among the different classes of *Ṛitvikas* or priests, co-operating in the performance of worship or *Yajña*. It is very well explained by Yāska [*Nirukta*, i, 8] who quotes Rigveda, x, 71, 11, in which it is stated: "One priest nourishes the *ṛiks*."

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This means that it is the duty of the priest named *Hotā*, at the time of the sacrifice, to make ready his collection of the *Ṛiks* gathered from different places, and fix it as his *śastra*. Yāska takes the word "*ṛik*" as equivalent to "*archanī*" or invocation of a deity. The Śastra of the Hotā was thus separated and became known as the Rigveda Saṁhitā in which, therefore, were brought together all the Ṛiks which were "*chhando-vaddha*", i.e. which were in the form of verse or metre.

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"Another priest has to sing the Gāyatra as his function at the sacrifice." This priest is called the *Udgātā* whose duty was to sing the *Ṛik* verses. The collection of the Ṛiks in the form of songs is known as Sāma-Veda Saṁhitā, of which the custodian is the Udgātā.

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"The duty of another priest was to measure out the whole structure of the sacrifice (*yajñasya mātrāṁ vimimīta*)". This priest is called the Adhvaryu, literally, one who yokes (*yunakti*) the *adhvara* or sacrifice, one who is the leader (*netā*) of adhvara. He is the custodian of the collection of all the Ṛiks that are in prose and suitable for application in the material performance of the Yajña. This collection is known as the Yajurveda Saṁhitā, the term *yajus* being from *yajati*, to sacrifice.

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Yāska next points out that the Yajurveda determines the body of the Yajña, of which the other two Vedas serve as limbs and supplements by supplying the required *Stotra* and *Śastra*, hymns and mantras. The Yajurveda is thus the mainstay upon which depend the other Vedas (*Upajīvyasya Yajurvedasya*).

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The three Vedic Saṁhitās aforesaid are known as *Trayī*.

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But, according to the Rigvedic passage cited by Yāska, the performance of a *Yajña* depends upon a fourth Ṛitvik called *Brahmā* whose duty is to give directions to the other priests regarding their duties and prevent their errors (*sati pramāde samādhātuṁ samarthaḥ*). Therefore, he was one who was proficient in all the three Vedas (*Sarvavidyaḥ ... Vedatrayoktasarva-karmābhijñaḥ*). Yāska cites Chhāndogya-Upanishad [iv, 16, 1, 2] to explain further the status of the Brahmā priest. "Of Yajña there are two ways, the way of Mind and the way of Words (*Manaścha Vāk cha vartanī Yajñasya*). The way of Mind is cultivated by Brahmā and the way of Words by the three priests, Hotā, Udgātā, and Adhvaryu." This means that the Brahmā priest has to ensure the proper performance of the Yajña as a whole and in parts and to revolve in his mind its entire plan to prevent its errors (*pramādarāhityāya manasā samyaganusandheyaḥ*): The other three priests jointly are responsible for uttering the Mantras of their respective Vedas. The Brahmā alone was responsible for the success and efficacy of the Yajña, its execution in accordance with its inherent purpose and spirit (*Brahmā tu eka eva manorūpaṁ yajñabhāgaṁ saṁskaroti*), while the other three priests looked to its letter, its textual performance, and were responsible for its words as they were needed (*Vāgrūpaṁ yajñamārgaṁ saṁskurvanti*).

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It will thus appear that the Vedic Mantras which were later classified into four Saṁhitās were inspired by the needs of prayer and worship in the form of performance of Yajñas or sacrifices. While the Adhvaryu prepared the ground of the Yajña and constructed its altar and platform on which he sat and offered oblations, the *Hotā* uttered the Ṛiks to invoke the deity of worship and the Udgātā would go round the altar chanting the relevant Sāma Ṛiks, while the Brahmā kept the master's eye on every detail of the worship and the fulfilment of its general scheme and underlying spiritual purpose.

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The knowledge of a Vedic Mantra should mean the knowledge of its five particulars, viz. (1) the *Ṛishi* to whom the Mantra is ascribed, (2) the Metre (Chhandas) of the Mantra, (3) the Deity to whom it is addressed, (4) the purpose or ceremony for which it is applied (Viniyoga), and (5) the meaning of its words (*Śabaārtha* as well as *Adṛishṭārtha*).

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‘**Brāhmaṇa.**’ Besides the *Mantra* portion, the Veda has also what is called the *Brāhmaṇa* portion. The word Brāhmaṇa is connected with the word *Brahma* which is a synonym of the word *Mantra*. Literally speaking, Mantra is that by which the *manana* or contemplation of God is attempted, while *Brahma* is that by which the worship of God is expanded or elaborated (from *bṛiṁhita*). The literature bearing upon *Brahma* is known as *Brāhmaṇa*.

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The controversy regarding the differentiation between *Mantra* and *Brāhmaṇa* portions of the Veda has been settled by the simple solution that the *Brāhmaṇa* portion of the Veda is that which is left over after what the *Yājñikas* (the sacrificial priests) select and count as Mantras [*Tachchodakeshu Mantrākhyā śeshe Brāhmaṇaśabdaḥ* (Jaimini, Sū. ii, 1, 32)].

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The Brāhmaṇa texts are marked by a twofold subject-matter, viz. (1) *Vidhi* (Injunction) and (2) *Arthavāda*. As defined by Āpastamba, "Brāhmaṇa texts are those which are injunctive of some action (*Karmachodanā Brāhmaṇāni*) [*Yajña. Pari. Su.*, 32, 33], while their remainder is known as *Arthavāda*." *Vidhis*, again, are of two kinds: (1) *Apravṛittapravartanam*, "enjoining an act which may not be performed," and (2) *Ajñāta-jñāpanam*, "making known what is unknown." Of these, the first kind of *Vidhi* relates to rituals dealt with in the *Karmakāṇḍa* of the Veda. These *Vidhi-Vākyas* are the source of Dharma (*Vidhivākyaṁ Dharme pramāṇam*). The other kind of Vidhi, which imparts new knowledge, belongs to the Brahma-Kāṇḍa of Veda, e.g. the knowledge that "Atman alone is the only Reality that existed" (*Ātmā vā idameka evāgra āsīt* in *Ait. Ār.*, ii, 4, 1).

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The *Arthavāda*, like *Vidhi*, is equally a part of the Veda. The Arthavāda is really supplementary to Vidhi and is essential to the performance of *Dharma*, one of the objectives of the Veda itself. The *Arthavāda* supplies inspiration and stimulus for worshippers not sufficiently exerting themselves in the execution of *Vidhis*. As is stated in the text, "Vidhi and Arthavāda are mutually dependent (*sākāṁkshau*). Vidhi points out duties, Arthavāda points out their merits (*praśastya*) and instigates their performance. Therefore, the Veda is made up of three integral parts, *Mantra*, *Vidhi*, and *Arthavāda*.

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A part of the Brāhmaṇa literature is distinguished by the name of *Āraṇyaka*. Brahmachārīs, who wanted to continue as such, without marrying, in pursuit of knowledge, were called *Araṇas* or *Araṇamānas*. These *Araṇas* lived in hermitages in the forests outside the villages or centres of population. The forests where these *Araṇa* ascetics lived were called *Araṇyas*. The philosophical speculations of these learned ascetics regarding such ultimate problems as Brahma, Creation, Soul, or Immortality are embodied in works called *Āraṇyakas*.

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The last development of the Brāhmaṇa literature is seen in the *Upanishads* which directly expound the knowledge of Brahma and form that portion of *Vidhi* which is described as *ajñātajñāpanam*, as shown above. It is, however, to be noted that the origin of the Upanishads, the roots of their system, are to be found in the Rigveda itself, of which the underlying note and a considerable part are inspired by the conception of Brahma as the sole, ultimate, and all-pervading Reality, rather than Dharma or Yajña. This will be shown in its proper place below.

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It may also be noted that the characteristic of Brāhmaṇa literature is its method of deliberation and discussion and that, of its three divisions, the *Brāhmaṇas* were meant for *grihasthas*, householders, the *Āraṇyakas* for the *Vānaprasthas* or hermits, and the *Upanishads* for *Sannyāsis*.

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‘**Yajña.**’ The term *Yajña* is derived from root *yaj*, to worship. Those words by which worship is performed are called *yajus*. Worship was performed in the form of what is called a *Yajña*. As the Veda itself is to serve the purposes of this kind of worship or Yajña which was performed primarily by the use of *yajus*, the *Yajurveda*, as we have seen, counts as the most important of the four Vedas, while some of its parts are also the most ancient.

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**Its Requisites.** The object of *yajana* or worship is called *Yajata* in Vedic language. These *Yajatas* were formless manifestations of the Supreme Being or Brahma for whose worship there was no need of any material temple or shrine. The worshippers were called *Yajamānas*. They performed their worship or *yajña* by means of meditation or *manana* with the aid of the words called *Mantras*. Thus the utterance of the Mantra was essential to the performance of this kind of worship or *yajña* by which the *Yajata* or the deity was approached and invoked by mortals.

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Besides the invocation, *āhvāna*, of the deity by the utterance of the proper Mantras, the next requisite of a *Yajña* is what is called *āhuti* or sacrifice of oblations, of something which the worshipper holds dear and valuable. The oblations are offered to Agni or Fire kindled in the altar, *Vedi*, specially prepared for the purpose. Men approached God through Agni who invoked Him on their behalf and is thus called the *Hotā*. The essence of *Yajña* is thus sacrifice or offering as proof of devotion to the Deity.

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‘**Yajña’ as Symbol of Creation.** Vedic thought conceived of Yajña as a symbol or representation of creation and its processes as understood by it. As each individual creature is fundamentally subject to the laws governing Creation as a whole and is a part of the cosmic plan and purpose towards the fulfilment of which it is his supreme duty to contribute by his own self-fulfilment, the Veda invented this most wonderful device of the Yajña as a visible picture of his *Dharma* or religion to remind him of the laws of his being and of his supreme duty aforesaid. The conception of Yajña is thus modelled on that of Creation as presented in Vedic Literature and first indicated in the hymns of the Rigveda, especially the hymns x, 81, 82, 90, 121, 129. Of these, x, 90 is the famous Purusha-Sūkta first presenting the whole process of creation as a *Yajña*. At this primordial and original Yajña, the Creator of the Universe called the *Virāṭ-Purusha* created the universe by offering Himself up as the sacrifice to provide the foundation upon which the structure could rise and rest and the very material out of which it could be constructed. The Śruti text, *Rv.* x, 81, asks the fundamental questions: "Kiṁ svit āsīt adhishṭhānaṁ ārambhaṇaṁ"; "Kiṁ svit vanaṁ ka u sa vṛiksha āsa yato dyāvā-pṛithivī nishṭatakshuḥ"; "Yat adhyatishṭhat bhuvanāni dhārayan"; "Where was the place, what the material, where was the forest, and which the tree, to which the Architect of the Universe resorted in creating it?"

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**Its Inner Meaning.** The Purusha-Sūkta answers this question by stating that the Virāṭ-Purusha, wishing for creation, wishing that the One should create the Many (*āśishā = vahu syāṁ prajāyeya* in x, 81, 1), found in His self-immolation the only means of building up His wished-for creation, for which He sacrificed Himself as the Animal out of Whose body was created the Universe comprising Nature with all its forces and agents like the Sun and Moon, organic and inorganic matter, different forms of life, and Society with its classes. The Animal was tied to a *yūpa* or post before it was sacrificed. The significance of this is that the Infinite chose to become finite, the Immortal mortal, the Great became small. Thus God is in every creature, high or low. This is the essence of Vedic thought or Hinduism. As the Śruti says [*Rv.* x, 81, 1]: "Sa āśishā draviṇamichchhamānaḥ prathamachchhadavarān āviveśa" [Sa Parameśvara āśishā vahu syāṁ prajāyeya ityevaṁ rūpayā punaḥ punaḥ sisṛikshayā draviṇamichchhamānaḥ dhanopalakshitaṁ jagadbhogamākāṅkshamāṇaḥ prathamachchhat prathamaṁ mukhyaṁ nishprapañchaṁ pāramārthikaṁ rūpaṁ āvṛiṇvan avarān svasṛishṭān prāṇihṛidaya-pradeśānāviveśa" (Sāyaṇa)] "He, the One, again and again, wishing to be Many, wishing for the enjoyment of this world of riches, concealed His primary Self (Absolute and Unconditioned) and created the world of objects and minds into each of which He entered." Man also, like his Creator, has to embrace mortality and the limited life of the world, like the sacrificial animal tied to the *yūpa*. He must bind himself to the ties of relationship, tie the animal in him to the *yūpa* of self-control, and sacrifice that animal at life's *yajña*. Through the limits of individual life, the individual thus attains the Absolute by sacrifice. The Purusha-Sūkta also lays down the doctrine of self-sacrifice as constituting the true worship of the Divine, while the device of Yajña was evolv to give a concrete shape to this doctrine.

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**Virāṭ Purusha.** The Purusha-Sūkta further states that the Virāṭ Purusha sacrificed Himself to Himself. X, 81, 1, makes this clear by stating that the Supreme God chooses (by way of what is called His *līlā*) to offer up the whole Universe as an oblation to Himself. The Universe is periodically dissolved in Him who remains the sole Creator to recreate it: "*Ya imā visvā bhuvanāni juhūt ṚishirHotā nyasīdat Pitā naḥ.*" This only means that creation includes a process of evolution and its ultimate dissolution by involution in the Source from Which it arises. As we have seen, Creation originates with the desire of Brahma: "*Saḥ akāmayata bahu syāṁ prajāyeya,*" "Let Me be Many, let Me grow." This indicates three stages in creation, viz. (1) His Will "to be", called *Bhūḥ*, (2) Process of "being", manifestation, called *Bhuvaḥ*, and (3) the manifestations themselves called *Svaḥ*. These three correspond to: (1) *Prāṇa*, the life breathed into creation; (2) *Prakṛiti*, processes of biological evolution; and (3) *Prakriyā*, what *Prāṇa* grows into. These three stages in creation are indicated in the three constituent elements of the word *Yajña*, viz. (1) *Ya* = *saṁyata, antasthaḥ*, implicit, implied; (2) *Jana* = *janma*, manifestation, what is rendered explicit; (3) *As* = the growth itself, the manifested state. Thus the Vedic philosophy of creation is that "we are all evolved out of His will, by His will we are emancipated and merged in Him after growth or expansion": "*Yato vā imāni bhūtāni jāyante Yena jātāni jīvanti Yat prayantyabhisaṁvisanti.*"

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**Dynamic Universe.** It is also to be understood that the world aptly called *Jagat*, "evolving," "moving," is not something that is static or stationary. It is emanating every moment into different objects. It is but the ceaseless working of "the Will of Brahma, the One, to be Many". This Will is being worked out by various agencies and forces like the Sun and Moon, Fire, Storm, Cloud, Rain, and the like, and these are conceived of as so many Manifestations of the Divine, and worshipped as so many deities, the *Adhi-Devatās* behind the cosmic forces shaping Creation. These Devatās are, like His Agents, carrying out the desire of Brahma for creation and are themselves His creation. All individuals thus created are called the *Kshara-purushas*, as distinguished from Brahma the *Akshara-Purusha* (the Eternal Being) or *Uttama-Purusha* (the Supreme Being) in the Upanishads. These *Devatās* are, therefore, aiding in the evolution of Creation and in the performance of the primeval Yajna by which the *Virāṭ-Purusha* outshapes Himself in Creation, as stated in the Purusha-Sūkta.

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**Prajāpati.** We have already seen that the requisites of a *Yajña* are Invocation (*āhvāna*), Fire (Agni), Sacrifice (*āhuti*), and the Altar (*Vedi*) where oblation is offered to fire. At first the altar was a simple structure 1 ut, later, in the *Brāhmaṇa* texts, it is very much elaborated to bring out its underlying spiritual significance. As Eggeling puts it [*SBE*, 43, pp. xiv-xxiv], "in the building of the fire altar, the Brahmans sought to symbolize the constitution of the unity of the universe." As further pointed out by Professor A. B. Keith [*CHI*, i, 142], "in the Purusha hymn of the Rigveda occurs the conception of the creation of the Universe from the Purusha. . . . The Purusha is Prajāpati, 'lord of creatures' and the sacrifice is conceived as constantly recurring in order to maintain the existence of the Universe. To render this possible is the end of the fire altar, the building of which is the reconstruction of the Universe in the shape of Prajāpati. Prajāpati, again, is identified with Agni, the fire of the altar, and both Prajāpati and Agni are the divine counterparts of the human sacrifice. But Prajāpati is himself Time, and Time is in the long run Death, so that the sacrificer himself becomes death, and by that act rises superior to Death and is for ever removed from the world of illusion and trouble to the world of everlasting bliss. In this the true nature of Prajāpati and of the sacrificer is revealed as Intelligence and the Satapatha Brāhmana urges the seeker for truth to meditate upon the Self, made up of Intelligence and endowed with a body of spirit, a form of Light and an ethereal nature."

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'**Sarvahuta' the Supreme.** It is also to be noted that in the Purusha-Sūkta the Supreme Being is called *Sarvahuta*, i.e. He who is invoked by all in whatever Yajñas they perform. He is also called *Yajña*, i.e. as *Yajanīya*, the Object of worship, as explained by Sāyaṇa. The hymn thus makes clear the position as pointed out by Sāyaṇa that though worship or *Yajña* is offered by individuals to different deities, all such worship is fundamentally the worship of the One Supreme God. As Sāyaṇa states: “Though Indra and other deities are invoked in this and that Yajña, it must be understood that it is the Supreme God who exists in the form of those deities (yadyapīndrādayastatra tatra hūyante tathāpi Paramesvarasyaivendrādirūpeṇāvasthānādavirodhaḥ). Sāyaṇa, to prove his contention, cites *Rv.* i, 164, 46: “*Vipras* (the enlightened Sages) call the One Reality (*ekaṁ sat*) by many names such as Indra, Varuṇa, Mitra, Agni, Yama, Vāyu, or Āditya.” And also Bṛihadāraṇyaka Upanishad [i, 4, 6]: “Now, what (the ritualists) say, ‘Worship This, Worship That’ (thinking Each to be) a different Deity: (it is but a misconception); this multiplicity (of gods) is but His (Manifestation) It is but He who comprehends all the gods.” Therefore, Sāyaṇa lays down the fundamental position thus: “In all Yajñas where different deities are invoked, it is the Supreme God who is really invoked (sarvairapi Parameśvara eva hūyate).”

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The Rigveda is full of such sacrifices to different deities and they are to be understood as forms of prayer and methods of approach to the Most High. The *Yajñas*, as explained above, were evolved as modes of invocation of the Infinite and possessed of profound spiritual significance and educational value as aids to self-realization.

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*‘Yajña’ as Sacrifice.* All these Yajñas were modelled on the primordial *Yajña* of the *Virāṭ Purusha* mentioned above, as stated in the text: “Chā kapre tena Ṛishayo Manushyāḥ yajñe yāte Pitaro naḥ purāṇe,” “Pitṛis, Men, and Ṛishis performed *Yajñas* after that primeval Yajña.”

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This Divine Yajña shows creation in its three processes, *Sṛishṭi* (Beginning), *Sthiti* (Evolution), and *Pralaya* (Dissolution and Emancipation), as indicated in Rigvedic hymns like x, 81 cited above. The human *Yajñas* were so modelled as to symbolize and signify this mystery and meaning of creation. They were based on sacrifice as the essence of Yajña, but man’s sacrifice could not be as complete as God’s. Instead of offering himself up as sacrifice, he thought of symbolic and vicarious sacrifice. An animal was seized for sacrifice on behalf of the sacrificer. This kind of ceremony was called *Paśu-yāga*. But Vedic religion did not countenance such bloody sacrificing of animals by violence. As the *Chhāndogya Upanishad* [iii, 6] puts it: “Na vai Devā aśnanti na pivanti etadeva amṛitaṁ dṛishṭvā tṛipyanti”; “the gods who do not eat or drink should not be offered meat tainted with violence.” Thus sacrifice at a *Yajña* meant self-sacrifice.

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Even where animals were sacrificed, only a few select parts of the animals were offered as oblations, but not their blood which was given away to demons. Eventually, the sacrifice of animals was replaced by the offering of *Puroḍāśa*, a cake of *vrīhi* or *yava* (rice or barley) and the *Paśu-Yāga* by what was called *Ishti-Yāga*. Similarly, there was a third kind of Vedic or Śrauta sacrifice called *Soma-Yāga* where the juice of the Soma plant symbolized and took the place of the blood of animals, just as *Purodāśa* stood for their flesh.¹

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¹ One is reminded in this connection of the doctrine of Eucharist Sacrifice in Christian Theology, according to which, Jesus Christ, who took his birth as Man to be his Saviour, on the night before his crucifixion, distributed among his disciples bread and wine as symbolical of his flesh and blood. He gave up his body as sacrifice, washing away by his blood the sins of mankind. The following words are put into his mouth: "I am the bread of Life. He that eateth My flesh and drinketh My blood dwelleth in Me and I in him . . . and hath eternal life."

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**Its Varieties.** It will also appear that *Yajñas* were necessarily of different kinds according to the different kinds of offering made at them. The offering may be material or spiritual. As is stated in the text: "*Dravyaya jñāstapoyajñā Yogayajñāstathāpare Svādhyāya-Jñāna-yajñāścha*"; " *Yajñas* are of different kinds: (1) *Dravya-yajña* where material objects are offered as oblations, objects which appeal to and indulge the senses; (2) *Tapoyajña* where all desires and out-going activities are offered to be consumed in the fire of asceticism and penance; (3) *Yoga-yajña* where senses are sacrificed at the fire of *saṁyama* or self-control, the practice of detachment; and (4) *Svādhyaya-Jñāna-Yajña*, *Yajña* in the form of study of the Veda and pursuit of knowledge by *brahmacharya*. Rigveda i, 84, 2 mentions the *Yajña* of Ṛishis by means of *stuti* or prayer and of mortals by sacrifice, while i, 18, 7 refers to the *Yajña* of sages in their pursuit of knowledge. These texts thus refer to different kinds of *Yajña* depending on different degrees or kinds of sacrifice to suit different stages or degrees of spiritual progress achieved by the *Yajamānas* concerned. The highest grade of *Yajña* for man is thus described in the *Bhagavadgītā*: "*Brahmārpaṇaṁ Brahma-haviḥ Brahmāgnau Brahmanā hutaṁ | Brahmaiva tena gantavyaṁ Brahma-karma-samādhinā*"; "Life itself is the great sacrifice where Brahma Himself is at once the Yajamāna or sacrificer, the fire where sacrifice is offered, the material of the sacrifice (*havi*), the God to Whom sacrifice is offered, Whom one attains by living his life as if it is *Brahma-karma* or an offering of all its fruits to Brahma in total absence of desire."

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‘Pañcha-Mahāyajñas.’ The principle of *Yajña* was that of sacrifice by which man, like his Maker, is to build up and uphold the system he brings into being in this world. He must in his own life go through the eternal creative processes of “Beginning, Development, and Dissolution”. Sacrifice is the process of his self-expansion leading to his final dissolution in the Absolute, emancipated from his narrow self. This self-expansion is achieved by a series of *Yajñas* the performance of which Vedic religion makes obligatory upon its votaries. The first of these is called *Deva-Yajña* symbolizing man’s approach towards the gods, the creative forces of which he is the outcome. This is called *Svāhā*, expression of *Sva* or Self, which is uttered after the offer of oblations to the *Devatās*. Just as spiritually Man is the outcome of the gods to whom he thus makes sacrifices, physically he is the outcome of his ancestors, the *Piṭris*, to whom he prays by *Piṭri-Yajña*, by uttering the word *Svadhā*, “placing of his own self, *Sva*,” in the *Piṭris*. Then he has to perform what is called *Brahma-Yajña* which consisted, as we have seen, in the study and teaching of Veda and meditation on its Mantras (*Japa*). He has also to perform a fourth *Yajña* called *Bhūta-Yajña* by offering *bali* (oblation) to all created beings with whom he realizes his oneness. “One touch of Nature makes the whole world kin.” Lastly, he has to perform the *Nṛi-Yajña* by which he offers worship to all his fellow-men in a spirit of universal brotherhood. This worship is in the form of the offer of daily hospitality by the entertainment of guests as a part of religious duty. It will thus be seen how this hierarchy of five *Yajñas* (known as *Pañcha-Mahāyajñas*) was planned as a scheme of progressive approach towards the Infinite with which they provide so many links with the finite.

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‘Agnihotra.’ We shall now discuss the cultural significance of some of the Vedic *Yajñas* proper. In the Rigveda, as we have seen, *Yajñas* are performed for the worship of God in the forms of Deities like Agni, Varuna, Indra, Soma, and the like, each of Whom associated with a particular aspect or representing a particular formative force of creation helps in the contemplation of the Formless Absolute. In the Rigveda, the more important of these *Yajñas* are those in honour of two particular Gods, Agni and Soma. Agni who represents the Energy operating in the whole universe and is the closest approximation to the Formless, the most striking and intimate proof of the power of the Creator in this world-emanation, receives a considerable degree of attention in the Rigveda and his praises are sung in many a hymn. He is worshipped as the Cause of Light and Heat, of Cloud and Rain, of Rain the cause of Food, of Food which sustains Life itself, the all-pervading One Who is both within and without us, Who appears as the Sun on high and opens our eyes as the best avenue of objective knowledge. Thus Agni is at the root of our life, our knowledge, and our bliss (*ānanda*). Therefore, Agni becomes the household deity worshipped in every hearth and home both morning and evening by the *Yajña* called *Agnihotra* by every householder who offers to Him his best as oblation. The offer may be offer of *Śraddhā* instead of a material object, in which case it will be called *Śraddhā-homa* and the ceremony will be performed with the words, "Aham Sraddhāṁ juhomi," "I offer as sacrifice my reverence." The continuous performance of Agni hotra in a family connotes its perpetuation along with the family fire which is inherited and transmitted.

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'**Soma-Yajña.**' A greater prominence is given in the Rigveda to *Soma-yajñas*. Though the word *Soma* is the name of a creeper, it is really used as a symbol for a deep spiritual truth in the Rigveda. This is made clear in several of its hymns. In viii, 48, Soma is addressed as '*Madhu*, the nectar or ambrosia, the drink of Immortality sought by both gods and men. Even the Rishi who achieved the greatest fame by his learning and wisdom still prays for something that was lacking, this nectar. He is also addressed as Indu or Aditi, the primordial deity who rules the gods and penetrates into the hearts of all; the nectar by drinking which mortals become immortal and attain heaven radiant with shining gods; the vital principle of life.' X, 85 sings in the same strain the praise of Soma. "Soma is the cause of the power of the Ādityas and of the greatness of Prithivī (*Somena Prithivī Mahī*)." "The Soma whom the worshippers of Brahma know, That is not something to be drunk by the mouth (Somam yam Brāhmano viduh na tasyāśnāti kaśchana)." "He cannot be drunk by a materialist (*pārthiva*)." "Some can drink Him but cannot decrease Him by such drink": for it is a drink of supreme knowledge, a draught of Immortality, which increases by each such drink, because Truth spreads through Its exponents. I, 91 states that "He is to be approached by *manīshā* (effort of mind, meditation) along the path of virtue (*rajishṭhaṁ panthāṁ*); the author of cosmic laws (*Vratas*), who is manifest in heaven and earth, in mountains, vegetation, and water." IV, 18, 1, 13, which is the hymn of Rishi Vāmadeva, the author of the entire fourth Maṇḍala, relates how the saving knowledge of this *Madhu* or *Soma* doctrine came to him. It relates that he was so poor that he was driven to eat the entrails of a dog (*avartyā śuna āntrāṇi peche*) and could not better his condition by prayers to gods, had to see his wife in a deplorable condition (*apaśyaṁ jāyāṁ amahīyamānām*), until he was saved by God in His mercy bringing to him the nectar (*madhu*) of Soma doctrine in the disguise of a hawk (*śyena*). Thus this supreme knowledge, Madhu- or Soma-Vidyā came to the Ṛishi in a sudden flash in his darkest hour.

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We have now considered the typical Vedic Yajñas like the Agnihotra and the Soma-Yāga and their cultural value and spiritual significance. While Agnihotra was a daily *yajña*, some Yajñas were periodical like *Darśayajña* to be performed on new-moon, and *Paurnamāsa* on full-moon days. *Soma-yāga* had also several varieties the performance of which took one day, or several days like *Jyotishṭoma*, or even a whole year in the form called *Satra*. A description of a *Satra* will show its cultural and social significance.

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‘Satra.’ The *Satra* was a sort of a national festival of the Vedic times and operated as a potent factor for the moral and spiritual uplift of the community, for the progress of its literature and education. All the learned philosophers and Ṛishis of those days gathered at the *Satra* and enchanted the vast audiences of crowds that flocked to it by their thrilling recitation of Vedic Mantras, chanting of Sāmans, an discourses on Brahma. Thus it was a sort of a religious and philosophical Congress that held a continuous session for the whole year and gave scope to the promulgation and propagation of Vedic literature References to such learned Assemblies or Sabhās in the Rigveda [x, 71, 2, 5, etc.] are dealt with below. But the *Satra* was not also devoid of its social side. The Yajamāna, the householder celebrating the ceremony, would be throughout the year giving generously of his abundance by a free feeding of the poor and lavishly entertaining his learned guests as part of the ceremony. Thus Vedic religion was incentive to social service, sacrifice, and liberality. We may recall in this connection the impassioned Rigvedic hymn in praise of Charity [x, 117].

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There were other details of the ceremony, each with its own spiritual value and significance. The *Yāga* was performed in five parts, viz. (1) *Dīkshaṇīya Ishṭi* for the dīksha or initiation of the Yajamāna for purposes of his second spiritual birth as a *dvija* (“twice-born”); (2) *Prāyaṇīya Ishṭi* or *Ātithya Ishṭi* to indicate that God Soma attended the *Ishti* as a guest (*atithi*) and also giving food to the new-born *dvija*; (3) *Pravargya Kriyā* to achieve his spiritual growth; (4) *Paśu-yāga*, the sacrifice of the animal in the worshipper; and (5) *Soma-yāga*, the sacrifice at which Soma is drunk, symbolizing the drink by which the *Dvija* nourishes his soul and attains immortality.

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**Summary.** Now to sum up: The *Yajña* which is the centre of the Vedic system may be thus understood as education of man in self-sacrifice as the law of his being and the only foundation of his religion, self-sacrifice in the form of performance by him of the different classes of duties making up his life in the world by the performance of different kinds of *Yajñas* already explained, such as *Yajñas* of *Tapas* (Penance), *Yoga* (Meditation), *Svādhyāya* and *Jñāna* (Study and Knowledge). The *Aitareya Brāhmaṇa* holds that man is born with three debts, debts to *Pitris*, *Rishis*, and *Devas*, and these he can discharge only by fatherhood, *yajña*, and study, as "*Putrī*, *Yajvā* and *Brahmachārī*." Thus the *Yajñas* take the individual through a course of self-realization in progressive stages by which he becomes more and more universal in his outlook and interests until he is emancipated and merged in the Absolute. It is the *Yajñas* which lead to *Dharma* and it is *Dharma* which leads to *Brahma*. Thus, as we have seen, the Veda is concerned only with the two subjects, *Dharma* and *Brahma*, treated in its two sections known as *Karma-kāṇḍa* (including *Devatā-* or *Upāsanā-Kāṇḍa*) and *Jñāna-Kāṇḍa*, which are related to each other like two limbs of the structure of Vedic thought and scheme of life.¹

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¹ *References*: two learned works in Bengali, (1) *Yajña-Kathā* by the late Ramendra Sundar Trivedi and (2) *Veda-Praveśikā* by the late Umes Chandra Batavyāl; and Sāyana's Introduction to his commentary on Rigveda. I am also specially indebted to my talented father-in-law, Mr. Dhanapati Banerji, M.A., B.L., and his brother, Mr. Sarat Chandra Banerji, M.A., B.L., both erudite Sanskrit scholars, and members of the Bar at Ranchi, Chhota-Nagpur, for valuable suggestions and notes.

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