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The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus c8: Chapter V. Hindu Classification of Animals

The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus c8

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Chapter V. Hindu Classification of Animals

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*Charaka.*

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Charaka mentions four primary divisions:—
(1) *Jarâyuja*, born from the uterus, or, rather, placentalia, viviparous (no a-placental mammals were known), *e.g.* man, the quadrupeds, etc.
(2) *Andaja*, born of an ovum (egg), comprising fishes, reptiles, and birds.
(3) *Svedaja* (or *Uṣmaja*), born of moisture and heat, spontaneously or a-sexually generated, *e.g.* worms, mosquitoes, etc.
(4) *Udvijja*, born of vegetable organisms (भूतानां चतुर्विधा योनिर्र्भवति जरायुजण्डजस्वेदोद्भिदः—*Sârîrasthâna*, Chap. III. एकैका योनिः अपरिसंख्येयभेदा भवन्ति भूतानामाकृतिविशेषा परिसंख्येयत्वात्—*Ibid.*).

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*Praśastapâda.*

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Praśastapâda begins with two great divisions: (1) Ayonija, animals that are a-sexually generated, of small dimensions (क्षुद्रजन्तु); (2) Yonija, sexually generated, *i.e.* from the union of a sperm and a germ element. The latter are subdivided into (*a*) *Jarâyuja*, lit. placentalia, viviparous (no a-placental mammals were known), and (*b*) *Andaja*, oviparous. Man, the quadrupeds (domesticated and wild), etc., are given as examples of viviparous animals, and birds, *Sarîsripas* (reptiles, etc.) of oviparous animals. Udayana in the *Kiraṇâvalî* notes that *Jarâyu* means the placenta (गर्भवेष्टनचर्म्मपुटकं जरायुः, *cf.* Śrîdhara in the *Kandalî*, जरायुसिति गर्भाशयस्य अभिधानं तेन वेष्टितं जायते इति जरायुजम्). Udayana adds that the term *Sarîsripa* includes insects and fishes as well as reptiles, these being all oviparous (सरीसृपाः परितः प्रसर्पणशीलाः सर्पकीटमत्स्यादयः—पृथिवीनिरूपणम्).

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*Patanjali.*

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The a-sexually generated animals, as we have seen, are also called *Kṣudrajantus* (*lit.* small animals). Pâtañjali in the *Mahâbhâṣya* gives several alternative definitions (or descriptions) of this class of animals. They are defined (1) as animals without bones, अनस्थिकाः क्षुद्रजन्तवः; or (2) as animals that do not possess any blood of their own, येषां स्वं शोणितं नास्ति ते क्षुद्रजन्तवः; or (3) as numbering more than a thousand in a palmful, *i.e.* minute in size; or (4) as not easily crushed; or (5) as comprehending all animals up to the ichneumon (in the animal series), अथवा नकुलपर्य्यन्ताः क्षुद्रजन्तवः—*Mahâbhâṣya*, 2-4-1.

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*Suśruta.*

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Suśruta mentions four great divisions: (1) *San-svedaja*, born of moisture and heat: this division is mentioned first, as Dalvana notes, because moisture and heat are essential factors in the generation of all forms of animal life, including the classes that follow;

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(2) *Jarâyuja*, viviparous or placental; (3) *Andaja*, oviparous; and (4) *Udvijja*, bursting forth (from the ground, or perhaps from some previous unmanifest shape, *e.g.* frogs, coccidæ, etc.). The second, third, and fourth classes are mentioned in the order of their importance. Subsequently the order of enumeration is changed: (1) *Jarâyuja*, (2) *Andaja*, (3) *Svedaja*, (4) *Udvijja*. One reading gives the order: (1) *Svedaja*, (2) *Andaja*, (3) *Udvijja*, and (4) *Jarâyuja*. Some commentators point out that the order in the text (whatever that may be) is intended to indicate the order of creation by Brahmâ.

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Suśruta mentions man, *Vyâla* (carnivorous quadrupeds), and *Pasu* (herbivorous quadrupeds) as examples of the viviparous; birds, snakes, and *Sarîsripas* as examples of the oviparous; *Krimis*, *Kîtas*, and *Pipîlikâs* (worms, insects, ants, etc.) as examples of the moisture-born; and frogs and the coccidæ (the coccinella) as examples of the animals that "burst forth" (eruptive or metamorphic?). Dalvana notes that the divisions are really cross-divisions (योनिसंकर), and intended to be such, as the natural divisions of Jiva and species are not all exclusively oviparous or exclusively viviparous. For example, among birds (पक्षिणः, winged animals), bats and *Valâkâs* are viviparous (बलाका जतुकादयः जरायुजाः); indeed, *Valâkâs* are some of them oviparous and some viviparous (पक्षिषु बलाका जरायुजा अण्डजाश्च). Among snakes, the *Ahipatâkâs*, a species of non-venomous colubrines snakes, are viviparous (ovo-viviparous?). Among the moisture-born, there are some kinds of ants (पिपीलिकाः) which also lay eggs or burst forth (from the ground, or perhaps from some previous unmanifest shape) (संस्वेदनेष्वपि काश्चित् पिपीलिका अण्डजा उद्भिन्नाश्च).

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The oviparous animals are divided by Suśruta into birds, snakes, *Sarîsripas*, etc. Dalvana notes that the *Sarîsripas* include fishes and *Makaras* (sea-fish with fierce teeth, हिंस्रदंष्ट्राः), and the "et cetera" comprehends tortoises and crocodiles (सरीसृपाः शीघ्रगामिनः कृष्णसर्पादयो मीनमकरादयो वा प्रभृतिग्रहणेन कूर्म्मनक्रादीनां ग्रहणम्)! The "moisture-born" are due to the moisture and heat either of the earth or of organisms (संस्वेदजाः भुवः शरीरस्य च संस्वेदात् उष्मणः जाताः). Of these, the *Krimis* (worms) arise from the moisture of the fæces in the bowels (कृमयः कोष्ठपुरीषादिवाष्पसम्भवाः—Dalvana); from putrefying dead bodies (शव—Suśruta; *cf.* शरीरे कियद् वेलानन्तरं समुत्पन्नानां कृम्यादीनां कथं चैतन्यम्—Guṇaratna, *Tarka-rahasya-dîpikâ* (*Jainamatam*); from decomposing curd or milk (*e.g.* वर्षासु च स्वेदादिना अनतिदवीयसैव कालेन दध्याद्यवयवा एव चलन्तः पूतनादिकृमिरूपा उपलभ्यन्ते—Jayanta, *Nyâya-Manjarî*, Âhnika 7, भूतचैतन्यपक्ष).

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The second class, *Kîtas*, noticed among the moisture-born, include the scorpions, the six-spotted venomous insect *ṣadvindu*, etc. (कीटा वृश्चिकषड्बिन्दु प्रभृतयः—Dalvana). Of these the scorpions arise from cow-dung, excreta of snakes, rotten wood (कथं गोमयाद् वृश्चिकः जायते—Pâtanjali, *Mahâbhâṣya*, 1–4–3); *cf.* also Suśruta, *Kalpasthâna*, Chap. VII.

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The third class, *Pipîlikâs*, ants and the like insects, Dalvana notes, are born of moisture and heat, as well as of eggs, and sometimes burst forth from the ground (भुवमुद्भिद्य जाता उद्भिन्ना—Dalvana). The gnats and mosquitoes (दंशमशकादयः) are also usually placed among the moisture-born. An *aṇḍa* (egg) is described as oval, of the form of a *peśî* (अण्डं पेश्याकारवर्त्तुलं—Dalvaṇa; *cf.* Śrîdhara, *Kandalî*, अण्डं विम्बं तेन वेष्टितं जायते तत् अण्डजं, पृथिवीतिरूपणं).

Chhândogya and Śankara

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It may be noted that the *Chhândogya Upaniṣad* classifies animals on the basis of their *vîja* (ovum or seed) as three-fold :—(1) *Aṇḍaja*, born of eggs; (2) *Jîvaja*, viviparous; and (3) *Udbijja*. Śankara explains that the *udvijja* animals arise from vegetable organisms (उद्भिन् स्थावरं ततो जातम् उद्भिज्जम्), which is also Charaka's view, as we have seen; but unlike Charaka, Śankara holds that the *svedaja* animals must be included partly under the oviparous, and partly under the *udvijja* (vegetable-born) class (अण्डजोद्भिज्जयोरेव यथासम्भवमन्तर्भावः—Chhândogya, Prapâthaka 6, part 3).

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Evidently the idea is, that though vegetable organisms may pass off into animal, there cannot be generation without *vîja* (seed or ovum), and inorganic matter without *vîja* (seed or ovum) cannot give rise to animal life. Pâtanjali, in the *Mahâbhâṣya* (*circa* 150 B.C.), mentions the opposed view, which holds that not only animal organisms but also vegetable organisms, *e.g.* grasses, grow from inorganic matter. The Dûrvâ grass, for example, can grow from deposits of the hair of goats and cows, just as scorpions are seen to develop out of cow-dung. Pâtanjali notes the orthodox Sânkhya-Vedânta explanation that these are not cases of growth (or transformation) but merely of coming out (अपक्रामन्ति), कथं गोमयाद् वृश्चिको जायते गोलोमाविलोमेभ्यः दूर्वा जायन्ते इति अपक्रामन्ति ता वस्तुभ्यः—*Mahâbhâṣya*, 1–4–3.

The Dietary Animals in Charaka and Suśruta

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In noticing different kinds of meat for dietary purposes, Charaka gives a classification of animals (mammals and birds) which has only a practical (therapeutic) significance.

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The dietic value of the flesh of any animal was conceived to depend mainly on its habitat and mode of life. Dietary animals (mammals and birds) were accordingly divided into eight classes (अष्टविधा योनिरुक्तान्) :—

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(1) *Prasaha*, carnivorous as well as non-carnivorous (Chakrapâṇî), comprehending land quadrupeds and birds that fall on their food with force.

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(2) *Anûpa*, animals that live in marshy or waterlogged lands or graze on river-banks.

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(3) *Bhûśaya* or *Vileśaya*, animals that live in under-ground holes.

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(4) *Vâriśaya*, aquatic animals, both fresh-water and oceanic.

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(5) *Jalachara*, amphibious animals.

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(6) *Jângala*, animals that live in dry and elevated (hilly) jungle lands, mostly species of deer.

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(7) *Viṣkira*, birds that scatter their food in picking up; and

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(8) *Pratuda*, birds that pierce or torment their food (worms and fruits) with the beak.

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In the chapter on articles of diet, Suśruta gives a practical classification of (vertebrate) animals for dietary purposes. Animals that find a place in this dietary are first divided into two classes: (1) *Anûpa*, animals that live in marshy or water-logged land (or in water); (2) *Jângala*, animals that live in dry (hilly) jungle land. The Jângalas are divided into five classes, and the Anûpas into eight. The thirteen classes are based on real and natural distinctions of food and habitat; they are for dietary purposes arranged under six conventional (or artificial) classes (त्रयोदशभेदा षट्सु एव अन्तर्भूताः। संख्येपम् निर्देश्यादेव षट्संख्यायां लभ्यायां षड्ग्रहणम् तेन षड्वर्गा इति नियमार्थम्—Dalvana, *Sûtrasthâna*, Chap. XXVII.). These thirteen classes of dietary animals may be enumerated as follows :—

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I. *Jângala* animals—*Janghâla*, *Viṣkira*, *Pratuda*, *Guhâśaya*, *Prasaha*, *Parṇamriga*, *Vileśaya* and *Grâmya*, and
II. *Anûpa* animals—*Kulechara*, *Plava*, *Kośastha*, *Pâdina*, and *Matsya*.

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Of these, the *Matsyas* (fishes) are divided into two groups—fresh-water (*lit.* river-water) and sea-water fishes. Among the sea fishes, the *timi* and the *timin-gala* (whales? तिमिनहत्तमो मत्स्यः तिमिङ्गलस्ततोऽपि महत्तरः—Dalvana) find a place, as also the *makara* (shark, हिंस्रदंष्ट्राकः—Dalvana).

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The *Kośastha* (living in shells—mollusca) are distinguished from the *Matsyas* (fishes). In this class are enumerated *śankhas* (Conchifera), *śankhana* (smaller Conchifera), *śukti* (pearl-mussels), *sambuka* (Helix) with spiral shell (आवर्त्तकोशः—Dalvana), *valluka* (a species of Helix, according to some, अन्य सम्बुकभेदमाहुः—Dalvana), etc. Dalvana adds *voḍika*, *jalaśukti*, and various species of Helix (वोडिकजलशुक्तिशम्बू कभेदा बहुविधा गृह्यन्ते).

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The *Pâdinas*, aquatic animals having pedal (or long dorsal) appendages, comprise *kurmas* (oval or oblong-shaped tortoises, turtles), the *kumbhîras* (crocodiles, Emydosauria, Reptilia), *karkatas* (white and black crabs, Crustacea), the *śiśumâra* (a species of the Delphinidæ cetacea), muscular, with a sharp protruding snout, breathing with the blow-hole *out of the water*, probably a dolphin, as the long dorsal fin was taken for a sort of pedal appendage (दृढाकारोऽश्वकः वहिर्निश्वासं मुञ्चति सोऽपि द्विविधः वर्त्तुलदीर्घभेदतः—Dalvana). The *Pâdinas* do not represent any natural division.

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Of the other *Anûpa* animals (aquatic or amphibious animals), the *plavas* (*lit.* floating on the water) represent a class of birds (the Natatores and the Grallatores) exemplified by geese, ducks, cranes, etc.

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The *Kulecharas* are herbivorous quadrupeds that frequent the banks of rivers and ponds, and comprise the elephant, the rhinoceros, the *Gâvaya* (*Bos gavæus*), the buffalo, various species of deer, etc.

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Of the land animals (*Jângala*), three of the subdivisions represent birds, and five, mammals. The land birds are: (1) the *Prasaha* birds, birds of prey proper (Raptores), comprising the vulture, kites, hawks, owls, etc. (Charaka's *Prasaha* is a much wider class); (2) the *Viṣkiras*, birds that scatter their food in picking up; and (3) the *Pratudas*, birds that pierce or torment their food (fruits or worms) with the beak. The last two classes comprehend between them the *Passeres* (proper and so-called), the *Scansores*, the *Rasores* and the *Columbæ*.

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The remaining five classes of *Jângala* animals are mammals, with the exception of several species of *Vileśayas*, which are reptiles. The *Parṇamrigas* (arboreal animals) comprise the apes, sloths, squirrels, as also some of the reptiles and carnivora. Among the *Parṇamrigas*, the *Putighasa* is a kind of tree-cat giving out a pungent odour; the *Madgumuṣîka* and the *Brikṣaśâyika* are arboreal rodents; and the *Avakuśa* is a species of cow-tailed monkey (*vide* Dalvana). The *Janghâlas* are wild animals, herbivorous quadrupeds that are strong-legged and quick-footed, comprising various species of deer and antelopes.

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The *Grâmyas* (*lit.* living in or about villages, domesticated quadrupeds) comprise the horse, the mule, the ass, the camel, the goat, the sheep, etc. They are non-carnivorous, being distinguished from the carnivorous quadrupeds (क्रव्याद—Suśruta, मांसाद—Charaka). Some are *Ekaśapha* (animals whose hoofs are not cloven) (ग्राम्यशब्देन च एकशफशब्देन च ग्राम्याः—शफः खुरः—Dalvana).

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The *Guhâśayas* are carnivorous quadrupeds (क्रव्यादाः) living in natural caves or hollows. They comprise the lion, the tiger, the wolf, tho hyena, the bear, the panther, the cat, the jackal, the *mrigevaru*, etc. The *vrika* (wolf) is defined as a dog-like animal, small-sized (in comparison with the lion and the tiger). By the cat, here, wild-cats are meant. The *mrigevaru* is described as a jackal-like animal that kills deer.

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Finally come the *Vileśayas*, animals that live in holes or burrows, comprising various species of Rodents and Insectivora, and several species of Reptiles.

Snakes in Suśruta-Nâgârjuna

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The Snakes (Ophidæ) are especially noticed by Suśruta-Nâgârjuna in the chapters relating to Toxicology (*Kalpasthâna*, Chap. IV.). Five different genera or families are noticed, of which one is non-venomous and four venomous, including one hybrid and three pure or unmixed families. Of the last, (1) the *Darvîkaras* (कृष्णसर्प, महाकृष्ण, पद्म, महापद्म, शङ्खपाली—Naia Tripudians, Naia Bungarus) are hooded, swift in their movements, diurnal in their habits, and bear on their hoods or their bodies the marks of chariot-wheels, ploughs, umbrellas, rhombs or cross-bands, goads, etc. (2) The *Mandalîs* (Vipera, Viperidæ?) are thick (पृथवः), slow-moving, nocturnal in their habits, and bear circles or rings on the body (मण्डलैश्चित्रित). Charaka adds that they are without hoods. (3) *Rajimats* also are without hoods, and nocturnal, and bear series of dots or marks, and are often of variegated colours on the upper parts and sides. Twenty-six varieties are named of the first, two of the second, and ten of the third.

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Of the *Nirviṣas*, non-venomous snakes, twelve varieties are mentioned, including Boidæ (अजगरा) and the Colubrine Dendrophis (वृक्षेशय). Of the *Vaikaraṇja* (hybrid) snakes, there are ten varieties, of which three are produced by the union of certain venomous species, and seven are secondary derivative forms.

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The *Darvîkaras* are most deadly when young, the *Mandalîs* when middle-aged, the *Rajimats* when aged. Their poisons act differently, and an elaborate description is given of the action of the venom of each of the three venomous families.

Snakes in the Purâṇas

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The *Bhaviṣya Purâṇa* gives the following additional information. The *Nâgas* (Naiæ) copulate in the month of *Jyaistha* or *Âṣâḍha* (May or June), gestate during the rainy months that follow, and bring forth about two hundred and forty eggs in the month of *Kârtika* (November). Most of these are devoured by the parents, but those that are left break forth from the shell in about two months (or one month, according to the *Agni Purâṇa*).

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Eggs of a golden hue like that of the (red) flowers of the *Calotropis gigantea* (सुवर्णार्कवर्णानिभ) produce male young ones, those somewhat paler and of an elongated ovoid shape (अर्कोदकसुवर्णभात् दीर्घराजीवसन्निभात्) bring forth female snakes, and those of the hue of the *Siriṣa*-blossom hermaphrodite ones. By the seventh day the young snakes turn dark; in a fortnight (or twenty days, according to another account) the teeth come out. The poison is formed in the fangs (दंष्ट्रासु) in three weeks, and becomes deadly in the twenty-fifth night. In six months *Nâgas* shed the skin (कञ्चुक).

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In moving on the ground, the folds of the skin on the under surface alternately expand and contract, appearing to put out and draw in fine filament-like legs, about two hundred and forty in number. The joints on the skin (scales or scutes—सन्धयः) are two hundred and forty in number (perhaps the sub-caudals were not counted).

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Snakes are killed by men, mongooses, peacocks, *Chakoras* (a kind of partridge), scorpions, boars, cats, and the hoofs of oxen. Escaping death from these enemies, a *Nâga* may live for a hundred and twenty years. The term of life of the non-venomous snake is shorter, about seventy-five years (*Bhaviṣya Purâṇa*, **पञ्चमकल्प**).

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The *Agni Purâṇa* gives the total number of teeth (of a *Nâga*) as thirty-two, of which four (two on either side) are venomous, viz. *Kâlarâtri* and *Yamadutikâ*, which appear to be the names of the fangs, and *Karâlî* and *Makarî*, which seem to stand for two hard (maxillary) teeth accompanying the two fangs (*cf.* also Charaka—*Driḍhavala*, *Chikitsâsthâna*, XXIII., **विषचिकित्सितम्**).

Umâsvati's Classification of Animals

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A more thorough classification of animals is found in the ancient Jaina work, the *Tattvârthâdhigama* of Umâsvati, which the Jaina chronological lists enable us to assign with great probability to the fourth or fifth decennium after Christ (*circa* 40 A.D.). Umâsvati's classification is a good instance of classification by series, the number of senses possessed by the animal being taken to determine its place in the series. Perhaps only senses actively determining the life-habits were counted.

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I. First come animals with two senses, viz. touch (as evidenced by contractility of tissue) and taste (as involved in the selection and rejection of food). This division comprises—

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(a) *Apâdika* (Vermes without lateral appendages, Scolecids).

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(*b*) *Nûpuraka* (ring-like, with pendants, Vermes with unsegmented lateral appendages, Annelids).

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(*c*) *Gandûpada* (knotty-legged, Arthropoda, including Crustacea, Myriapoda, etc.).

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(*d*) Some forms of Mollusca, *e.g.* *Śaṅkha* (Conchifera, Lamelli-branchiata), *Śuktika* (Pearl-mussel, Lamelli-branchiata), and *Śambuka* (Helix).

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(*e*) *Jalûkâ*, Leeches (Annelids).

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II. Next come the animals with three senses, namely smell in addition to the primordial senses of touch and taste involved in the contraction of tissues and the appropriation of food. Here also well-developed and active senses alone were perhaps intended; rudimentary or dormant senses were not reckoned. This division comprises—

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(*a*) *Pipîlikâ*, Ants (Formicidæ, Hymenoptera).

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(*b*) *Rohiṇikâ*, Red-ants (Formicidæ, Hymenoptera).

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(*c*) *Upachikâ*, *Kunthu*, *Tuburaka*, Bugs and Fleas (Hemiptera, Hemimetabola).

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(*d*) *Trapusavîja* and *Karpâsâsthikâ*, Cucumber- and Cotton-weevils and Lice (Aptera, Ametabola).

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(*e*) *Śatapadî* and *Utpataka*, Spring-tails (Aptera-Ametabola).

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(*f*) *Trinapatra*, Plant-Lice.

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(*g*) *Kâṣṭha-hâraka*, Termites, White ants (Neuroptera, Hemimetabola).

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III. Then come the animals with four well-developed and active senses, *i.e.* sight, smell, taste, and touch. This division comprises—

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(*a*) *Bhramara*, *Varaṭa*, and *Sâraṅga*, Bees, Wasps, and Hornets (Hymenoptera, Holometabola).

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(*b*) *Makṣikā*, *Puttikā*, *Danśa*, and *Maśaka*, Flies, Gnats, Gad-flies, and Mosquitoes (Diptera, Holometabola). (*c*) *Vriśchika* and *Nandyāvarta*, Scorpions and Spiders (Arachnida, Arthropoda). (*d*) *Kīṭa*, Butterflies and Moths (Lepidoptera, Holometabola), and (*e*) *Pataṅga*, Grasshoppers and Locusts (Orthopteral Hemimetabola).

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IV. Finally come the animals (man and the Tiryyak-yonis) with five well-developed and active senses. Omitting man, this division comprises— (*a*) *Matsya*, Fishes. (*b*) *Uraga*. (*c*) *Bhujanga*. (*d*) *Pakṣi*, Birds, and (*e*) *Chatuṣpada*, Quadrupeds.

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Uraga and Bhujanga in popular use mean reptiles; but here evidently Bhujanga is taken to mean oviparous limbed animals (limbed reptiles and Batrachians) and not creatures whose movements are crooked or in the form of a bent bow; and Uraga stands for apodal reptiles, including snakes (Ophidæ).

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It will be seen that the first three divisions fall under the Invertebrata, and the fourth is identical with the Vertebrata.

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This last division (the Vertebrata) is sub-divided on a different basis, viz. the mode of reproduction. The sub-divisions are three:—

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A.—*Andaja*, oviparous (Pisces, Reptilia, and Batrachia), *e.g.* *Sarpa* (Snakes, Ophidia, Reptilia), *Godha* (Varanidæ Lizards, Reptilia), *Krikalâsa* (Chameleons, Reptilia), *Grihagolika* (Common Lizards, Lacertilia), *Matsya* (Pisces), *Kûrma* (Tortoises, Chelonia, Reptilia), *Nakra* (Crocodiles, Reptilia), *Śiśumâra* (Dolphin or Porpoise, Cetacea), and Birds proper with feather wings—the *Lomapakṣa pakṣis*.

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Porpoises are erroneously put here, being really viviparous like other Cetacea. Frogs are not mentioned in this list. The omission is strange. Perhaps (as in Suśruta) frogs were believed to be *Udvijja* (eruptive or metamorphic) and not *Andaja* (oviparous). But Suśruta mentions the frogs after the quadrupedal and centipedal Reptilia (*Kanava*, *Godheraka*, *Galagolika*, and *Śatapadî*).

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B.—*Jarâyuja*, mammals born with placenta, including all mammals other than the *Potaja* (here *Jarâyuja* is used in a restricted sense): (1) Man, (2) Cow, (3) Buffalo, (4) Goat and Sheep, (5) Horse, (6) Ass, (7) Camel, (8) Deer, (9) Yak (*Chamara*), (10) Hog, (11) Bos Gavæus (*Gâvaya*)—Ungulata, (12) Lion, (13) Tiger, (14) Bear, (15) Panther, (16) Dog, (17) Jackal, (18) Cat (Carnivora), etc.

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The Apes, though not expressly mentioned, are also to be included.

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C.—*Potaja*, a class of placental mammals comprising the Deciduata with the exception of Man, the Apes, and the Carnivora, *e.g.* *Śallaka* (Porcupine, Rodentia), *Hasti* (Elephant, Proboscidea), *Śvavit* and *Lâpaka* (Hedgehogs and other creatures that lap up, Insectivora), *Śaśa* and *Śayika* (Hare, Rabbit, and Squirrel, Rodentia), *Nakula* (Ichneumon, which though carnivorous is supposed to come under the Deciduata), *Mûṣik* (Mice, Rodentia), and the *Charma-pakṣa Pakṣis*, so-called birds with leathern wings (Bats, Chiroptera) *e.g.* *Valguli* (Flying-Fox), *Pakṣivirâla* (Flying-Cat, Micro-Chiroptera) and *Jalûkâ* (apparently meaning blood-sucking Bats or Vampires, though these are scarcely found in the Old World).

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The *Potaja* class thus comprises the following Deciduata: Proboscidea, Rodentia, Insectivora, and Chiroptera.

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The term *Potaja* is intended to signify that these animals are born without the placenta which is thrown off as an afterbirth, whereas such of the *Jarâyujas* as are not *Potajas* are born with the placenta attached to the embryo. But it is not easy to explain why Man, the Apes, and the Carnivora should not also be reckoned among the *Potajas*. An explanation is suggested below (p. 200).

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कृम्यादीनां पिपीलिकादीनां भ्रमरादीनां मनुष्यादीनां च यथासंख्यमेकैक-वृद्धानि इन्द्रियाणि भवन्ति । यथाक्रमम् । तद् यथा कृम्यादीनां अपादिक-नूपुरक-गण्डूपद-शङ्ख-शुक्तिक-शम्बूक-जलूका-प्रभृतीनां स्पर्शनरसनेन्द्रिये भवतः । पिपीलिका रोहिणिका-उपचिका-कुन्थुपुत्तुरक-त्रपुसबीज-कर्पासस्थिका-शत-पद्युत्पतक-तृणपत्र-काष्ठहारक-प्रभृतीनां त्रीणि स्पर्शनरसनघ्राणानि । भ्रमर-वरट-सारङ्ग-मक्षिकापुत्तिका-दंश-मशक-वृश्चिक-नन्द्यावर्त्त-कीट-पतङ्गादीनां चत्वारि स्पर्शनरसनघ्राणचक्षूंषि । शेषाणां च तिर्यग्यौनिजानां मत्स्योरगभु-जङ्गपक्षि-चतुष्पदानां सर्वेषां च नारकमनुष्यदेवानां पञ्चेन्द्रियाणि । (Umâsvati, *Tattvarthâdhigaṇa*, Chap. II., Sutra 24).
जरायुजानां मनुष्य-गो-महिषाजाविकाश्व-खरोष्ट्र-मृग-चमर-वराह-गवय-सिंह-व्याघ्रर्क्ष-द्वीपि-ऋ-शृगाल-मार्ज्जारादीनाम्। अण्डजानां सर्प-गोधा-कृकलास-गृहगोलिका-मत्स्य-कूर्म्म-नक्र-शिशुमारादीनाम् । पक्षिणां च लोमपक्षाणां-हंस-वाय-शुक-गृध्र-श्येन-पारावत-काक-मयूर-मद्गु-वक-बलाकादीनाम् । पोतजानां

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शशक-हस्ति-श्यावित्तापक्क-झष-झायिका-नकुल-मूषिकादीनाम् चर्मपक्षिणां च पक्षाणां जलुका-वल्गुलि-भारण्ड-पक्षिविरालादीनां गर्भेजन्म । (Umâsvati, *ibid.*, Chap. II., Sûtra 34).

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RECAPITULATION.

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The ancient Hindu classification of animals, as gathered from the authorities mentioned above, may be briefly summarised thus :—

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A.—*Kṣudrajantus*, boneless and without (red) blood. Invertebrata, divided into—

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(*a*) *Ayonija*, a-sexually generated, *e.g.* the *Svedaja*, born of moisture and heat, and the *Udvijja* (eruptive or metamorphic, *e.g.* the coccinella); and
(*b*) *Yonija*, sexually generated, *e.g.* the *Andaja*, oviparous.

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But some are both a-sexually and sexually generated, being both *Svedajas* and *Andajas*, or *Udvijjas* and *Andajas*.

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The *Kṣudrajantus* (Invertebrata) comprise—

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(I.) The *Krimis*, Vermes : (*a*) *Apâdikas* without lateral appendages (*cf.* Scolecids), (*b*) *Nûpurakas*, Annelids (a section), (*c*) *Gandûpadas*, Arthropoda (a section).
(II.) The *Jalûkâs*, Leeches, of which twelve species are described, six venomous and six innocuous (*cf.* Suśruta's careful description, *Sûtrasththâna*, Chap. XIII.).
(III.) *Kośasthas*, Shelled Animals, some forms of Mollusca, *e.g.* the *Śankhas* (Conchifera), the

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*Śuktikas* (pearl-mussels), the *Śambukas* (spiral-shelled Helix), the *Voḍikas*, etc.

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(IV.) Then the Insects, typified by the Ants, comprising—
(a) *Pipîlikâ*, *Rohiṇikâ* (ants, Hymenoptera).
(b) *Upachikâ*, *Kunthu*, *Tuburaka* (bugs and flies, Hemiptera).
(c) Cucumber- and cotton-lice (Aptera).
(d) *Śatapadî*, *Utpataka* (spring-tails, Aptera).
(e) *Triṇapatra*, grass- or plant-lice (Aptera).
(f) Termites (Neuroptera).

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(V.) Insects typified by the Hexopoda, comprising—
(a) *Bhramara*, *Varaṭa*, *Sâranga*, bees, wasps, and hornets.
(b) *Makṣikâ*, *Puttikâ*, *Danśa*, *Maśaka*, flies, gnats, gadflies, and mosquitoes.
(c) *Vriśchika* and *Nandyâvarta*, scorpions and spiders (Arachnida, Arthropoda).
(d) *Kîṭa*, butterflies and moths; and
(e) *Pataṅga*, grasshoppers and locusts.

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Suśruta-Nâgârjuna names six varieties of ants, six varieties of flies, five of mosquitoes (including one marine and one mountain kind), eight varieties of *Śatapadîs* (centipedes), thirty varieties of scorpions, and sixteen of spiders (*Lutâs*). Of the *Kîṭas*, the glow-worm and the *Tailakita* (*lit.* oil-worm) are said to be luminous (phosphorescent, *cf.* *Râjanighantu* खद्योततैलकीटौ).

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B.—The *Tiryyakyoni* animals, sexually generated animals other than such of the Ovipara as are included under the *Kṣudrajantu*, in other words, sexually generated animals possessing bones and blood—corresponding to the Vertebrata—comprise the following classes:—

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I. *Andaja*, oviparous—

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(*a*) The *Matsyas*, fishes, divided into river-water fishes and sea fishes. Suśruta names eleven species of the latter. The *Timi* (whale?) is reckoned as a sea-fish. The *Makara* (shark) is also mentioned, but the *Kurmas*, *Kumbhîras*, and *Śiśumâras* (tortoises, crocodiles, and dolphins) are excluded from the class, as also the so-called shell-fish, being placed among the *Pâdinas* and the *Kośasthas* respectively.

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(*b*) The *Uragas*, apodal reptiles, including the *Sarpas* (snakes, Ophidia). Five classes of snakes are mentioned, one non-venomous, three venomous, and one hybrid. Eighty varieties of snakes are named, but the classification is based on superficial characters, *e.g.* markings on the scales, etc., and do not touch any anatomical peculiarities. The pathological observations regarding the distinct action of the poisons of different orders seem to be good.

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(*c*) *Bhujangas*, oviparous animals with lateral, pedal appendages, both Reptiles and Batrachians. Many of these are quadrupedal and five-clawed (चतुष्पादाः कीटाः पञ्चनखाः—Dalvana).

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The *Bhujangas* include:—

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1. *Godha*, *Grihagolika* and *Krikalâsa* (Varantas lizards, common lizards, and chameleons). Suśruta names four varieties of the *Kanava*, a species of chameleon-like lizards (*cf.* *Lâdyâyana* quoted by Dalvana, *Kalpasthâna*, Chap. VIII.), also six varieties of *Galagolika* (a species of lizards), and five varieties of *Godheraka*, Varanus-like lizards, but smaller in size.

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Suśruta mentions the frogs (*Udvijja*, eruptive or metamorphic?) after the quadrupedal and centipedal Reptilia (*Kanava*, *Godheraka*, *Galagolika*, and *Śatapadî*). Eight species of frogs are named. The frogs are explained by the mythologist to have arisen from dirty water in the rainy season...प्रावृट्काले ततः (*i.e.* महेश्वरशुक्रात्) मङ्कोदके जाताः (*cf.* Dalvana, *Kalpasthâna*, Chap. VIII).

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2. *Kûrmas* and *Nakras*, tortoises and crocodiles (Chelonia and Emydosauria, Reptilia). Some species of the former are oval, others elongated (वर्तुलदीर्घादिभेदाः).

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3. *Śiśumâras*, the Delphinidæ (Odontocete cetacea).

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Suśruta's *Pâdinas* (aquatic animals having pedal or long dorsal appendages) are a conventional class formed for practical dietary purposes, and include (2) and (3) and also the *Karkatas*, crabs (Crustacea). Umâsvati's *Bhujanga* class, being a natural sub-division of Vertebrates, does not include Crustacea, which are rightly placed among the Invertebrates.

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(*d*) *Lomapakṣa pakṣi*, winged animals with feathery wings, birds proper. These are oviparous, while the winged animals with leather wings (चर्म्मपक्षपक्षिण:) are placentalia of the Deciduata class (पोतजाः).

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The Birds proper are divided into four classes :—
(1) *Plavas*, aquatic or amphibious birds, comprising the Natatores and the Grallatores. Various species are described.
(2) *Viṣkiras*, those that scatter their food in picking up.
(3) *Pratudas*, those that pierce or torment their food (fruits or grains). The enumeration of the species under (2) and (3) shows that these two classes included the Passeres (veræ and so-called), the Scansores, the Rasores, and the Columbæ.
(4) *Prasahas*, birds of prey proper (Raptores).

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Dalvana's descriptions of deer and birds are precise, turning upon coloration, habits of life, etc., *e.g.* the descriptions of the Ruru, the Kâraṇḍava, and the Kanka, expressly quoted from some (unnamed) handbooks :—

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कूलेचरमाह . . . **रुरुः शरदि शृङ्गत्‍यागी । तल्लक्षणं उच्यते—**
**“ विकटबहुविषाणः शम्बराकारदेहः सलिलतटचरित्वात् सञ्चरेभ्यः विचित्रः । त्यजति शरदि शृङ्गं रौति ”—इत्यसौ रुरुः स्यात् ।**
**कारण्डवः शुक्लहंसभेदोऽल्पः अन्ये करहरमाहुः । उक्तञ्च “ कारण्डवः काक-वक्त्रो दीर्घोङ्घ्रिः कृष्णवर्णभाक् ” इति ।**
**प्रसहानाह . . . कङ्कः दीर्घचञ्चुर्महाप्राणः । उक्तं च “ कङ्कःस्यात् कङ्क-महाक्ष्यो वायसगार्हपक्षकः । लोहपृष्ठो दीर्घपादः पञ्चाधः पाण्डुवर्णभाक्।” इति ।**

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The sources from which Dalvana derives detailed information about these varied forms of animal life are now unavailable, but these extracts abundantly testify to the minute Nature study of the Hindus.

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The Hindus had of course no idea of an anatomical classification of birds.

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The ancient writer Lâdyâyana had a much better idea of zoological description in reference to the *Kîtas* (insects and reptiles, *vide infra*).

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II.—*Jarâyujas* (viviparous, *lit.* placentalia) in the usual wider sense, comprising—

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(*a*) *Charmapakṣa pâkṣis*, leather-winged animals, which are Deciduata (*Potaja*). Charaka calls them *Mṛigapakṣiṇa* (mammal birds), and distinguishes them from the birds of prey proper, in his enumeration of the *Prasahas* (*Sutrasthâna*, Chap. XXVII.). The Bats mentioned are:—
(1) *Valguli* (flying-fox).
(2) The *Pakṣi Virâla* (flying-cat, micro-Chiroptera).
(3) The *Bharanda* (a species of micro-Chiroptera, the horse-shoe bat?).
(4) The *Jalukâ* (*lit.* aquatic or amphibious, or more probably leech, bat, blood-sucking or vampire bat?). These are placed among carnivorous animals.

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(*b*) The *Vileśaya Jarâyujas*, mammals that live in holes or burrows, including various species of Rodents and Insectivora, which are named.

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Eighteen different varieties of mice are specified (Suśruta, *Kalpasthâna*, Chap. VI.).

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(c) *Parṇamrigas*, arboreal mammals, comprising some Rodents (squirrels, etc.), a wild-cat, the sloths, and the apes (वानर).

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(d) Non-carnivorous quadrupeds (अक्रव्यादा:) :—

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(1) *Janghâlas* (*lit.* strong-legged quadrupeds, frequenting hilly and jungly tracts), comprising various species of deer (non-carnivorous wild animals, अक्रव्याद).

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(2) *Kulechara*, mammals grazing on the banks of rivers, and frequenting marshy places, comprising the elephant, the rhinoceros, the gaveya (*Bos gavæus*), the buffalo, the hog, and also several species of deer (which live in well-watered lands). These are also non-carnivorous (अक्रव्याद).

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(3) *Grâmyas* (*lit.* living in or near villages), non-carnivorous, domesticated quadrupeds, some with undivided hoof, others with cloven hoof, comprising the horse, the mule, the ass, the camel, the cow, the goat, the sheep, etc. These are all non-carnivorous. The dog and the cat are not mentioned in the list.

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(e) Carnivorous quadrupeds, *Guhâśaya* (living in natural caves or hollows, carnivorous *Kravyâda*), comprising the lion, the tiger, the wolf (of the dog class), the hyena, the bear, the panther, the cat, the jackal, etc. The Carnivora were termed *Vyâlas* or *Kravyâdas*, and the Herbivora *Pasus* (in a wider sense).

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(*f*) Man.

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The term *Jarâyuja*, in a wider sense, came to mean "viviparous," and included the above orders of animals. But the Jainas used the term *Jarâyuja* in a narrower sense to mean only those viviparous animals which come out at birth with the placenta (a-deciduata). The Deciduata (including the Proboscidea, the Rodentia, the Insectivora, the Chiroptera, etc.) were termed *Potaja*, *lit.* viviparous animals born without placenta. Man, the apes, and the Carnivora are, however, reckoned with the *Jarâyuja* (viviparous, born with placenta). Perhaps the afterbirth was observed in these cases, whereas the *Potajas* (Deciduata) may have been erroneously conceived to throw off no placenta (गर्भे जन्म, *supra*).

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Lâdyâyana appears to have made a special study of the classification of *Kîtas* (Insects and Reptiles), and is quoted by Dalvana as a great authority on the subject.

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The various forms (रूप) of *Kîtas* are to be distinguished from one another by peculiarities in the following marks:—

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(1) Dottings or markings, (2) wings, (3) pedal appendages, (4) mouth, with antennæ or nippers (मुखसन्दंश—Dalvana), (5) claws, (6) sharp, pointed hairs or filaments, (7) stings in the tail, (8) hymenopterous character (संश्लिष्टैः पक्षरोमभिः), (9) humming or other noise, (10) size, (11) structure of the body, (12) sexual organs (this is how I interpret *linga* here), and (13) poison and its action on bodies.

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*Cf.* बहुभिः बिन्दुलेखाभिः पक्षैः पादैः मुखैः नखैः
शूकैः कष्टकलांगूलैः संछिद्रैः पक्षरोमभिः ।
स्वनैः प्रमाणैः संस्थाने लिंगैश्चापि शरीरगैः
विषवीर्यैश्च कीटानां रूपज्ञानं विभाव्यते ॥

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(Quoted from Lâdyâyana by Dalvana, *Kalpasthâna*, Chap. VIII.)

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