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Manasara Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Manasara-Shilpashastra; III. Manasara on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Manasara: Translation; V. Architecture of Manasara: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v4.c29.s5: General Survey

Mānasāra Series (I. A Dictionary of Hindu Architecture; II. Indian Architecture according to Mānasāra-Śilpaśāstra; III. Mānasāra on Architecture and Sculpture: Sanskrit Text; IV. Architecture of Mānasāra: Translation; V. Architecture of Mānasāra: Illustrations; VI. Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad; VII. An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture) v4.c29.s5

Language
English

General Survey

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So far as the contents of the *Mānasāra* are concerned it will be a mere repetition to give a detailed summary, as that has once been separately published from Leiden (1917) and has also been included in the writer's *Indian Architecture* (1927). It will be enough to refer to the main points. It will be noticed that of the seventy chapters the first eight are introductory, the next forty-two deal with architectural matters, and the last twenty-one are devoted to sculpture.

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It opens, following the usual custom, with a prayer to the Creator Brahmā and touches upon the origin and development of the science of Architecture, from Śiva, Brahmā, and Vishṇu, through Indra, Bṛihaspati, and Nārada, to the class of seers (*ṛishi*) called Mānasāra, and concludes the introduction with a list of the chapters. Of the preliminary matters, two distinct subjects, namely, the system of measurement and the qualifications of an architect, are dealt with next (Chapter II). *Aṅgula* (finger's breadth), equivalent to three-fourths of an inch, is the unit of architectural measures. The *tāla* (span between the tips of fully stretched thumb and middle finger) is the unit of sculptural measure, which is regulated by the length of the face, inclusive of head, of an image. This latter system of measure is dealt with in several chapters of the sculptural section.

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Architects are divided into four classes. Together they form the guild of architects, each an expert in his own department but possessing a general knowledge of the science of architecture as a whole.

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They consist of the chief architect (*Sthapati*), the designer or draftsman (*Sūtragrāhin*), the painter (*Vardhaki*), and the carpenter or joiner (*Sūtradhāra*). Different sets of qualifications are prescribed for each class, the gist of which may be expressed in the words of the Roman architect Vitruvius : ‘an architect should be ingenious, and apt in the acquisition of knowledge; he should be a good writer, a skilful draftsman, versed in geometry and optics, expert at figures, acquainted with history, informed on the principles of natural and moral philosophy, somewhat of a musician, not ignorant of the sciences of law and physic, nor of the motions, laws, and relations to each other, of the heavenly bodies.’ He must possess a wide outlook, bold temperament and self-control, and be endowed with all qualifications of a supreme managing director. He must be free from disease or disability and from the seven vices, like gambling, addiction to women, etc.

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The next chapter (III) called *Vāstu-prakaraṇa* defines the different branches of architecture, which are divided into four classes, namely, the ground, buildings, conveyances, and couches. The two following chapters (IV, V) on examination of soil and selection of site deal with the contour, colour, odour, features, taste and touch, elevation of the ground, and growth thereon of certain plants, trees, grasses, whereupon a village, town, fort, palace, temple, or dwelling house is to be built. Chapter VI deals with the orientation of buildings and recommends that a residential building should preferably face the east or the north-east, and never the south-east. Incidentally the principles, mechanics, and details of dialling are exhaustively described. The site-plans are next described (Chapter VII); thirty-two schemes are distinguished, each of which is divided into squares of various numbers. Following the usual custom, this preliminary section concludes with a chapter (VIII) on offerings to the presiding deities of the site.

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Town-planning is the next subject described in great detail in two chapters (IX, X). It is treated under two heads, *Grāma-lakshaṇa* (village scheme) and *Nagara-vidhāna* (lay-out of towns), and under three categories, village, town, and fort. Villages are divided into eight classes called *daṇḍaka*, *sarvatobhadra*, *nandyāvarta*, *padmaka*, *svastika*, *prastara*, *kārmuka* and *chaturmukha*: each of these, as the names indicate, represents a particular design and lay-out of which detailed measures and other particulars are given. Towns are also divided into eight classes: *Rājadhānī*, *nagara*, *pura*, *nagarī*, *kheṭa*, *kharvaṭa*, *kubjaka*, and *paṭṭana*. Forts are first divided into eight classes according to the size and the object and are called *śibira*, *vāhinīmukha*, *sthānīya*, *droṇaka samviddha* or *vardhaka*, *kolaka*, *nigama*, and *skandhāvāra*. According to their situation they are further classified into the mountain fort, water fort, chariot fort, divine fort, clay fort, and mixed fort. The mountain fort is further sub-divided into three classes as it is built on the top of a mountain, in the valley and on the slope.

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The next chapter (XI) describes in detail the proportions of breadth, length, and height of buildings of one to twelve storeys, assigned to persons of different ranks. Five forms, namely, square, rectangular, octagonal, round, and oval, are prescribed for buildings of four different classes, *jāti*, *chhanda*, *vikalpa*, and *ābhāsa*. These forms are equally applicable to religious, military, and residential buildings. A palace of five to twelve storeys is stated to suit the emperor or universal monarch, highest in rank among the nine classes of kings. Residences of one to three storeys are assigned to the heir-apparent and the chief feudatories, and so on.

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Chapter XII deals with the foundations whereupon buildings, villages, and tanks are built. The foundation is excavated up to the depth of man's height with uplifted arms in the rocky or sandy ground as may be available and best suited to the structure to be erected. It is laid down that the bottom of the pit should be rocky or watery. The different materials to fill up the pit and various processes and measures are specified in great detail. The gist of the directions on foundations may be best expressed *mutatis mutandis* in the words of Vitruvius: 'When we are satisfied with the spot fixed on for the site of the city . . . the irfoundations should be carried down to a solid bottom, if such can be found, and should be built thereon of such thickness as may be necessary for the proj[ecting] [s]upport of that part of the wall which stands above the natural level of the ground. They should be of the soundest workmanship and materials, and of greater thickness than the walls above. If solid ground can be come to, the foundations should go down to it and into it, according to the magnitude of the work, and the sub-struction be built up as solid as possible. Above the ground of the foundation, the wall should be one-half thicker than the column it is to receive so that the lower parts which carry the greatest weight, may be stronger than the upper part . . . . Nor must the mouldings of the bases of the columns project beyond the solid. Thus, also, should be regulated the thickness of all walls above ground. The intervals between the foundations brought up under the columns, should be either rammed down hard or arched, so as to prevent the foundation piers from swerving. If solid ground cannot be come to, and the ground be loose or marshy, the place must be excavated, cleared, and either elder, olive or oak piles, previously charred, must be driven with a machine, as close to each other as possible, and the intervals between the piles filled with charcoal. The heaviest foundations may be laid on such a base.'

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The next four chapters (XIII—XVI) deal with the column and its different component parts, namely, the pedestal, the base, the shaft and the entablature, and their various mouldings and ornaments. Twelve kinds of pedestals are described with detailed measurements of the various mouldings of each pedestal. The variety, the beauty of proportion, and the richness of ornaments are remarkable. The same remark is true with regard to the bases also which are described in detail under sixty-four varieties. While in Graeco-Roman orders the forms and dimensions of both the base and the pedestal are fixed by invariable rules with respect to the orders in which they are employed, in the Indian orders, it will be noticed, the choice is left to the option of the architects. The entablatures, including the capital, and comprising the architrave, frieze and cornice, are described in detail under eight varieties. Their massiveness offers a striking contrast to the lightness of the Grecian entablatures.

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Columns are divided into five orders in regard to general shapes and are called *Brahmakānta*, *Vishṇukānta*, *Rudrakānta*, *Śivakānta*, and *Skandakānta*. With respect to dimensions and ornaments columns are classified under *Chitrakarṇa*, *Padmakānta*, *Chitraskambha*, *Pālikā-stambha*, and *Kumbha-stambha*.

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In the *Matsya-purāṇa*, the *Bṛihat-saṁhitā*, and the *Kiraṇa-tantra* columns are also divided into five classes and are called *Ruchaka*, *Vajra*, *Dvi-vajra*, *Pralinaka*, and *Vṛitta*. In the *Suprabhedāgama* the names of the five orders are *Śrīkara*, *Chandrakānta*, *Saumukhya*, *Priyadarśana*, and *Śubhāṅkarī* which is composite of *Saumukhya* and *Priyadarśana*. The Græco-Roman orders, as is well known, are also five in number and are called Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan, and Composite.

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The total number of mouldings or the component parts of the column, including those of the pedestal, base, and entablature are forty-seven in the *Mānasāra*. The mouldings of the shaft alone number five and are called *bodhikā*, *mushṭi-bandha*, *phalakā*, *tāṭikā*, and *ghaṭa*.

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The *Suprabhedāgama* describes two sets of seven mouldings, one set referring to the column of the main building and the other set to that of the pavilion, and are called respectively, *daṇḍa*, *maṇḍi*, *kaṇṭha*, *kumbha*, *phalakā*, *vīrakaṇṭha* and *bodhikā*; and *uttara*, *potikā*, *vājana*, *mūrdhikā*, *tulā*, *jayantī* and *tala*. In the *Matsya-purāṇa*, the *Bṛihatsaṁhitā*, and the *Kiraṇa-tantra*, the mouldings are eight in number and bear the same names : *vāhana*, *ghaṭa*, *padma*, *uttaroshṭha*, *bāhulya*, *hāra*, *tulā*, and *upatulā*. The component mouldings of the Græco-Roman orders are also eight in number and are known as (1) the ovolo, echinus or quarter-round, (2) the talon, ogee or reversed cyma, (3) the cyma, cyma-recta, or cymatium, (4) the torus, (5) the scotia or trochilos, (6) the cavetto, mouth or hollow, (7) the astragal, and (8) the fillet, listel or annulet.

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The concluding chapter (XVII) on the preliminary subjects deals with joinery. The wood-joining is of various kinds and forms. Pieces of wood are joined in such a way as to make the figures of *nandyāvarta*, *svastika*, *sarvatobhadra*, and such other shapes. Some kinds of wood are strictly forbidden to be joined with some others.

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The next chapter (XVIII) deals with certain general features of buildings which are specified in the following twelve chapters (XIX–XXX). A brief reference is made in the beginning to the foundations. Then the subjects are divided under several headings. First the classification of buildings of one to twelve storeys, and the proportionate dimensions thereof are described very elaborately and various alternatives are given. The three styles, *Nāgara*, *Vesara*, and *Draviḍa*, and their distinguishing features based on the shapes of the top portions (*śikhara*, spherical roof) are next described. Then are described in order the domes, the pinnacle staffs, the pentroofs, and the front porches, of each of which the classification, dimensions and other particulars are given in detail. The chapter concludes with a description of the building materials, namely stone, brick, wood, and metal (*lit.*, iron), and the classifications of buildings thereunder.

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The chapter on ‘Single-storey buildings’ (XIX) opens with further classifications of buildings under *jāti*, *chhanda*, *vikalpa*, and *ābhāsa* based on the length of the cubit, which is taken as the unit of measure; under *sthānaka*, *āsana*, and *śayana*, otherwise called *saṁchita*, *asaṁchita*, and *apasaṁchita* based both on the standard of measure, which may be respectively height, breadth and length, and on the erect, sitting, and recumbent postures of the idols when the buildings happen to be temples; lastly, under masculine, feminine, and neuter, based on the equiangular, rectangular, and circular forms, as also on the sex of the main deity to be installed when the building is used as a temple.

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After a brief reference to the dimensions of the storey the comparative measurement and plans are described at great length. The whole height of the building is divided into a certain number of equal parts which are distributed in a happy proportion amongst the component members, namely the base, pillar, entablature, neck, dome and pinnacle. Similarly, the length of the entire temple is divided into a certain number of equal parts which are also distributed amongst various rooms and halls, such as the shrine, the anterooms, the pavilion, etc. A detailed account of the water-channels, like those of the *Mahenjodaro*, is added. Steps and staircases are described at the end of Chapter XXX. The concluding portions of Chapter XIX and the next eleven chapters are devoted to an enumeration of the various deities with whose images the door and walls of buildings are decorated. The Buddhist and the Jain temples are stated to be similarly built, with this difference, that in those temples the images of Buddhist and Jain deities are installed.

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There are eight types of single-storey buildings indicating different designs and bearing technical and mostly significant names. Similarly, the buildings of two storeys are divided into eight types, of three storeys into eight types, of four storeys into eight types, of five storeys into eight types, of six storeys into thirteen types of seven storeys into eight types, of eight storeys into eight types of nine storeys into seven types, of ten storeys into six types, of eleven storeys into six types, and of twelve storeys into ten types. The last ten types are given geographical names and seem to imply ten provinces into which whole India was architecturally divided—*Pāñchāla* (the Punjab), *Driviḍa* (Deccan), *Madhyakānta* (Doab), *Kaliṅgakānta* (Coromandal Coast), *Virāṭa* (Jaipur), *Kerala* (Malabar), *Vaṁsakānta* (Kauśāmbī), *Magadhakānta* (South Bihar), *Janakakānta* (North Bihar), and *Sphūrjaka* (? Gurjara.)¹.

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¹ For identification of these places see details in the writer’s *Indian Architecture*, pp. 173–175.

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The compound of a big house, temple, or palace, is divided into five courts (Chapter XXXI). The fourth court, after which the chapter is named *Prākāra*, is divided into *jāti*, *chhanda*, *vikalpa*, *ābhāsa* and *kāmya* classes, as also into *śuddha* (of one material), *miśra* (of two materials), and *saṅkīrṇa* (of mixed materials) classes. At the outset a reference is made to five kinds of *prākāra* buildings in connexion with *bali* (offerings), *parivāra* (attendant deities), *sobhā* (beauty), and *rakshaṇa* (defence). The shrines of the attendant deities in connexion with a big temple, and the gate-houses both for temples and palaces are very briefly described in conclusion, the next two chapters being entirely devoted to a special treatment of these two subjects.

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The temples of the attendant deities are stated (in Chapter XXXII) to be built round the *prākāra* (court). At the eight cardinal points of the innermost or the first court, the shrines of a group of eight deities are built. Groups of sixteen and thirty-two deities are located in the second and the third court respectively. Between the third and the fifth court is said to be a special pavilion. After an elaborate description of the situation of the shrine for each of the deities of the three groups, the attendant deities of Vishṇu are described in detail.

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Chapter XXXIII deals with gate houses of various kinds which are assigned to both temples and palaces. They are first divided into five classes as they belong to the five courts and bear very significant names: *dvāra-śobhā* (beauty of the gate), *dvāra-śālā* (gate-house), *dvāra-prāsāda* (gate-palace), *dvāra-harmya* (gate-mansion) and *mahā-gopura* (great cow-house). Each of these five classes is sub-divided into three sizes: small, intermediate and large. Under each of these fifteen varieties the gate-houses are elaborately described. They are further divided into ten classes, bearing ten different technical names, with regard to the number of domes, pinnacles, neck-peaks, and vestibules. They are made one to sixteen storeys high. The dimensions and ornaments of each storey are described in detail. Pillars, entablatures, roofs, walls, floors, doors, etc., are also fully described.

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The chapter closes with an interesting description of windows, not only for gate-houses, but also for other kinds of buildings, both religious and residential. Windows admit of various patterns represented by the following designations: *nāga-bandha* (snake-band), *valli* (creeper), *gavāksha* (cow’s eye), *kuñjarāksha* (elephant’s eye), *svastika* (cross-shape), *sarvatobhadra* (a special design), *nandyāvarta* (another special design), and *pushpa-bandha* (flower-band). They are decorated with floral and foliated ornaments, as well as with decorative devices in imitation of jewels. The dimensions are mostly left to the discretion of architects with a general direction in regard to the windows for gate-houses.

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Detached buildings situated both within the compound and outside, have been described in great detail in the chapter (XXXIV) on ‘Pavilions.’ Pavilions are single-storey buildings, generally self-contained, but sometimes they imply the special rooms in a house. They are also built on the roadside and on the sea-shore; on the banks of a river, tank, or lake.

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Various component members of pavilions such as walls, roofs, floors, verandahs, court-yards, doors, windows, pillars, sheds, etc., are described in detail. Seven pavilions bearing the names of the seven well-known mountains are stated to be built in front of the main edifice and to be used as a bath-room, study, library, and so forth.

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Pavilions bearing other names and descriptions are mentioned for wedding and other ceremonies, for kitchen, for storing water, etc., for guests, elephants, horses, and for pilgrimage, etc. The chapter closes with a description of the forms and shapes of pavilions. The *jāti* shape is given to the pavilions of the temples and the residences of the Brahmans, the *chhanda* shape to those of the Kshatriyas, the *vikalpa* shape to those of the Vaiśyas, and the *ābhāsa* shape to those of the Śūdras. Again, the pavilions are classified under technical names in accordance with the number of their faces, which vary from two to six.¹

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¹ In the *Matsya-purāṇa* (chap. 270, v. 1–16) pavilions are divided according to the number of pillars (see the writer's *Dictionary*, pp. 471–472).

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Chapter XXXV deals with the 'Storeyed Mansions' which consist of rows of buildings varying from one to ten. The blocks of buildings varying in number of storeys up to twelve are artistically joined up. They are classified under six main groups called *Daṇḍaka*, *Svastika*, *Maulika*, *Chaturmukha*, *Sarvatobhadra*, and *Vardhamāna*. Each of these is again sub-divided into several types: the arrangement of the *Daṇḍaka* mansion, for instance, is described under eight varieties. The *Daṇḍaka* is an isolated mansion and consists of a single row of buildings and would look like a stick (*daṇḍaka*). The *Svastika* mansion is plough-shaped and consists of two rows of buildings. The *Maulika* mansion is shaped like a winnowing basket and consists of three rows of buildings. The *Chaturmukha* mansion is four-faced and consists of four rows of buildings. The *Sarvatobhadra* mansion consists of seven rows of buildings, and the *Vardhamāna* of ten rows of buildings. These huge buildings are naturally meant for kings, to the nine classes of whom they are assigned in accordance with the importance of the mansions and the rank of the king. But they are also stated to be used by the Gods, the Brahmans, the Kshatriyas, the Vaiśyas, the Śūdras, the ascetics, the hermits, the priests, the Buddhists, the warriors fighting with the help of the horse, the elephant, and the chariot, the artists and the courtesans. Their lay-out, architectural members with dimensions, ornaments, and other details are fully described.

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Chapter XXXVI deals with the situation and dimensions of houses fit for the residence of the twice-born and all other castes. They may be built in a village, city, trading centre, on sea, on the bank of a. river, on the side of a hill, etc. The length of a house may be one-and-a-quarter to four times the breadth. On the central plot of the innermost court is generally built a temple or public hall. Around this are constructed dwelling-houses for the master of the family, his wife and children, servants, sheds for cows, horses, poultry, etc., kitchens and dining halls, guest houses, reading rooms, halls for daily sacrifice, music, dancing girls and for all other domestic purposes. Excepting the extreme boundary wall these houses are generally built in order on one side of the (partition) wall. Thus are stated to be built 'in accordance with the rules of the science of architecture, temples, residences, monasteries, treasuries, law-courts, stables, etc., as described in case of towns' (Chapters IX, X). This chapter corresponds in a way to Chapter XXXII where the situations of shrines for attendant deities are described.

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The next chapter (XXXVII) describes the ceremonies in connexion with the opening of and first entry into a house.

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Chapters XXXVIII and XXXIX are devoted to a description of doors, including what is called the water-door or drain, and dormerwindows, windows proper having been treated at the end of Chapter XXXIII. In the former of these two chapters mainly the situations of doors are elucidated, while dimensions, constructional details, ornaments, etc., are referred to in the latter chapter.

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Chapters XL—XLII deal primarily with the palaces of kings of various ranks. Incidentally, the royal orders, insignia, qualifications and entourage, including the strength of the army and revenue, are mentioned in two chapters (XLI—XLII). The royalty is divided into nine classes, namely the *Chakravartin*, *Mahārāja* also called *Adhirāja*, *Narendra*, *Pārshṇika*, *Paṭṭadhara*, *Maṇḍaleśa*, *Paṭṭabhāj*, *Prāhāraka*, and *Astragrāha*. Their characteristics are described in detail (in Chapter XLII). The general and individual qualifications of these kings, as also the army and entourage of each class, are given in Chapter XLI. Very minute details of the palaces of each of these nine classes of kings are described in full in Chapter XL. Palaces are naturally the most gorgeous buildings and the large ones are furnished with as many as seven courts in place of the five courts referred to in Chapter XXXI, which are meant for large temples and edifices.

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Other buildings which are necessary adjuncts to the palace of an Indian King include the coronation pavilion, audience halls, arsenals, treasury, store rooms, etc., in addition to the gorgeous inner apartments and residences for private use of queens and others. In the outer part are situated the offices and the residences for the Crown Prince, family priests, ministers and others. Stables are generally situated near the main gate. Prisons are built in an out-of-the-way place. Pleasure gardens, groves, tanks, arena for ram fights, etc., are assigned their proper places.

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In Chapter XLIII cars and chariots for the ceremonial and ordinary use of Gods, Brahmans and Kings, as well as for war and other purposes, are treated with all architectural details. Their wheels, storeys, pinnacles, etc., and the shapes, dimensions, ornaments, and mouldings are described in detail. They are once classified under the four main styles, namely the *Nāgara* (square), *Drāviḍa* (octagonal), *Vesara* (circular, i.e. round) and *Kāliṅga* (hexagonal). Then with regard to the number of porticos (*bhadra*) and other features they are classified as *nabhasvān-bhadraka*, *prabhañjana-bhadraka*, *nivāta-bhadraka*, *pavana-bhadraka*, *prishada-bhadraka*, *chandraka-bhadraka* and *anila-bhadraka*.

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Chapter XLIV deals with couches and swings which are meant for the use of deities, the twice-born, and the members of the other castes. They admit of two sizes, large and small, and are described with all constructional details.

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The next chapter (XLV) is devoted to a description of thrones. The royal thrones are divided into four classes, called *prathama* (first coronation), *mangala* (auspicious, a stage of coronation), *vīra* (heroic, a stage of coronation) and *vijaya* (victory, a stage of coronation). The divine thrones are also divided into four classes according to the occasion of use: the *nityārchana* throne is for daily worship, the *viśeshārchana* throne for special worship, the *nityotsava* throne for ordinary (daily) festival, and the *mahotsava* throne for the great festival. An elaborate account of the general plans, dimensions, ornaments and other architectural details of both the royal and the divine thrones is given under ten types, namely, *padmāsana*, *padma-kesara*, *padma-bhadra*, *śrī-bhadra*, *śrī-viśāla*, *śrī-bandha*, *śrī-mukha*, *bhadrasana*, *padma-bandha*, and *pāda-bandha*. These thrones are specifically assigned to the great Gods, the Buddhist and the Jain deities, as also to the Kings of nine orders.

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Chapter XLVI deals with arches. The first three lines where the objects of arches are specified are not well preserved. The tentative translation would run thus: "Arches are made for (the decoration of) the (temples of) gods and the (palaces of) kings, for (ordinary residential buildings, as well as for) the upper portions of all kinds of thrones." In the writer's *Dictionary* numerous references to the arch have been gathered together from other chapters of this text and also from various literature and inscriptions, wherefrom it may be clear that the principles and use of the arch in buildings were sufficiently known to the old architects.

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Various forms of the arch are described in this chapter. It may be triangular, circular, crescent-shaped, bow-shaped, or of any other suitable form. Other features and the rules for their construction are fully described. With regard to the ornamentation, arches are divided into four types : *patra-toraṇa* (foliated arch), *pushpa-toraṇa* (floral arch), *ratna-toraṇa* (jewelled arch) and *chitra-toraṇa* (ornamental arch). Arches are also stated to be supported by leographs which are placed on both sides of the pillars.

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Chapter XLVII deals with the open shedyard (*mukta-prapāṅga*), and the (closed) central theatre (*madhya-raṅga*) which is generally erected to serve as a stage in the courtyard of big temples and palaces and is furnished with raised platforms, galleries, and royal seats, etc. Their architectural details, together with various dimensions and ornaments, are described in full. The materials of which they are built are stated to be wood, stone, brick, and metal (*lit.* iron).

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The next chapter (XLVIII) is devoted to the description of a decorative device called ‘the ornamental (all productive mythic) tree’ (*kalpa-vṛiksha*) which is used over the thrones, open shedyards, pavilions and arches. The minute description and detailed measurement of the various parts of the tree are given. Its trunk is stated to have a serpent coiling round it with an expanded five-fold hood. Incidentally, the measurement of the tail, hood, etc., of the snake is given in detail. The tree is also decorated with creepers, leaves and flowers of various colours and forms. Jewels and garlands of pearls are inserted in suitable situation. Figures of deities, demigods, monkeys, etc., are placed in the intervals between the branches.

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The primary object of the next chapter (XLIX) is to describe really the crowns of gods, goddesses, kings and queens of various orders. The ceremonies in connection with the coronation of kings are incidentally described. The chapter is, however, named ‘Coronation’ instead of ‘Crowns.’ The crowns are divided into twelve types, namely, *jaṭā*, *mauli*, *kirīṭa*, *karaṇḍa*, *śirastraka*, *kuṇdala* (*kuntala*), *keśabandha*, *dhammilla*, *alaka*, *chūḍā*, *mukuṭa*, and *paṭṭa*. The design, dimensions, ornaments, number of jewels set in every one of these crowns, as also other architectural details and the names of users and the occasion of the use are elaborately described. The height of the crowns varies in accordance with the importance of the divine or royal bearers.

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The chapter closes with a recapitulation of the four forms of coronation and the direction as to the conduct of the ceremonial regal procession.

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The ornaments of the body and articles of house furniture are described in the next chapter (L) which is the last chapter on architectural subjects. The personal ornaments are divided into four groups. The, *patrakalpa* is so called because it shows foliated decoration. The *chitrakalpa* consists of floral and foliated designs and precious stones. The *ratnakalpa* is made of flowers and jewels and the *miśrakalpa* consists of a mixture of all the others. All these are suited to the deities. The universal monarch, the first of the nine orders of kings, can put on all these excepting the *patrakalpa*. The *miśrakalpa* is prescribed for all other kings. In addition to these general divisions, a list of some thirty personal ornaments is given with details.

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The articles of furniture are divided into seven general groups consisting of lamp-posts, fans, mirrors, wardrobes (baskets and chests), palanquins, balances, and cages. The architectural details including measurement of some fifteen cages are given in full.

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Chapter LI on ‘Triad’ is the first chapter of the sculptural section. This section opens with a detailed account of the materials of which images are made, the specially sculptural measurement being treated in chapters LV, LXVII. The materials are divided (in Chapter LI) into nine classes, namely gold, silver, copper, stone, wood, stucco, grit (also sugar or gravel), glass and terra-cotta. ‘Both the movable and the stationary images should be made with these nine materials; (of these) the metallic substances (i.e. gold, silver and copper) as well as stucco, grit, glass, and terra-cotta are stated to be the materials for the movable images; and the rest (i.e. stone and wood) are known to be for the immovable images.’

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The *chitrāṅga*, *ardha-chitrāṅga* and *ābhāsāṅga* are said to be the three kinds of images. That of which all the limbs are made visible is called the *chitra* (high relief), that of which half the limbs are visible is called the *ardha-chitra* (middle relief), and that of which one-quarter limbs are visible is called the *ābhāsa* (low or bas-relief). But the *ābhāsa* images may be otherwise made (painted) on a tablet or a wall with five colours.

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Idols are made in the erect, sitting, recumbent and dancing postures. The poses, namely, the equipoise, . flexion, three flexions, and excessive flexions are referred to in a later chapter (LVII).

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After this preliminary account the sculptural details of the images of Brahmā, Vishṇu and Śiva are given in full. Brahmā is furnished with four arms and four faces. Two of his hands are curved in the boon-giving and refuge-offering attitudes. The attributes held in his hands are the water-pot and the rosary, or the large and small sacrificial ladles. He wears a diadem and the matted hair, a strip of bark, an upper garment. and various ornaments. His whole body is of golden colour. His limbs are measured in the large type of ten *tāla* measures of which details are given in a separate chapter (LXV). He is accompanied by his two goddesses, Sarasvatī and Sāvitrī, standing to his right and left respectively, who are measured in the middle ten *tāla*.

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Vishṇu is also four-armed, but has one head. His head-gear is the diadem called *kirīṭa*. He wears a yellow garment, while the colour of his body is dark blue. His chest is adorned with the symbol called *Śrīvatsa*. Two of his hands are in the gift-bestowing and refuge-granting attitudes. His attributes are the lotus-flower, the mace, the discus, and the conch-shell. At the back of his head there is an ornamental nimbus. Among numerous ornaments he is adorned with a garland of wild flowers which hangs down to his legs. His limbs are also measured in the large ten *tāla* system. He is also attended by two goddesses, Lakshmī (goddess of prosperity) and Bhūdevī (earth goddess). who are measured in the middle ten *tāla*.

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Śiva, the third member of the Triad, is four-armed and is distinguished by a third eye in the middle of his forehead. Like Brahmā, he wears the matted hair of the ascetic. The figures of *Gaṅgā* (the river Ganges) and the crescent moon are inserted in his head-dress. On the left side of his neck there is the mark of the deadly poison *kālakūṭa*. His dress consists of a tiger-skin reaching down to the knees and a waist cloth. His complexion is red, (elsewhere stated to be white).

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Two of his hands are in the attitude of granting a boon and of conferring security. In the remaining two hands he holds an antelope and a tabor or hand-drum. His limbs are also measured in the large ten *tāla* system. He is accompanied by the goddess Pārvatī (mountain-maid) who keeps standing or seated on his left side. The consort is measured in the middle ten *tāla*.

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The chapter closes with a brief reference to the pedestals for images which are described elsewhere, and with a direction that the particulars not mentioned here with regard to the carving of these idols should be supplied from tradition (*Śāstra*).

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The next chapter (LII) deals with the so-called Phallus which is ordinarily understood to be an emblem of Śiva, the third member of the Triad. But in fact it is a symbol for all the three members of the Triad. Its bottom portion is called here the *Brahmabhāga* and is generally square in shape, the middle portion is called the *Viṣṇubhāga* and is octagonal in shape, and the top portion is called the *Śiva-bhāga* and is round in shape. These shapes are interchangeable and the topmost point may be like a bud, leaf or umbrella. It also consists of another essential portion called *Pīṭha* or pedestal upon which it stands.

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The popularity of its worship throughout the country is indicated by the fact that there are more than thirty million such emblems, including *Viśvanātha* at Benares, *Somanātha* in Gujarat, *Mahākāla* at Ujjayinī, and the famous ones at Tanjore, Trichinopoly, Rāmeśvaram, etc. Architecturally they are classified under several types, such as *Śaiva*, *Pāśupata*, *Kālamukha*, *Mahāvrata*, *Vāma*, *Bhairava*, *Samakarṇa*, *Vardhamāna*, *Śivāṅka*, *Svastika*; *Jāti*, *Chhanda*, *Vikalpa*, *Ābhāsa*; *Nāgara*, *Vesara*, *Drāviḍa*; the four self-revealed ones, namely, *Daivika*, *Mānuṣha*, *Gāṇava* and *Ārṣha*; those for personal and public worship; those made singly and in a group; and those named as *Vajra* (diamond), *Suvarṇa* (golden), etc., according to the material of which they are made. All these are described at great length. Various alternative measures are prescribed for each of them; in some cases as many as thirty-six alternative heights are suggested.

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The following chapter (LIII) deals with the Altar (*Pīṭha*) which symbolically represents Satī (the chaste), the consort of Śiva. The well-known fifty-one *Pīṭha-sthāna* are the sacred spots spread over the whole country, where the parts of the body of Satī fell after she had been cut to pieces by the discus of Vishṇu as a result of her quarrel with the gods at a great sacrifice (festival) at her father's house wherefrom her husband was excluded in order to humiliate him.¹

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¹ In Persian architecture similar altars are the only relics to represent the temple which was not in vogue there (for details see the writer's article 'The Indo-Persian Architecture,' the *Calcutta Review*, 1930, February, pp. 163-179; March, pp. 373-379; April, pp. 22-35).

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The sculptural details of altars are given under the following types: *Bhadrapīṭha*, *Śrībhadra*, *Śrīviśāla*, and *Upapīṭha*; and also under *Nāgara*, *Vesara* and *Drāviḍa*.

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The following female deities or goddesses are next described (in Chapter LIV): Sarasvatī (goddess of learning), Lakshmī (goddess of prosperity), Mahī (the earth-goddess or mother country), Mana-unmādinī (enchantress of mind, the goddess of love), Sāvitrī (consort of Brahmā), Durgā (consort of Śiva) and the seven mothers comprising Vārāhī, Kaumārī, Chāmuṇḍī, Bhairavī, Māhendrī, Vaishṇavī, and Brahmāṇī. The former are superior goddesses, and are measured in the middle ten *tāla*, and the latter are inferior and measured in the nine *tāla*. The characteristic features, complexions, attributes, poses, ornaments, crowns, garments, etc., of every one of these are described in detail.² The chapter closes with a brief reference to the plumb-lines which are more fully treated in a later chapter.

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² A reference to the Index may supply a brief summary of the details.

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The next chapter (LV) describes the Jain images. The opening lines give a detailed account of the various kinds of sculptural measurement. The linear measurement is divided into six kinds. *Māna* is the measurement of an image from the foot to the top of the head. *Pramāṇa* is the measurement of breadth. *Parimāṇa* is the measurement of girth or circumference. *Lambamāna* is the measurement along the plumb-lines. *Unmāna* is the measurement of thickness or diameter. And *Upamāna* is the measurement of interspace such as that between the two feet of an image. Then the *ādimāna* (primary measurement) refers to the comparative measurement and is divided into nine kinds, as the height of an image is determined by comparing it with the breadth of the temple, with the height of the cella or sanctum, with the height of the temple-door, with the base, with the height of the worshipper, with the height of the riding animal (or with the principal idol in case of auxiliary deities), in *tāla* system, and in cubit. The cubit measure is sub-divided into smaller units such as the *aṅgula*, which admits of four varieties. *Berāṅgula* is the measurement taken by the finger-breadth of the main idol. *Mānāṅgula* refers to the ordinary absolute measurement which is equivalent to eight *yavas* (barley corns) or three-fourths of an inch. *Mātrāṅgula* refers to the measurement determined by the length of the digit and the width of the middle finger in the right hand of the master (worshipper). And *Deha-labdhāṅgula* or *dehāṅgula* refers to one of the equal parts (as in the *tāla* system) into which the whole length of an image is divided.

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The Jain images which are measured in the large ten *tāla* have a purely human shape, carved in an erect or sitting posture, and may be stationary or movable. They are furnished with no robes or ornaments, but are placed on a throne decorated with the *makara* arch and the *kalpa* tree. On the chest the *śrīvatsa* symbol is marked in gold. They are attended by Nārada and other sages, as well as by Yakshas, Vidyādharas, Siddhas, Nāgendras, Lokapālas, etc. The twenty-four *Tīrthaṅkaras* are also measured in the ten *tāla* system.

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A short account of the Buddhist images is given in Chapter LVI. The Buddha image is measured in the large ten *tāla* and is thus of the superior type. He has a full face, a long nose, smiling eyes and elongated ears. His body is fleshy, his chest broad, his belly round, and his arms long. His complexion is white. He wears a yellow garment. He is furnished with the *ushṇīsha* or protuberance of the skull, which is a peculiar mark of Buddha. Another Buddhistic mark is the *aśvattha* or ficus religiosa, which, along with the *kalpa* or.mythic wonder-tree, is a characteristic feature of the thrones on which Buddhist figures are placed in an erect or sitting posture.

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The images of the sages are described in the next chapter (LVII). They comprise the seven well-known patriarchs, namely Agastya, Kāśyapa, Bhr̥igu, Vasishṭha, Bhārgava, Viśvāmitra, and Bharadvāja. Agastya is bright blue in complexion, Kāśyapa yellow, Bhr̥igu dark or black, Vasishṭha red, Bhārgava brownish, Viśvāmitra red, and Bharadvāja yellow. Agastya is measured in the seven *tāla*, Kāśyapa and Bhr̥igu in the eight *tāla*, and the rest in the nine *tāla*. They are represented in a purely human shape, being two-armed and two-eyed. They wear yellow garments and the sacred thread, and are distinguished by the matted hair of the ascetics. In their two hands they hold a staff and a book. Of Agastya it is stated that he is corpulent and hump-backed.

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Chapter LVIII deals with the semi-divine beings and demons. They are classified under four main groups, namely Yakshas, Vidyādharas, Gandharvas, and Kinnaras, with Rakshasas and Nigrahas as two sub-classes of Yakshas. Rakshasas are evil spirits, while Nigrahas are supernatural beings of a benevolent or inoffensive disposition. Yakshas act as attendants to the gods. Vidyādharas are chowry-bearers of the gods and are a kind of fairy possessed of magical powers. Gandharvas are celestial choirs and are celebrated as musicians. Kinnaras are hybrid beings. Their legs are like those of an animal, the upper body is like that of a man, the face is like that of Garuḍa, and the arms are provided with wings. They hold a lute, possess the beautiful hue of a flower, and are adorned with a diadem and a red lotus. The colour of the Yakshas is dark blue and yellow, and that of the Vidyādharas dark red and yellow. The right legs of Yakshas are cross-shaped (*svastika*) and the left bent. In one hand they hold the chowries and the other is kept touching the ground. Yakshas are placed on a seat with plough-shaped legs stretched backward and forward, and the hands are kept resting on the knees and stretching towards the gate-house. Gandharvas are carved in a sitting or erect posture and are furnished with lutes, etc. All these have two arms and two eyes and are adorned with the *karaṇḍa* crown. Yakshas and Vidyādharas are measured in the nine *tāla*.

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The next chapter (LIX) describes the devotees who are furnished with human features but possess superhuman measures. They are divided into four classes according to the four stages of spiritual advancement known as *Sālokya* (dwelling in the same world as the deity), *Sāmīpya* (dwelling in the vicinity of the deity), *Sārūpya* (being in close fellowship with the deity) and *Sāyujya* (being united with the deity). The images of the *Sālokya* class of devotees are measured in the large type of nine *tāla* system, those of the *Sāmīpya* class in the small type of ten *tāla*, those of the *Sārūpya* class in the middle type of ten *tāla*, and those of the *Sāyujya* class in the large type of ten *tāla*.

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The riding animals of gods, of the Triad in particular, called *Vāhana* (conveyance) are described in the next four chapters. The sculptural details of the goose, who is the conveyance of Brahmā, are given in Chapter LX. It is white all over with red legs and a golden beak. It is measured in the two *tāla* system. The chapter closes with a statement that rows of geese should be beautifully carved or painted in the temples of gods and mansions of Brahmans and kings; they are figured on the entablature, architrave, finial, recess (nest), and neck of those buildings.

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Chapter LXI opens with a lengthy discussion on the application of the rules for verification (*shaḍvarga*) of various alternative measures suggested in connection with the riding animals. Garuḍa, the conveyance of Vishṇu, who is the primary object of the chapter, is described in very great detail. He is a mythical being. Garuḍa is figured partly as a human creature and partly as a bird. He is provided with feathers, wings painted in five colours. and a beak; but, on the other hand, the description refers to his arms, ears, and hair. He wears various ornaments including the *karaṇḍa* diadem and is gorgeously painted in a great variety of colours. He assumes a terrific appearance. He is figured in an erect or sitting posture and as meditating on Vishṇu with joined palms. His limbs are measured in the nine *tāla* system.

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The next chapter (LXII) describes the bull Nandin who is the animal of Śiva. Its image, which may be either recumbent or erect, is placed facing the Śiva temple on a pedestal, either inside the shrine, or in a pavilion in front of the temple, or at the door. He is white in colour, but his four legs, hoofs and ears are red. He is covered with a tiger-skin and wears garlands at the neck, and foot-rings or anklets. He is not measured in any *tāla* system, but various absolute and comparative measures have been prescribed. The bull is made, solid or hollow, of metals, stone, wood, glass, gems, stucco, baked clay, and grit.

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The lion is the next riding animal described (in Chapter LXIII). The Mountain-Maid Pārvatī rides on him. He is made in an erect, sitting, or recumbent posture. His four legs are like those of the tiger. His colour is white but his mane should be red. His nails and teeth are crescent-shaped. He, also, is not measured in any *tāla* system. His tail is generally equal to his height.

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Chapter LXIV proposes to give a general description of all images particularly of the attendant deities of the Vishṇu temple. But it actually supplies a general resumé of all kinds of architectural and sculptural measures and of the rules concerning the verification of alternative measures, which have been repeatedly referred to both in the architectural and sculptural sections. The comparative measurement is distinguished into twelve kinds, as it is compared with the Phallus, the main Vishṇu image, the width of the sanctum, the breadth of the main temple, the door, the rafter (*vaṁśa*), the basement, and the pillar, as also in cubit, in the *tāla* system, in comparison with the worshipper, and in *aṅgula* of which four varieties have also been mentioned in Chapter LV. The various sub-divisions of each of these measures, illustrations of their application, and the effect of adopting a particular system are discussed in great detail.

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Chapters LXV and LXVI supply minutest details of the large and the middle types of the ten *tāla* system. Under the former the measure of one hundred and fifty-four parts of the body is given. The former is employed in measuring superior gods and the latter for goddesses.

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The details of other *tāla* measures have been already given in various chapters. Incidentally, Chapter LXVI supplies a general clue to the exact features of the various important limbs. The face is stated to be oval or shaped like the egg of a hen. The eye-brows should be shaped like a bow, the eyes like a fish, the nose like a sesame flower, etc. the nostrils like a bean, etc.

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The next chapter (LXVII) deals with the plumb-lines which are drawn through the body of an image in order to find out accurately the perpendicular and the horizontal measurement of and the distance between different parts of the body. The construction of the boards between which the image is to be placed and of the plummet is described in detail. As many as eleven perpendicular plumb-lines are referred to. The subject has become all the more complicated as the three postures, the erect, sitting, and recumbent, and the four poses, namely, the equipoise, slight flexion, three flexions and excessive flexions, are also taken into consideration in ascertaining the measures along and between the eleven plumb-lines. Thus the variation of the measures of a figure is carefully considered in each case.

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The next chapter (LXVIII) deals with the casting of images in wax. The chapter opens with an enumeration of the names of phalli and ascetics, as well as of architects. So far as the casting is concerned all kinds of images, temporary or permanent, stationary or movable, are moulded in wax. The process slightly varies according to the materials of which an idol is made. Generally a half of the image is covered with a thin copper leaf or melted iron, and the wax is laid two or three *aṅgulas* deep; and the other half is covered with earth. The metallic portion is washed in water. Thus in casting images in metals wax is melted and poured out of the mould and defects are removed with cloth. Metal images are first made of wax and coated with earth; gold and other metals are purified and cast into the mould. For images made of earth rods of wood or metal are inserted in them.

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Chapter LXIX deals with the defects of the limbs. It is laid down that no part of a building should be larger or smaller than what is prescribed. The evil consequences of a defective construction threaten the king, the kingdom, the master, and the maker. The penalties for defective construction are enumerated with reference to architectural objects, but nothing is specifically stated regarding the sculptural objects.

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The concluding chapter (LXX) deals with the chiselling of the eyes of an image, which is the final function. The purification and setting of precious stones in the images and phalli are also mentioned. The chapter closes with a statement that this science of architecture and sculpture was originally described by Brahmā, Indra, and all other gods, and that the text has been compiled on the basis of these authorities.

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This brief outline of the chapters, if read with reference to the Index, where under each term all necessary information has been gathered together, with great labour, may supply the gist of the summary without which an average reader might find it rather difficult to form a complete and connected idea by a single reading of the text or the translation.

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*Relation with other works*

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The other existing texts, mostly in manuscripts, numbering some three hundred, of which an account has been given in Appendix I of the writer's *Dictionary of Hindu Architecture*, deal with some of those subjects outlined in the preceding section practically in the same manner as in the *Mānasāra*. Some of these texts have been compared rather elaborately in the writer's *Indian Architecture* and the discussion need not be repeated here. It will be perhaps enough to refer to the conclusions only.

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