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Indian Art: A History of Indian Art from the Earliest Times up to the Third Century A.D. c9: Chapter V: 5 (a). Art in the Mahā-Janapada Period [Circa 1500 B. C. to 500 B. C.]

Indian Art: A History of Indian Art from the Earliest Times up to the Third Century A.D. c9

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English

Contents

Chapter V: 5 (a). Art in the Mahā-Janapada Period [Circa 1500 B. C. to 500 B. C.]

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5 (a). ART IN THE MAHĀ-JANAPADA PERIOD

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The story of Āryan civilization progresses from the moving Janas or clans of the Vedic age to the Janapada States in which the mobile communities entered upon a stage of "land-taking" or land-settlement in well defined areas called Janapada. The Janapada State synchronises with the literature which refers to it, viz. the Brāhmaṇas, Śrauta Sūtras, Pāli Tripiṭaka, Jaina Āgamas, and the Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini, who gives a detailed picture of the cultural features of the Janapada units, as well as of their ruling aristocracies called Jānapadins.

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The Buddhist literature speaks of sixteen Mahā-Janapadas stretching from Kamboja in the Pamir to Aśmaka with capital at Pratiṣṭhāna (Paithan) on the Godāvarī. The Jaina literature also mentions 24 Janapadas. The Purāṇas go further and give a longer list of more than 100 names beginning from Kamboja in the north to Aṅga-Vaṅga in the east and from Sauvīra in the west to Aparānta, Mūshika and Māhishaka in the south. I have discussed at length the cultural elements and the political background of the Janapadas in my book *India as known to Pāṇini*, (ch. II. pp. 48-74).

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The intellectual activity as evolved by the Vedic *Charaṇas*, or Academies of Learning was of the highest order in which foundations of many sciences or fields of study (*Vidyā*) were laid, e.g. grammar, exegesis, phonetics, astronomy, medicine, dramaturgy, architecture, law (*Dharma*), besides an elaborate development of the Vedic and domestic ritual. Similarly *Śilpa*, i.e. arts and crafts, received wide attention and were cultivated as so many professions by expert craftsmen for which a new word, viz. *Jānapadi-vṛitti* was introduced in the language (Pāṇini, 4. 1. 42). Expert professions and crafts began even in the Vedic age as shown by the *Sata-Rudrīya* Chapter of the Yajurveda, e. g. physicians (*Bhishak*), trader (*Vaṇij*), house-builder (*Sthapati*), makers of bows, arrows and quivers (*Dhanvin, Ishumat, Dhanushakṛit, Ishukṛit, Ishudhimat*), carpenters or timber fellers (*Takshā*), Cart-wrights (*Rathakāra*), potter (*Kulāla*), blacksmith (*Karmāra*), maker of coats of mail and armour (*Varma, Kavacha* and *Ayudha*), architects who were expert in *Vāstu-vidyā* (*Vāstavya* and *Vāstuka*), makers of beds (*Talpa*) and mattings (*kaṭa*), weaver (*Vayatri*), agriculturist (*Kināśa*), grain-dealer (*Annānāmpati*), warrior, boatsman (*Nāvāja*) with oar (*Aritra*), raft (*Dyumna*), ship (*Nau*) and rudder (*maṇḍa*), dyer (*Rajayitri*), ropemaker (*Rajju-sarja*), lute-player (*Vīṇā-gāthin*), barber (*Vaptṛi*), cook (*Śrapayitri*), elephant-keeper (Hastipa), worker in gold (Hiraṇyakāra), jewellers (Maṇikāra), basket-maker (Vidala-kārī), embroiderer (Peśitrī, Peśaskārī for a female), smelter (Dhmātṛi), drum-beater (Dundu hyaghāta), physician (Talava), corn-grinder (Upala-prakṣiṇī), plough-man (Kṛiṣīvala). Names of musical instrmrnts are given, e. g. Vīṇā (lute), Nāḍī (reed flute), drum (Dundubhi), Kāṇḍa-vīṇā (a kind of lute), Karkarī (a variety of lute), Āḍambara (drum), Āghāṭi (cymbal), Lambara (a kind of pendant drum), Bhūmi-Dundu'hi (a big drum placed on the ground).

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The above list gives proof of the development of several branches of arts and crafts under the general names of Śilpas, viz. science of music (Gandharva-veda), Āyurveda, Dhanurveda and Vāstuveda.

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Under Gandharva-veda or music was also cultivated the science of dramaturgy or Nāṭya of which the earliest reference is found in Pāṇini mentioning the dramaturgical texts produced in the Vedic Schools of Śilālin and Kṛiśāśva. The ancient tradition of Śilālin's Naṭa-sūtras was handed down in the School of Bharata. It appears that the above four Upa-Vedas dealing with the practical arts useful for life began to be cultivated originally under the aegis of the Vedic Academies (Caraṇas) with the approval of those very teachers who were occupied with the study of Vedic texts. This healthy tradition gained in strength and popularity in course of time, leading to the independent organisation of Śilpas and allied sciences. The Śrauta-Sūtras and the Jātakas give a vivid picture of the bee-hive activity in the villages by members following different Śilpas who had become organised into local guilds (Śreṇī) mentioned conventionally as 18 (aṭṭhādasa Sippa, Jātaka II. 243). Sippas were of two kinds, superior and inferior (Ukhaṭṭha-Sippa, Hīna-Sippa, Vin. 4.6). Generally the Śilpins received social honour from the people and also from kings and rulers, e. g. we learn of potters being invited by the king to manufacture bricks, big and small cooking utensils required for Yajña (Baudhāyana ŚS, 15.14). A number of other pots and plates and pitchers as well as storage vessels like Kumbha, Kumbhī, Kusūla were manufactured and the potters seem to have had a flourishing trade in ceramics for which a new term Kaulālaka was introduced in the language. From his making vessels of many shapes for storing waters, ghṛita, oil and grains, the potter received the new title of Kumbha-kāra.

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The most important profession amongst craftsmen was that of the carpenter (Takṣā) and chariot-maker (Rathakāra) who formed a separate class probably superior in rank and honour to the ordinary wood-worker. The carpenters were busy with making of sacrificial Yūpas (Vanaspati), pillars for buildings (Sthūṇā) and many kinds of wooden utensils as Droṇa-kalaśa, Chamasa and Soma drinking cups (Graha). We have seen that the art of the goldsmith had been highly developed in the Indus Valley and the Vedic age. The same tradition continues in the Sūtra period when the *Svarṇakāra* and *Maṇikāra* artists were called upon to manufacture many kinds of ornaments, e. g. ear-rings (*Karṇa-veṣṭaka*), circular pendants for necklaces (*Niṣka*), a special ornament called *Rukma* dotted with twenty-one studs and worn round the neck (cf. *Graiveyaka* and also golden chains; *Suvarṇa-sraj*).

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The Śrauta Sūtras refer to workers in stone, manufacturing mortars and pestles, mill-stones and vessels. The Āśvalāyana Gṛihya Sūtra mentions four kinds of vessels, made of copper, other metals, stone or clay (Āśva GS. 4. 3. 18 ; 4. 7. 8).

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PĀLI LITERATURE—The Dīgha Nikāya gives a list of 25 major *Śilpas* (*Puthu-sippāyatana*) as *Kumbhakāra*, *Naḍakāra* (reed-worker), *Peṣakāra* (embroiderer), *Rajaka* (dyer), *Mālākāra* (garland-maker), *Kappaka* (barber), *Chelaka* (weaver), *Dhanuggaha* (bow-fighter), *Rathika* (charioteer) (*Sāmañña-phala Sutta* 14). A fuller list occurs in the Brahmajāla Sutta, e. g., *Naccha-gīta-vāditta*, *mālā gandha-vilepana*, *Tulā-Māna* (weights and measures), *Kamsa* (utensils), cloth of broad borders (*Dīgha-dasa vattha*), mirrors (*Ādāsa*), silken cloth (*Koseyya*), cotton (*Tūlika*), special cloths called *paṭṭika*, *Chittaka*, *Goṇaka*, *Paṭalika*, *Udda-lomi*, *Hathattharaṇa* (elephant cover), *Assattharaṇa* (horse trapping), *Ratththaraṇa* (chariot upholstery), *Vattha-lakkhaṇa* (description of cloth), *Maṇi-lakkhaṇa* (of gems), *Asi-lakkhaṇa* (of swords), *Usu-lakkhaṇa* (of arrow), *Dhanu-lakkhaṇa* (of bow), *Āyudha-lakkhaṇa*, and special sciences as *l'atthu-vijjā* (*Vāstu-vidyā*, architecture), *Khetta-vijjā* (mensuration or measuring fields), *Vatthu-kamma* (*Vāstu-karma*, practical art of building), *Vatthu-parikamma* (*Vāstu-parikarma*, painting and decorating of buildings).

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In a description of the palace of the Chakravartī king Mahā-Sudassana, some details of palace architecture are found. Its height was equal to three *puruṣa* measures, it had bricks of four kinds, pillars 84000 in number, wooden planks of four colours, staircases, cross-bars, copings, rooms (*Kūṭāgāra*), with beds of gold, silver, ivory and crystal; doors (*Dvāra*) with palm trees on two sides, a double railing round the palace, a net-work of jingling bells and several ponds of lotus flowers (*Pokkharaṇī*) provided with staircases and platforms (*Mahā-Sudassana Sutta*, *Dīgha Nikāya*).

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There is another reference to the lay-out of Pāṭaliputra called a commercial centre (*Pāṭaligāme Nagaraṃ māpenti Pāṭaliputraṃ puṭabhedanaṃ*, Mahāparinivāṇa Sutta, *Dīgha Nikāya*).

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PILLARS—The Śatapatha states that the Gṛihapatis residing in *Kāmyaka Vana* were using *Ayasthūṇa* pillars which seems to be a reference to wooden pillars covered with beaten sheet of copper (ŚB. 11.4.2.17). The lofty wooden pillar was the most outstanding feature of construction. It was reproduced in the big stone pillars of Aśoka and the front pillars of Chaitya-halls in Western India. The big vaulted roofs with massive wooden ribs indicate the size of the pillars which supported them. A Jātaka story tells of a village of carpenters loading their manufactured articles on boats in the Gaṅgā and sailing upstream to market them. Pāṇini actually refers in a Gaṇa (V. 1. 51) to merchants who were transporting their loads of wooden pillars (*Sthūṇā-bhāra*) and hence known as *Sthauṇa-bhārika*, and also stone goods called *aśma-bhāra*. That the spoken language required such a term is in itself proof of this specialised industry.

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A Jātaka gives a vivid account of the building of a city on the banks of the Gaṅgā.¹ The Mahā-Ummagga of this Jātaka was not a tunnel at all, as is often taken, but a palace built as part of the king's fortified city on the bank of the Gaṅgā. Its master architect is mentioned as *Mahā Vaddhaki* an expert in wooden construction. We also read of *Vaththu vidyāchāryā* who dealt with such masterly plans.

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¹ यथा परिच्छिन्नके स्थाने नगरं मापेतुं आरभि नगर करणं विचारेन्तु एतक इदं करोन्तु ति सर्वं कम्मानि विभजत उम्मगे कम्मं पटिथापेसु महा उम्मग्दारं गंगातित्थे अहोसि, J., VI, p. 431.

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The Mahā-Ummaga palace was so named as it was located away from the common road which then was leading towards the Gaṅgā, and this is borne out by the present site of the Kumrahar palace.

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It had big dimensions worthy of a royal palace. When sufficient earth had been brought from the Gaṅgā, it was rammed under the feet of elephants wearing leather covers and on that ramp was raised a rampart ( पतितपतितच उदकेन सन्नीत्वा पाकारं चिनन्ति ). There were gateways in the palace wall, one of which looked on the city-side. The *Prākāra* was 27 feet or 18 cubits in height and so also the gateway fitted with mechanical contrivance to shut the big door leaves (*Yantra-yukta dvāra*) by pressing a peg (*Anī*) which seems to have been the same as the *Indra-kila* of other descriptions. On either side the walls were built of bricks (*Iṭṭhakāhi chinitvā*), and coated with lime plaster (*Sudhā-kamma*). The rooms were roofed over (*Maṭhthakka*) with planks (*paḍarachhanna*) and the ceiling was covered with a special kind of plastering clay called *Ulloka-mattikā* of which several thin coats were applied (*lepetvā*), the last one of shining white colour (*Seta-kamma*). This special white clay was the same as *Navanīta Mattikā* mentioned in the Mahā-vaṃsa. The Chitrasūtra calls it *Mashaka* on account of its butter-like consistency, a technique for preparing the ground on the walls for painting.

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The account makes special mention of 80 big gateways (Mahā-dvāra) and 60 small gateways (Chulla-dvāra) in the city-wall of the palace which were all operated by mechanical devices, a special pin or peg pressed for closing and another for opening them. In the long corridor of the palace were on both sides one hundred niches for lamps made in the wall and they were also closed and opened by mechanical shutters (Yanta-yuttā). A big palace like this was naturally provided with hundreds of rooms (Eka-śata śayanā-gabbhā). The word Garbha was the same as Śālā, and denoted a room in the palace. In each room was laid a great couch, (Mahā-śayanam) with a white parasol (Seta chhatta), with a throne placed near the couch. Female statues made of plaster (Mātu-gāma potthaka-rūpaka) were made beautiful (Uttamarūpa-dharā) true to life that without touching them no one could know that they were not real living women (hathena anamasitvā na manussa-rūpakaṃ ti na sakkā ñātum). Moreover in the principal hall of the Mahā-Ummaga palace (Mahā Ummagasya gabbhe) expert painters (Kusala-chitakārā) made many kinds of paintings (nānappakāra chitā-kammam karimsu).

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An interesting list of motifs painted on the walls of the Great Hall is given¹; for example,

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¹ सक्कविलास-सिनेरुपरिभण्ड-सागरमहासागर-चतुमहादीप-हिमवन्त-अनोतत्त-मनोसिलातल-चन्दसूरिय-चातुम्महाराजिकादि-छकामसग्गा-दिविभत्तियो, Mahā-Ummagga J. VI, 432.

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1. SAKKA-VILĀSA—Scenes of Indra's enjoying dance and music with his heavenly nymphs in Sudharmā Assembly Hall, some of which are illustrated on the panels at Bharhut and Sāñchī.

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2. SINERU-PARIBHAṆḌA—The beautiful designs on the vertical faces of the terraces round the mountain Sumeru.

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3. SĀGARA-MAHĀ-SĀGARA—Small and big ponds with lotus and other flowers and number of watery birds and aquatic animals.

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4. CHATU-MAHĀDVĪPA—The four continents which faced the four cardinal points of Sumeru, as given in the Jaina Jīvābhigama Sūtra.

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5. HIMAVANTA—The great Himālaya mountain shown with its Kailāsa peak and specially Lake Mānasarovara or Anavatapta with the four great rivers flowing in the four directions.

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6. ANOTATA—This was the same as Mānasarovara, the ideal holy lake described by the Jaina, Buddhist and Brāhmanical literature, the holy lake of Brahmā (Brāhmasara). The Saptarshis, gods and other divine beings take their bath in the Anotatta in which Buddha also is said to have taken his bath.

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7. MANO-SILĀTALA—The great throne made of red coloured stone (Manaḥ-śilā) which was placed near a pond or in the main Assembly Hall or in the palace for the king to sit and rest.

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8. CHANDA-SŪRIYA—The motif of the Moon and the Sun, which were drawn as gods in human form or in natural form, was an ancient motif which has continued to be shown in sculpture and also in painting up to our own times.

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9. CHĀTUM-MAHĀRĀJIKA—The four Mahārājika Gods with their courtly attendants, viz. Vaiśravaṇa king of Yakshas in the north, Dhṛtarāṣṭra king of the Gandharvas in the east, Virūḍhaka king of the Kumbhāṇḍas in the south, Virūpāksha king of the Nāgas in the West.

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10. CHHA-KĀMA-SAGGA—i. e. the six heavens of sensuous pleasures, being popularly conceived as the place of happiness and long life, same as Kāmavachara Deva-loka.

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These ten motifs are named in this Jātaka as of divine character (Divi-bhattiyo). There was constructed round the city a watery moat (Udaka-parikhā), a city-wall 18 cubits high (Aṭṭhārasa-hattho pākāro)—the traditional height of a fort-wall to this day—, which was pierced by city-gates and towers (Gopurāṭṭālako). In its centre were built the royal palace with a contingent of other buildings (Rāja-nivesanādini), other residential buildings (Nivesanādini), elephant stables (Haththi sālādayo) and many ponds (Pukkharāṇiyo). After its completion the city was called, Mahā-Ummaggo nagaram, since the site selected for it was out of the way of the frequented path (Janaummaggo). This was built by 300 carpenters (Tini-vaḍḍhakisatāni) with 300 boats to transport the material and took four months to complete. It was an excellent palace (Pāsā-davara) built on the banks of the Gaṅgā (Gaṅgā-tiram).

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In the above description we have all the elements of an ancient Indian palace. It seems to be divided in three courts. The first one along the Gaṅgā contained the real Rājakula or palace in which hundreds of well decorated rooms were made. The reference to caryatid female figures carved on the pillars of the rooms is interesting for so early a date. It is also noting that before the introduction of stone for railing pillars, wooden railing pillars were undoubtedly used and the custom of decorating them with carved standing female figures was an essential element of palace architecture.

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In the second court was the main Assembly Hall. It is here referred to as Gabbha, i. e. Garbha or the Hall which cannot be anything else but the Royal Audience hall. The walls of this hall were decorated with a number of painted motifs. The floor was highly polished and in the ceiling above rosettes or full-blown lotuses were carved in relief in the lustrous plaster of the roof (*Upari ulloka-padumāni dassesum*). Another important feature was the use of pendants made of fragrant flowery garlands (*Puppha-dāma*) and also of perfumed cloth twisted into required shape (*Gandha-dāma*, same as *Paṭṭa-dāma* of later literature).

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In the first court which must have been quite wide and big in size was located the *Hatthi-sālā* or elephant stable, and probably horse stable (*assa-sālā*) also. In the forecourt infront of the palace were constructed shops or the market (*Nānā ppakāre āpaṇe ti dassyimsu* (Mahā-Ummagga Jātaka, Vol. VI, p. 431-33).

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The Jātakas also describe several other Vimānas or palaces like the *Rativaddhana-Pāsāda*, *Upphaka-Pāsāda*, and also in the Nimi Jātaka a series of Vimānas or places furnished with *Stambha*, *Kūṭāgāras*, *Kiṅkhiṇī jala*, *Dhvaja*, *Udyāna*, *Pokkhariṇī*, *Dvārakoṭṭha*, etc. (*Jātaka VI. 117, Nimi Jātaka*). The *Suddharmā* Assembly Hall is said to be well built (*Sunimita*) on beautifully fashioned eight-sided pillars (*Aṭṭhaṃsa Sukaṭa Khambhā*) and furnished with *Dvārakoṭṭhakas* of beautiful tower (*Chittakūṭa Dvāra Koṭṭhaka*).

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The Pāli literature, as shown above, is rich in architectural descriptions of palaces, cities and city-gates. As shown by Dr. Coomaraswamy a palace was known as *Pāsāda*, *Nivāsa*, *Rāja-Bhavana*, *Rāja-Geha*, *Rājanivesana*, *Vāsaghara*, *Antepura* and *Vimāna*. The ideal for it was the palace of the Gods (*Divya Vimāna*). The king's palace faced on to the central city-square, as in the case of the Ummagga Palace. A separate palace was provided for the Crown-Prince (*Yuvarājathṭhe*); it was spoken of as *Upaṭhāna* and sited in a portion of the king's palace, an arrangement which we find also in the case of Harsha's palace as *Yuvarāja*. The royal residence was *Antepura* in which there were quarters for the queens, princesses and other ladies, collectively called *Antepurikā*. It was properly guarded (*Arakkhatham*).

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The palace was surrounded by an outer wall (*Pākāra*), having a main gate or perhaps four gates. The outer gate house (*Bahir dvāra Koṭṭhaka*) lay at some distance from the actual palace and sometimes the guests were received at the outer gate. In later literature this was also known as *Bahirdvāraśālā* or *Alinda*, beautified with paintings and designs as we read in the *Divyāvadāna* about a *Dvāra-Koṣṭhaka* painted with *Bhava-chakra*.

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Passing through the outer door one entered the royal courtyard which often formed the outermost of a series of courts, known as *Aṅgaṇa* or *Prakoṣṭha* or *Kakṣyā*. The first pretentious building after crossing the large court was the King's Judgment Hall (*Vinichchāyatana*), known later as the *Asthāna-Maṇḍapa*.

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The *Prāsāda* was built on a solid foundation or basement (*Vaththu*). In this connection some architectural elements are to be noted, e.g. a pillar (*Stambha*), *Tulā* (the transverse lintel on the doorway supporting the entablature, also called *Bhāra-tulā*), *Saṅghāṭa* (capitals of pillars with pairs of animals and human beings as *Haya-Saṅghāṭa*, *Gaja-Saṅghāṭa*, *Nāra-Saṅghāṭa* etc.), *Bhitti-pāda* (dado; now called *Ijārā*), *Kūṭa* (ridged roof with finials or *thūpikā*), *Gopānasi* rafters, literally bull's nose, a *Chaitya*-window-like motif on the outside of the walls where rafters were placed), *Pakkha-passa* (bondings of the walls), and *Mukhāvaṭi* (facade or freeze on the front side, Skt. *Mukhapaṭṭikā*). The pillars formed an important element of the house or palace. A thousand and a hundred pillars of the Vedas correspond to the *Sahassa-thambha* (J. 5. 169, VI 173) or *Bahut-thambhaka* (J. IV 153).

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The palace had one or more, often several, storeys (*Bhūmika*, or *Tala*) and therefore described as *Ekabhūmika*, *Dvibhūmika*, *Tribhūmika*, upto *Navabhūmika*, i. e. one to nine storeys. A building of three storeys was more usual and the same became the norm for the pyramidal superstructure of the *Śikhara* in temples.

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The main floor was known as *Mahātala* (J. 1. 62), also the best floor *Varatala* (J. 1. 60). The first floor was *Uparitala* and the top-floor or the uppermost floor was known as *Ākāśatala*. We have a set of three terms viz. *Āditala* (ground-floor), *Ardhatala* (mezzanine floor), and *Trita-tala* (third floor). The lowest storey of a palace is called the *Heṭṭimtala*. On each storey rooms with rising top having finials were known as *Kūṭāgāra*. When furnished with latticed windows they were known as *Siha-pañjara*. *Harmya* was a room in the upper storey for women.

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The main features of the lay-out of the palace was its division into courts of which there were usually three in the early stages. The first court had a *dvāra-koṭṭha* and then open grounds with provision for stables (*Aśvasthāna maṇḍapa*) for horses and elephants and also rooms for soldiers. In the second court on the ground floor of the palace the main feature was the great pillared hall, similar to the big *maṇḍapa* supported on pillars in the *Chaitya*-halls in Western India. This was used as the hall of public audience (*Darbar-i-Ām*, or *Bahirāstāna-maṇḍapa*) of the King. It was reached by a grand staircase (*Mahāsopāna* J. VI. 428). The royal palace was comprised of two distinct parts, the ground floor (*Heṭṭhapāsāda*) and the upper floor (*Uparipāsāda*), the latter being the main residential portion for members of the royalty. The same arrangement has practically come down to our own days. On the ground floor were located the palace garden (*Gṛhodyāna*), kitchen (*Mahānasa*, *Āhāramaṇḍapa*), bath-rooms with fountains of flowing water (*Jaṇtā-ghara*), wells (*Ud-pāna*), step-wells, lotus ponds (*Pokhariṇī*), temple (*Devaghara*) etc. The floor is described as *Kuṭṭima* which was either made of bricks, stone or plastered with lime. The Jātaka texts always refer to going up into or coming down from a palace which implies the use of stair-ways (J. I. 61.). The foot of the stair-case was known as Sopāna-pādamūla (J III. 216) and the head of the stair-case Sopānamatthaka (J III. 15), or Sopana-sīsa (J. IV, 26 ). The wooden planks of the stairs were known as Sopānakaṭingara. Sometimes there were three stairways, provided with short balustrade (Vedikā) having upright posts (Khambha), cross-bars (Sūchi) and coping (Ushṇīsha) similar to the big railings round the stūpa.

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The king's own chamber was known as Siri-gabbha (J. IV 105; Skt. Srī-garbha) and the royal couch as Siri-sayana (J. III. 264). The prefix Srī denoted the articles for the personal use of the king and was used later also, e.g the king's pavilion Srī-vitāna by Kālidāsa (Vikramorvaśīya) and the royal she-elephant Srī-kareṇu by Baṇa in the Harshacharita.

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KŪṬĀGĀRA—The term Kūṭāgāra, Kūṭāgāraśāla, denoted a building with a peaked top, usually a roofed pavilion with a gabled end and vaulted roof with small stūpas over it. Thus we read about the roof-ridge (Prāsāda-kūṭa) of a palace with sixty water-pot finials (Udakaghaṭa), and a Vimāna with many Kūṭāgāras (J. VI. 120), also Majjhima N I. 253 speaking of seven hundred Kūṭāgāras on each Niyyūha or projecting ledge of a Prāsāda. Sometimes each storey of the palace consisted of a number of such rooms A Kūṭāgāra was thus a chamber shade also called Gabbha, Śālā, Guhā, often it was provided with a latticed window or screen (Sihapañjara), and a ventilator (Vātapāna). The Kūṭāgāra room could be closed from inside by drawing across the doorleaves a transverse bar (phusitaggala, Hindi argalā), and also from outside by locking (Yantaka). The Kūṭāgāra on the top floor was Hammiya (Skt. Harmya; cf. Harmikā on the top of the Stūpa).

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ROOF—The roof of the Kūṭāgāra was either domed or barrel-vaulted having a middle ridge It was built on rafters (Gopānasiyo) which in the case of the domed roof closed upwards and met in the circular roof-plate (Kaṇṇikā), which was the actual kūṭa or pinnancle of the dome. Such a roof resembling in shape a melon (खरबुजिया छत ) or bubble ( बुदबुदाकार ) is seen in the circular Bodhigharas at Bharhut, and also in the round roof at the Sudāmā Cave. The other form of the roof was barrel-vaulted (Gaja-pṛishṭākṛiti) as in Chaitya-halls. They were also of two kinds, viz. the rafters running transversely and placed parallel to the middle ridge. The ends of the beams are visible in the horse-shoe, or the ogee arches, as in the Lomasa Rishi cave This was the style derived from ancient sacrificial sheds The second variety of vaulted roof was supported on massive curved ribbings similar to the surviving timber beams in the Karle Cave.

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The distinction between these three forms of ancient roofing is visible in the ancient Indian palaces and Bodhi-gharas in the Barabar Hills, at Karle, Kanheri Amarāvatī and Mathurā. As time passed the flat roof on pillars and corbels came into vogue and it became possible to accommodate on the top many open pillared pavilions like *Chandra-Śālā*, about which Bāṇa and Kālidāsa write so often.

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In the making of the second kind of roof supported on straight transverse rafters which may be identified with the *Gopānasi* style as in the Lomasa Rishi cave massive pillars on the two ends of the hall were required (*Sthūṇā-Rāja*, *Śaṅkhāyana Gṛihya Sūtra* 3. 3. 7); one of them which was the biggest was called *Varshishṭha Sthūṇā-rāja* (*ŚB.* 3 5. 1. 1.). The top-covers or inverted jars placed in a line on the ridge to protect the outlets for smoke (*Dhūmanetta*) were called *Stūpī*. The actual roof (*Chhādana*) was made of bamboos, rafters of wood and covered with a net-work of bamboos (*Vāna-laṭṭhi*) with layers of bamboo-strips, reed-mattings and bundles of grass (*Triṇa*), straw from wheat and barley (*Palada* or *Palāla*, Hindi *Payār*) and also leaves (*Paṇṇa*), and sometimes with tiles (*Giñjaka*).

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A roof-apartment (*Siha-pañjara*, Lion-cage) is clear in some of the sculptures, for example, the one on Bodha-gaya railing (Fig. 55, Indian Palaces, Coomaraswamy). The word *Pañjara* should be taken in its natural sense of a cage for pet animals closed on four sides with lattice work. This corresponds to the subsequent *Gavāksha* window (Hindi *Jharokhā*) in which men and women took their seat to have a look at the world outside. In medieval architecture these were called *Ambāri* (oriel or bay-windows) or ledges with intricate *Jāli* work.

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The various illustrations in sculpture show that the palace apartment on the upper floor was in most cases set back from the parapet enclosed by a small *Vedikā* or railing so that between the room proper and the projecting *Vedikā* an exterior terrace, deck or balcony was available for open-air sitting, or as covered porch or verandah, sometimes provided with screens or movable curtains (*Saṃsaraṇa-kiṭika*, and *Udghāṭana-kiṭika*, Chulla 6. 3. 5).

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The *Siṃha-Pañjara*, *Gavāksha* and *Vātapāna* were of three kinds, viz. *Śalākā-vātapāna*, *Jāla-vātapāna* and *Vedikā-vātapāna*, i. e. different kinds of windows used for light and air which could be thrown open and closed at will. Sometimes they were provided with leaves (*Kavāṭa* J. 2. 274), or blinds or curtains which could be rolled up (*Chakkalikā* or *Bhisi*, Chulla 6. 2. 2). A window or opening too high to look out of it was known as *Uddha-chhiddaka-vātapāna*.

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The material for building palaces, *Chaitya-halls*, *Bodhi-gharas*, etc. seems to have been mainly timber, used for pillars, rafters, roofing, windows, stairs and latticework as also walls. Bricks seem to have been used rarely and stone was still rarer for pillar basements (*Kumbhaka*).

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The above picture of a royal palace with its horizontal and elevational lay-out furnishes evidence of the development of architecture (*Vāstu-vidyā*) in the Janapada age. The Pāli literature has preserved a record of the traditional forms as current in memory and folk-lore. Most of these stylistic elements continued in the Mauryan and Sunga periods with transition from timber to stone and brick.

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The city-wall (*Prākāra*) was surrounded by a moat (*Parikhā*) crossed by draw-bridges (*Saṅkrama*). The wall was pierced by four main gateways which were lofty structures furnished with towers (*Aṭṭālaka*) on the two sides containing a number of rooms (*Koṣṭhaka*) for guards and travellers, thus known as *Dvāra-koṣṭhaka*. With the city gateway was sometimes connected the house of public charity (*Sattra* or *Dāna-śālā*) at which king's alms were distributed. The office of the toll-post was also located in a part of the *Dvāra-koṣṭhaka*

Jaina Āgama Evidence

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The Jaina Āgamika literature being of the same age, the picture of art and architecture presented by it is similar to that of the Pāli literature. The wooden construction was known as *Kaṭṭha-kamma*. An important reference is to a wooden figure of a Ṛishi made for worship by his son. Similarly images of stucco (*pottha*), and ivory (*danta*) are also mentioned.

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The most illustrative example of palace architecture occurs in the Rāyapaseniya Sutta in an account of the *Vimāna* of Sūryābha Deva. It was surrounded by a rampart (*Pāgāra*), embellished with merlons (*Kavisīsaga*, Skt. *Kapiśīrshaka*), gates in every direction (*Dvāra*), furnished with *Stūpikās* on the ridge of the roof (*Thūbhiyā*). The whole building was decorated with many kinds of figures and motifs (*Bhatti-chitta*), e g. *Īhāmiga* (faboulous animals), bulls (*Usabha*), horse (*Turaga*) Yaksha or Atlantes figures (*Nara*), crocodile (*Magara*), birds (*Vihaga*), serpents or dragons (*Valaga*), Kinnara (Centaurs), deer (*Ruru*), *Sarabha* (lion-like figures), Yak (*Chamara*) elephant (*Kuñjara*), wild creepers (*Vanalaya*) and lotus-creepers (*Paumalaya*). The capitals of the pillars were decorated with figures of pairs of Vidyādharas (*Vidyādhara-jamala*), horses (*Haya-saṅghāḍa*), elephants (*Gaya-saṅghāḍa*) and similar numerous decorative figures (*रूपकसहस्सकलित*). The doors were provided with landing (*Nimma*), pedestals (*Pāiṭṭhāna*), pillars (*Khambha*), floor (*Kuṭṭima*), threshold *Eluyā* = देहली), bolts (*Inda-kīla*), lintels (*Uttaraṅga*), door-posts (*Chheḍā* = द्वारशाखा), small door-planks (*Sūchī*), joints or bonds (*Sandhi*), sockets (*Samuggaya* = सुचिकागृह), wooden traverse bars behind door-leaves (*Aggalā*), sockets for door-pins (*Aggalāpāsāya*), hinges (*Avaṭṭaṇa-peḍhiyā*). For city-gates large heavy doors fitting closely were provided, which were generally closed at night (*Nirantariya-ghaṇa-kavāḍa*), very often having a small door (*Aṇi-dvāra*, or *Uttara-pāsaga*). On their side-walls (*Bhitti*) the doors were fitted with bosses (*Bhitti-guliyā*) for pendant bed steads (*Go-māṇasiya* = गोमानस्य: शय्या:). Graceful figures of *Śāla-bhañjikā* women (लीलद्विसालभंजिय) and figures of fabulous animals (*Vyāla-rūpaka*) were carved on the doors.

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The number of railing women would be 32 on each side or 108 in all. There are some other interesting architectural terms, e.g *Kuḍḍa* (walls of *Gavākṣa* patterns), large posts (*Vaṃsaga*), transverse beams (*Paḍivaṃsaga*), upright smaller posts fixed in the ground (*Bhomā*), elevation (*Usseha*), tops (*Ulloya*), lattices (*jāla-pañjara*), side-walls (*Pakkhā*), bamboos for side walls (*Pakkhha-bāhā*), cross-beams (*Vaṃśa*), ribbings (*Vaṃśa-kavvilliya*), panels (*Paṭṭiyā*), screen walls (*Ohāḍaṇi*), and thatched layers above the ribbings (*Uvari-puchchaṇā*), ceiling (*Achchhāyaṇa*), peaks (*Kūṭa*), and finials (*Thūbhiyā*) (*Rāyapaseniya* sutta 97, see J. C. Jain, *Life in Ancient India as depicted in the Jain Canon*, p. 181).

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We also find the description of a big theatre hall (*Pekkhā-ghara-maṇḍava*, Skt. *Prekṣā-gṛha maṇḍapa*) which was supported on many columns (*Aneka-stambha-śata sanniviṣṭa*), and was furnished with a terraced railing (*Vedikā*), gateways with architrave (*Toraṇa*) and *Śālabhañjikā* figures. It was decorated with many other motifs (*Jhāmṛiga* etc.) and ornamental figures (*Ruvaga-sahasra-kalita*). In the centre of the Theatre Hall was a stage (*Akhkhhāḍaga*).

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In the *Nāyādhamma Kahā* is a description of the sleeping chamber of a queen which had an outer courtyard, an Assembly Hall polished (*Ghaṭṭa-maṭṭha*) and well set with pillars, endowed with statues (*Śāla-bhañjiyā*), latticed windows, moon-stone at the foot of the stairways (*Ardha-chandra*), projecting ledges (*Nijjuha*), and a room on the roof called *Chanda-sālikā*. Its inside was decorated with paintings (*Chitta-kamma*); the floor (*Kuṭṭima-tala*) was studded with semi-precious stones (*maṇi*) and the ceiling had a painted canopy (*ulloyachittiya*) with lotus flowers and creepers (*Paumalayā*). There is reference also to a Summer-House (*Siyahara*) built for a Chakravartī king, which name occurs in the *Niśītha-chūrṇi* and therefore must be of later times corresponding to the *Hima-gṛha* in the *Kādambarī* (para 208 of P. L. Vaidya’s edition), of which the architectural layout had already been perfected in the Kushāṇa period.

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Thus both palace and town architecture and other allied arts and crafts were developed in the Janapada age. Their actual remains are few because of the frail or perishable nature of the material used, but a prior tradition of *Śilpas* was established, e.g. architecture, town-planning, royal palaces, residential buildings, roads, assembly halls (Saṁthāgāra), charity halls (Dāna-śālā), gateways (Gopura), towers (Aṭṭālaka), moats (Parikhā), draw-bridges (Saṅkrama), wood carving (Kāṣṭha-karma), metal casting, stone-carving, making of wooden pillars, posts and rafters (Sthūṇā), capitals and basements (Kumbhaka), latticed windows (Vātapāna and Gavākṣa), heavy doors (Maha-kavāṭa), clay-figurines, fired bricks, ivory carving, goldsmith's work, plastering, polishing (Ghaṭṭa-Maṭṭha prabhā) in order to produce three kinds of bright effect, viz. Saprabha, Samaricha and Sodyota (Jīvābhigama). The commentators explain Ghaṭṭa as preliminary rubbing with rough stone and Maṭṭha with fine abrasive powder in which finished smoothness was produced. Prabhā is explained as lustre which is in the object, Marīchi as the radiant polish reflecting a net-work of rays, and Udyota as the highest lusture which being reflected from the surface casts a glow on the objects around. The existence of terms to indicate the bright metallic polish that we have on the Northern Black Polished Ware and on the Mauryan polished monuments shows that the technique of producing was a well known art. The polish on the Northern Grey Ware which belongs to the Janapada period and also some traces of it on the stone Yaksha statue from Parkham at Mathura takes the art to the pre-Maurya period and possibly earlier. The realistic description of the walls and ceiling of the Assembly Hall of the palace in the Mahā-Ummaga city is a pointer in the same direction.

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The art of painting also had been developed and a number of motifs illustrating scenes from heavenly life and mythical beliefs are actually mentioned both in Buddhist and Jaina literature. Indeed the rich repertoire of the carved figures on railing pillars, panels and cross-bars as listed in Jaina texts are almost the same as we find on the stone railings and gateways of Bharhut and Sāñchī, pointing to pre-existing wooden prototypes.

(b) Symbols on Punch-Marked Coins

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The Punch-marked coins of silver of which not less than 50,000 have been found all over India from Taxila to Mysore, show over 500 symbols. It appears that when for actual building and statuary the practice was to use timber only, for actual coins beads and ornaments they were freely using gold, silver and semi-precious stones. The silver coins are mostly flat pices of silver cut from strips and reduced to a standard weight by clipping the edges and corners, and finely stamped with a number of symbols or signs on the obverse and reverse sides.

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The dating of these coins is fairly known (c. 800-200 B. C.). The Pāli literature refers to them as having been current in the time of King Bimbisāra when Rājagṛiha was the capital in the sixth century B. C. The earliest coins go back to the real Janapada period, when besides Magadha similar coins were issued by the Kosala Janapada and the Śūrasena Janapada. In that first stage the standard weight of a coin was 20 māshas of silver (called Vimśatika) and 30 māshas (called Trimśatka). Some of these early coins are cup-shaped, stamped with bold rayed symbols on one side only, dating from c. 8th-7th cent. B. C. According to Pāṇini and the Pāli texts these coins were called Kārshāpaṇa, but we do not find this term in the Brāhmaṇa literature and it may be assumed that this coinage was introduced at the close of the Brāhmaṇa period in about 800 B. C.

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Pāṇini mentions in many Sūtras several classes of Kārshāpaṇa coins and this is the only coinage known to the Arthaśāstra of Kauṭilya. This coinage had become well established in a series of 1, 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/16, both in silver and copper.

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The second stage in its development was reached in the Nanda period (fifth cent. B. C.) when the weight standard of 32 rattis was fixed and a system of five bold obverse symbols with several smaller signs on the reverse was introduced. The intention was to indicate the dynasty, king, locality and the issuing authority. The symbols of this Intermediate period are extremely well done in bold outline and clearly stamped on a somewhat broad flat surface.

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The third stage was reached during the Mauryan period when the coins became stumpy pieces cut from thicker sheets of silver or cast as nodules and beaten with hammer into round flattened shape. The symbols are jumbled and overlapping.

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A study of these symbols over 500 in number, brings to our view a strange world, believing in the representation or depiction of the beliefs of the people in the form of various symbols or signs. The foremost place is taken by the solar symbol, Sūrya, which is found almost without exception on all the Puncha-marked coins of ancient India. Sūrya is represented as a rayed figure with a circle in the centre having a point or pellet within it. The rays are both thick and thin, straight and curved. The next place is given to a six-armed symbol (Shaḍara, Hindi छरारा) which consists of six spokes crossing at centre, the six arms being tipped by ovals, globes, tridents, taurines, arrow-heads, triangles, balls, heart-shaped signs, dumbles, etc.

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The next group belongs to the four great animals (Mahā-Ajāneya Paśu) which were held sacred much anterior to Buddhism and of which the earliest traces are found in the Indus Valley and the Ṛigveda. They include the bull, elephant, lion, and horse rarely. Another symbol is that of a crescent-topped mount which is associated with the Mauryan dynasty. Amongst other interesting signs are the wheel, tree in railing with and without birds, tank with fish, hare, peacock, frog, tortoise bow and arrow, combinations of taurines, squares with a Svastika inside, intersecting triangles, caduceus, Chakradhvaja (Chakra-topped standard in railing), elongated dice-pieces (*Śalākā*), triskeles (*Triphaṇa*), flowers, beetles, Pañjaka (hand-impression in a square), and a group of three human figuring of whom two are male and one female. An interesting symbol is the triangle-headed standard of which there are several variants, but it appears to have been an ancient symbol having a link with the Indradhvaja or Vaijayantī standard sacred to Indra. If we look before and after the symbols on Punch-marked coins are tell-tale, furnishing links with the preceding ages when the Vedic people left behind a trail of animal and geometrical figurines as part of their religious symbolism to which we have drawn attention earlier (ante pp. 45-47). On the other hand the corpus of Punch-marked symbols is transmittel to succeeding generations and the cue is taken up by the tribal coins and sealings (c. 2nd century B.C.—2nd century A.D.). No doubt is left that the people and the authorities who were issuing the seals and the coins were saturated with a belief in the sacred meaning of these numerous symbols. The broad area from Taxila to Ujjain and from Nagari near Chittor to Bihar comes before our eyes as concentrating on the continuity of these symbols. In the Tribal period besides the earlier signs some new ones were added, e. g. *Svastika* and a pair of *Nāgas* (*Nāga-mudrā*) as well as four balls round the four arms of a *Svastika*, sometimes having shorter *Svastika* signs within them. The story of the signs and symbols as gathered from coins, sealings, pottery and beads manufactured during this long period of about 800 years is a commentary on the visual representation and meaning of Indian art.

(c). Art of India and Jambūdvīpa

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GEOGRAPHICAL BACKGROUND OF JAMBŪDVĪPA : Indian art did not exist in isolation but as part of a wider cultural context named after Jambūdvīpa which is the name in the Purāṇas for the vast area from China to the Caspian sea and from India to Siberia. In earlier geography of the four continents (*Chaturdvīpī-Bhūgola*) the earth was conceived in the form of a four-petalled lotus (*Chaturdala-Bhūpadma*), with Meru mountain in the centre as pericarp, and with *Bhadrāśva* in the east, *Bhārata* in the south, *Ketumāla* in the west and *Uttarakuru* in the north. Later on this geographical conception gave place to that of seven continents, in which the whole of Asia became Jambūdvīpa. In this chapter Jambūdvīpa is used in this particular sense to conceive of the art and culture which spread over this wide territory.

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*Bhadrāśva* literally means the Auspicious Horse, i. e. the White Winged Dragon, held sacred in Chinese art and religion, and therefore it had become the ancient Sanskrit name of China. *Bhārata* to the south was also known as *Haimavata-Varsha*. *Ketumāla* to the west was the area from the Pamirs to the Caspian or even further up to Western Asia. This was the land of the Oxus (*Vakshu* or *Chakshu*), the Scythians and Iranians and of Ahuramazda; the name *Ketumāla*, Wreath of Banners, probably refers to the Farr or Divine Glory called *Dhavajavatī Kanyā* or the Winged Maiden of the Sun-god stationed in the sky.¹ Uttarakuru was the land north of Pamir extending up to Siberia, in the eastern part of which was *Chandradvīpa*, the original home-land of the *Śakas*.

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¹ अत्र ध्वजवती नाम कुमारी हरिमधसः । आकाशे तिष्ठ तिष्ठेति तस्थौ सूर्यस्य शासनात् ॥ (Mahābhārata, 5. 108. 13)

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CULTURAL BACKGROUND : The above geographical statement shows that India was at the centre of a wheel with peripheral expansions in which her culture and inter-continental commerce were countable factors. In this picture *Paipīlika* gold from Siberian river-washings was coming to India by trade-routes across the Pamir, Chinese silk and Central Asian jade came into the hands of Indian marchants, and traders from India reached Babylon with their peacocks and Egypt and Western Asia with their cotton and teak.

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The story of India's relations w'th Western Asia goes back to the Indus Valley as we have pointed out above. The discovery of Indus Valley seals in testified strata of the Sargonic period (C. 2350 B. C.) supplies, in the words of Hrozny, "a strong evidence of a lively commercial intercourse between India and Near East". The next definite proof is the presence of *Āryan* names amongst the Kassite rulers of Babylonia (about 1746 to 1180 B. C.) and of the Vedic deities *Indra*, *Mitra*, *Varuṇa*, and *Nāsatya* amongst the Mitanni people at Boghaz-koi in Cappadocia (about 1400 B. C.). Equally significant is the discovery at Boghaz-koi of a text on horse-breeding by Ki-kku-li, a Mitannian author, which contain numerous Sanskrit words as *Ekāvartana*, *Dvyaāvartana*, *Tryāvartana*, etc.

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EARLY ART FORMS : These facts have left a definite impression on art forms which come from Western Asia and India as the common heritage of a culture in which both the east and the west made their contribution. To this broad canvas of early Indian art forms, we have given the name of Jambūdvīpa art which according to the ancient Indian evidence extended from *Bhadrāśva* or China to *Ketumāla* or Iran and Mesopotamia. For example, we find in Indian literature, references to winged lion (*Siṃhāḥ Pakṣagamāḥ*, Vālmīki, Kiṣkindhā, 42,16), two-headed eagle (*Ubhayataḥ Śīrṣṇī Aditi-Suparṇī*, ŚB. 3. 2. 4. 16), of which the two heads face east (*Suprācī*) and west (*Supratīcī*, same as *Dvimūrdhā-Śakuni*, Matsya 6. 1. 17), winged bison (*Pakṣī Mahiṣa* and *Suparṇa Mahiṣa*, AV. 13. 2.32-33), two-headed bull (*Catuḥ śṛṅga dviśīrṣā Vṛṣabha*, ṚV. 4. 58. 3), four-horned or two-headed 'bison (*Catuḥ-śṛṅga Gaura*, ṚV. 4. 58. 2), ten calves with a single head (*Eka-śīrṣāṇaḥ Daśa-Vatsāḥ*, AV. 13. 4.6), and a number of other animal-faced (*Mṛga-rūpa*), bird-faced (*Aṇḍaja-rūpa*), fabulous (*Ihāmṛga*), mythical, chimerical and grotesque forms (*Vikaṭa-rūpa*) with one or more heads (*Bahu-mukha, Bahu-śīrsha, Aneka-vaktraka*). This was the background of Jambūdvīpa art in which many common elements from early Indian and Western Asiatic art can be recognised. We may study their parallels in Sumerian, Hittite, Assyrian, Mesopotamian, Cretan, Trojan, Lycean, Phoenician, Achaemenian and Scythian cultures.

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Early Indian art invented a number of fanciful figures as *Siṃha-vyāla, Gaja-vyāla, Aśva-vyāla, Nara-vyāla, Vṛisha-vyāla, Mesha-vyāla, Śuka-vyāla, Mahisha-vyāla*, etc, in which a particular head was joined to a different body. Later *Śilpa* texts give their number as sixteen each represented in sixteen poses, giving an aggregate of 256 forms (*Aparājita-Pṛichchhā*, 233. 4-6, *Iti shoḍasha vyālāni uktāni mukhabhedataḥ*). Their variety and poses, once formulated were subject to elaboratiou by ingenious sculptors, ivory-carvers, etc. as in the art of Begram plaques. The meaning of these motifs in Indian literature is that they are so many attendants (*Gaṇa-Pramatha*) of one *Rudra*. Each individual although born as a human being carries in his face the physiognomy of a bird or an animal, the different forms being called *Īhā-mṛiga*, animals of fancy or fabulous creatures. The germs of the idea are met with in the Ṛigveda (VII. 104. 22) where the mythical forms are called *Yātu* and six illustrative names are given. For example, owl (*Ulūka-yātu*), owlet (*Śuśulūka-yātu*), dog (*Śva yātu*), cuckoo (*Koka-yātu*), eagle (*Suparṇa-yātu*) and vulture (*Gṛidhra-yātu*). These are associated in Ṛigveda with Indra, as the Purāṇic Gaṇas with Rudra and they are called *Asuras* (Brahma Purāṇa, 213. 93, 99), *Dānavas* (Matsya, 163. 1-4 ; Harivaṃśa 3. 45) also *Niśāchara-Gaṇa*.

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Some of these motifs are as follows :—

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1. Winged Lions (*Sapaksha-Siṃha*)—The earliest reference in the Vālmīki Rāmāyaṇa places them on the Somagiri mountain, on the junction of the Indus with the sea (*Sindhu-Sāgara Saṅgama*) which marks the end of the western direction. Probably the author was writing against the background of the traditional art-motifs of Iran and Mesopotamia where such lions were depicted in colossal size and of which stories were brought by mariners and traders. At Sāñchī we have figures of winged lions on the western gateway and also we find them at Mathura and Amarāvatī with turbaned human faces, with beards and wings [Fig. 24].

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2. Griffin, an imaginary animal with the body of a lion and the curved beak and wings of an eagle (*Śyena-vyāla*) [Fig. 25].

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3. Tritons, a marine demigod with the upper half of a human being joined to the lower half of a fish or an ophidian creature, which are popular at Mathura. These seem to be the *Mahoraga* motif of Indian literary texts. [Fig. 26].

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4. Centaurs, Kinnara of Sanskrit literature with a horse's head joined to a human body (*Aśva-mukha*), or a human bust joined to a horse's body (*Purusha-vigraha*), both forms being popular in Indian art and literature. [Fig. 27].

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a

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b Fig. 24

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c

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d Fig. 24

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a Fig. 25

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b Fig. 25

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a

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b Fig. 26

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c

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d Fig. 26

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a Fig. 27

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b Fig. 27

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Fig. 28 a

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Fig. 27 c

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Fig. 28 c

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Fig. 28 b

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Fig. 27 d

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Fig. 28 d

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a

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c

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Fig. 29

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b

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Fig. 31

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Fig. 30

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Fig. 32

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a

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Fig. 33

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b

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a

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Fig. 33 c

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b

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b

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Fig. 35

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b

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Fig. 34

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a

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b

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c

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e

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d

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f

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c

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d

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Fig. 37

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Fig. 36

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MAP OF ANCIENT RĀJGRIHA AND GIRIYEKA

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Fig. 38

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5. *Suparṇa*, creatures with the body of a bird joined to a human head, corresponding to Harpies of classical art. They are represented at Sanchi, and Mathura (lintel from Kaṅkāli Ṭilā). [Fig. 28].

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6. Double-headed Eagle—It is found at Sirkap, Taxila in India, but Coomaraswamy has mentioned it as a motif of Hittite art and probably earlier. In the great legend of *Suparṇī* and *Kadrū*, we find the conception of double-headed *Aditi* who was the same as *Suparṇī*, i. e. eagle. In the Mahābhārata we read of Bhāruṇḍa birds with a double head tagged to a single body (*Ekodara Pṛthag-grīva*, Bhīṣma parva 8. II). [Fig. 29].

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7. Animals with interlacing necks (*Ekagrīva Bahūdara*) which were depicted in Sumerian art, also in the Atharva Veda we read of ten calves with a single head (*Eka-śīrṣāṇaḥ daśavatsāḥ*, AV. 13. 4. 6.), a motif referring to the single principle of *Prāṇa* with its ten aspects. At Ajanta is a figure of four deer with one neck. [Fig. 30]. This motif continued in medieval art under the name of *Pañcha-śarīrī*, etc.

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8. Animals posed in profile with head forward *Utkṣipta-Śiras*, with heads facing (*Āvṛtta Śiras*) and with heads turned back (*Parivṛtta-Śiras*).

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9. Animals addorsed or with backs touching (*Pṛṣṭha-gamita*), as the lions on the Aśokan Capital, also known as *Saṅghāṭa*, as *Haya Saṅghāṭa*, *Gaja-Saṅghāṭa Simha-Saṅghāṭa* etc, as on the pillar capitals in the Karle Chaitya-hall. These animals were also depicted affronted (*Sammukhī-kṛta*). Sometimes they were depicted as decorative motifs on friezes, coping-stones and lintels of early Indian art, and at other times they are showu in combating poses, e. g. *Garuḍa* and *Nāga* in Mathura relief, or lions and elephants on the high plinth at Ellora. [Fig. 31-32].

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10. *Sūrya*, riding in a chariot of four horses, originally a Vedic motif with alternative number of horses as seven. On Bodh-Gayā railing the earliest figure of *Sūrya* is depicted in a car of four horses. In Bhājā cave (2nd cent. B.C.) there is a figure seated in a chariot of four horses moving on the back of corpulent demons who is often taken as *Sūrya*, but is really Māndhātā on his visit to Uttarakuru. At Mathura in Kuṣāṇa art *Sūrya* is shown with two or four horses, a tradition continued in Gandhāra and Sassanian art, as in the image from Khair Khaneh (near Kābul); but from Gupta period onwards *Sūrya*’s car was drawn by seven horses as in the Vedic and Purāṇic traditions. [Fig. 33].

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