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Elements of Hindu Iconography v3: Volume 3

Elements of Hindu Iconography v3

Language
English

Contents

Volume 3

Front matter

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ELEMENTS OF HINDU ICONOGRAPHY.

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OF

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BY

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T. A. GOPINATHA RAO, M.A. SUPERINTENDENT OF ARCHÆOLOGY, TRAVANCORE STATE.

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Published under the patronage of the Government of His Highness the Maharaja of Travancore.

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Vol. I—Part II.

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THE LAW PRINTING HOUSE MOUNT ROAD :: :: MADRAS 1914

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All Rights Reserved.

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PRINTED AT THE LAW PRINTING HOUSE, MOUNT ROAD, MADRAS.

Adityas and the Nava-Grahas

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The Adityas are a very ancient class of deities in India, as they are found praised in the Vedas. The earliest references to them say that they are seven or eight in number. In the *Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa*, for instance, they are said to be eight in one place and twelve in another; and in the latter case it is conceived that they correspond to the twelve months of the year. Different accounts are given regarding the origin of the Adityas. The most commonly accepted meaning of their name is that they are all so called because they are the sons of Aditi; and in the *Purāṇas* they are all evidently solar deities. Owing to the existence in Northern India of the Maga-Brāhmaṇas, who in all probability are related to the Mitra-worshipping Magi of Persia and are worshippers of the sun, it is not strange that we meet there temples dedicated exclusively to Sūrya the sun-god. But it is certainly curious to find a temple in the South Indian village of Sūryanārkōyil in the Tanjore district dedicated entirely to the worship of the sun-god and the planets, the former being the object of worship as the principal deity and the latter as attendant deities. This village must have evidently received its name from the temple of Sūrya therein built; it is stated in one of the inscriptions found in the temple that it was built in the reign of Kulōttuṅgachōḷadēva (A. D. 1060—1118) and was called Kulōttuṅgachōḷa-Mārttāṇḍālaya.

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The nine planets Sūrya, Chandra, Bhauma, Budha, Śukra, Bṛihaspati, Śani, Rāhu and Kētu are also worshipped by the Hindus, and their images are generally found in all important Śaiva temples in S. India. They are invariably placed in a separate maṇḍapa having a pediment of about three feet in height; and no two of them are made to face each other. It is stated by some that the images of the planets are set up in temples in the order in which they are in the zodiacal circle at the time of the construction of the temple. If there is any truth in this statement, these planet-figures may serve as a new means for calculating the probable dates of the construction of the temples wherein they are installed for worship.

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Regarding the worship of Sūrya in ancient times in India Mr. Nāgēndranāth Vāsu has collected much valuable information in his *Archaeological Survey of Mayūrabhañja*. He attempts to prove that the Magas or Scythic Brāhmaṇas were the first to introduce the worship of the Sun into India; and from the references found in Pāḷi works like the *Bambhajāla Sutta* he shows that at the time of Buddha the Maga-Brāhmaṇa astrologers were held in disrepute. It is stated in the *Bhavishyat-purāṇa*, as he says, that Sāmba one of the sons of Śrī Kṛiṣṇa was suffering from leprosy and that he was cured of it by worshipping Sūrya and that some Brāhmaṇas of the Śākadvīpa were worshippers of that deity. The same *Puraṇa* relates "that Zārathustra, who acknowledged the superiority of fire, was born of that element. He also used to interpret the *Vēda* in a perverted way, which led to a quarrel between him and the Magas who worshipped Mitra, the Sun-god." Mr. Nāgēndranāth Vāsu adds further—"In the Zend Avesta, the oldest record of the fire-worshippers, Mitra is known as only one of the minor gods. But on the other hand in Mihir Yast, we find a faint reference to the effect that at one time Mitra was worshipped as the highest god. Be that as it may, on a dispute arising between the followers of the Mitra cult and the fire worshippers, those of the Śākadvīpa Brāhmaṇas who belonged to the former sect, migrated to India with their families.”

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The description of Mitra or the Sun-god, as taken from the *Viśvakarma-śilpa*, is given by Nāgēndranāth Vāsu in the following words:— “His great chariot has one wheel and is drawn by seven horses, he has a lotus in each hand, wears an armour and has a shield over his breast, has beautiful straight hair, is surrounded by a halo of light, has good hair and apparel, is decorated with gold ornaments and jewels, has on his right side the figure of Nikshubhā and on the left that of Rājñī (queen), with all sorts of ornaments and whose hair and necklace are bright. His chariot mentioned above is called by the name of Makaradhvaja. He wears a crown. The figure is surrounded by a halo. Daṇḍa (Yama) is represented as one-faced and Skanda as having a bright conch-shell. These two figures with the form of man are placed in front. Vārcha on a lotus is placed on a horse. His body is represented as lustrous, and he is the one giver of light to all the worlds. A Sūrya-maṇḍala is to be made by placing nutmeg and vermillion. He (Mitra) has four hands or only two with jewels adorning them. In both of his hands there are lotuses. He is seated on a chariot drawn by horses of variegated colour. His two gate-keepers Daṇḍa (Yama) and Piṅgala (Agni) have swords in their hands.’”*

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* एकचक्रं सप्तअश्वं ससारथिं महारथम् ।
हस्तद्वयं पद्मधरं कञ्चुकम्मर्वक्षसम् ॥
अकुञ्चितसुकेशस्तु प्रभामण्डलमाण्डतम् ।
केशवेशसमायुक्तं स्वर्णरत्नविभूषितम् ॥
निक्षुभा दक्षिणे पार्श्वे वामे राज्ञी प्रकीर्त्तिता ।
सर्वाभरणसंयुक्ता केशहारसमुज्ज्वला ॥
एवमुक्तरथस्तस्य मकरध्वज इष्यते ।
मकुटञ्चापि दातव्यमन्यत् सर्वं समण्डलम् ॥
एकवक्त्राङ्कितो दण्डस्कन्दस्तेजोकराम्बुजम् (?) ।
कृत्वा तु स्थापयेत् पूर्वं पुरुषाकृतिरूपिणौ ॥
हयारूढस्तु (न्तु ?) कुर्वीत पद्मस्थं वार्चनामकम् ।
सदीव्यमानवपुषं सर्वलोकैकदीपकम् ॥
जातिहिङ्गुल्यसंस्थाप्य (?) कारयेत् सूर्यमण्डलम् ।
चतुर्बाहुर्द्विहस्तो वा रेखामणिविभाजना ॥
द्विहस्तस्थसरोजन्म शबलाश्वरस्थितः ।
दण्डश्च पिङ्गलश्चैव द्वारपालौ च खङ्गिनौ ॥

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In the description given above, Mr. Nāgendranāth Vāsu treats the word *Rājñī* as meaning a queen. It however appears to be the name of the goddess associated with Sūrya. Again, he takes Daṇḍa to mean Yama; from the description found in the *Bhaviṣyat-purāṇa* it appears to be probable that Daṇḍa is evidently a contraction of Daṇḍanāyaka, the In the *Bhavishyat-purāṇa* it is stated that Sūrya began to burn the *asuras* with his heat; the latter thereupon attacked Sūrya. The gods then felt bound to help Sūrya; and with this object in view they placed Skanda on the left of Sūrya and Agni on the right. Since Skanda is the punisher of the wicked in the universe, he is called Daṇḍanāyaka; and from his reddish yellow colour Agni, the god of fire, obtains the name Piṅgala. The same authority also gives the names of the attendants of Sūrya as Rājña and Srōsha and identifies these with Skanda and Śiva respectively. The names are also derived and explained therein. ‘Because Kārtikēya shines always as the commander of the army of the celestials, he is known by the name of Rājña.” Such is the explanation of the name Rājña, which is here evidently conceived to be derived from the root *raj* meaning to shine. The explanation of the name Srōsha is—‘The root *sru* is known to be employed to denote movement, and to this the suffix *sa* is added. Because he

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∗ एकचक्रं सप्तअश्वं ससारथिं महारथम् । हस्तद्वयं पद्मधरं कञ्चुकम्मर्वक्षसम् ॥ अकुञ्चितसुकेशस्तु प्रभामण्डलमाण्डतम् । केशवेशसमायुक्तं स्वर्णरत्नविभूषितम् ॥ निक्षुभा दक्षिणे पार्श्वे वामे राज्ञी प्रकीर्त्तिता । सर्वाभरणसंयुक्ता केशहारसमुज्ज्वला ॥ एवमुक्तरथस्तस्य मकरध्वज इष्यते । मकुटञ्चापि दातव्यमन्यत् सर्वं समण्डलम् ॥ एकवक्त्राङ्कितो दण्डस्कन्दस्तेजोकराम्बुजम् (?) । कृत्वा तु स्थापयेत् पूर्वं पुरुषाकृतिरूपिणौ ॥ हयारूढस्तु (न्तु ?) कुर्वीत पद्मस्थं वार्चनामकम् । सदीव्यमानवपुषं सर्वलोकैकदीपकम् ॥ जातिहिङ्गुल्यसंस्थाप्य (?) कारयेत् सूर्यमण्डलम् । चतुर्बाहुर्द्विहस्तो वा रेखामणिविभाजना ॥ द्विहस्तस्थसरोजन्म शबलाश्वरस्थितः । दण्डश्च पिङ्गलश्चैव द्वारपालौ च खङ्गिनौ ॥

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commander-in-chief of the celestial hosts, and should therefore be understood to refer to Skanda. In the Sanskrit passage of the *Bhavishyat-purāṇa* quoted by him, the reading of the latter half of the line beginning with *hayārūḍhastu* appears to be *padmastham-vārka-nāmakam*.

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goes he is known by the alternative appellation of Srausha'. It is worthy of note here that Mr. Nāgēndranāth Vāsu has pointed out that the name of the attendant of the Sun, as known in the Avesta is, Sraoshavareza or simply Srosh sometimes. The same Bhavishyat-purāṇa adds further that the Aśvinidēvatās may also he made to be standing, one on each side of Sūrya, or, on the right of Sūrya, there might be Piṅgala with an inkbottle and a pen and on the left Daṇḍi with a daṇḍa in his hand. The goddesses Rājñī and Nikshubhā are also required to be made to stand on either side of Sūrya. It is said that these two goddesses represent the air and the earth.

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In the temple of Sūrya or the Sun-god, Śoma and the other grahas should be, it is said, established in the following manner:—on the east there should be Śoma; on the south-east, Bhauma; on the south, Bṛihaspati; on the south-west, Rāhu; on the west, Śukra; on the north-west, Kētu; on the north, Budha; and on the north-east, Śani. If such should always be the various positions assigned to these planetary deities, the belief, that the Nava-grahas are arranged in temples according to their position in the zodiacal circle at the time of the building of the temple, turns out to be unfounded. The names of the door-keepers at the four gates of the temple of Sūrya are given thus in the *Bhavishyat-purāṇa*: those at the first gate are called Dharma and Artha; at the second, Garuḍa and Yama; at the third, Kubēra and Vināyaka; and at the fourth, Raivata and Diṇḍi. Raivata is said to be a son of Sūrya, while Diṇḍi is said to be Śiva.

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According to the *Aṃśumadbhēdāgama* and the *suprabhēdāgama* the figure of the sun-god should be sculptured with two hands, each holding a lotus. The hands should be so held up as to cause the fists holding the lotuses reach the level of the shoulders. His head is to be surrounded by a halo (*kāntimaṇḍala*) and his person should be adorned with many ornaments; on his head there should be a *karaṇḍa-makuṭa* and the garment worn by him should be red in colour. He should wear a pair of ruby ear-rings (*kuṇḍalas*) and over his chest there should lie a *hāra* (necklace). He should wear only one cloth and the body should be covered (with a coat) as ‘in Northern India’. The fabric of this coat should be so delicate in texture as to make portions of the body visible through it. There should also be a *yajñōpavīta* on his person. The figure of Sūrya should be made to stand on a *padma-pīṭha* by itself or should be placed in a hexagonal chariot drawn by seven horses fully caparisoned. The chariot should have only one wheel and be shown to be driven by the lame Aruṇa. On the right side of Sūrya there should stand Uṣā; and on the left, Pratyuṣā. A second authority mentions four consorts to Sūrya; namely, Rājñī, Suvarṇā, Suvarchasā and Chhāyā, while a third says that one half, taken vertically, of the body of Sūrya should have the shape of a dark complexion-ed woman, probably indicating that the sun in spite of his being the god of light, is inseparably wedded to night and its darkness.

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The Śilparatna states that on each side of Sūrya there should be a dvārapālaka, named Maṇḍala and Piṅgala respectively. According to this same authority the material of which the kirīṭa of Sūrya is made should be pushparāga, or ruby.

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In sculpturing the image of Āditya attention has to be paid to the instruction that the nose, the forehead, the chest, the knees, the thighs and the neck should all be raised and prominent; the diameter of the halo should be twice the height of the kirīṭa. If the figure be made so as to be one cubit in height it would be a saumyamūrti, that is, a handsome, gentle figure; if it be of two cubits, it would be productive of wealth; if of three or four cubits, it would bestow happiness and prosperity.

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The following is another description of Sūrya based upon the *Matsya-purāṇa*. According to this authority, the figure of Sūrya should have a fine moustache and should be dressed as men are in North India. Sūrya should have four arms, a lustrous body of red colour covered with a coat. He should be decked with all appropriate ornaments. In the right and left hands he should hold the sunbeams as the bridles and should wear round his waist a girdle named *Pāṇiyāṅga*.* He should be wearing a garland made up of all kinds of flowers, and should also wear anklets. On the left of Sūrya there should be the good-looking figure of Daṇḍa, and on the right the dark coloured figure of Piṅgala, both dressed in the North Indian fashion; and two of the hands of Sūrya should be placed upon the heads of these two figures. Piṅgala should be shown as carrying in his hands a palm leaf and a stile. When two of the hands of Sūrya are not placed upon the heads of Daṇḍa and Piṅgala, they should carry a shield and a śūla. The device on the banner of Sūrya is the lion; and the banner should be placed on the left of Sūrya. It is also stated that Rēvanta, Yama and two Manus, all of whom are understood to be the sons of Sūrya, should be standing two on each side of Sūrya. Or, as he is the lord of the planets, he might be surrounded by the planets.

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∗ The reading *pāṇiyāṅga* is evidently incorrect, as might be gathered from the following account of Sūrya obtaining the *avyaṅga* or *ahyaṅga* from Vāsuki found in the *Bhaviṣyat-purāṇa*. The origin of *avyaṅga* or *ahyaṅga*, the *avyonhana* of the Pārsis, is given as follows: during each *ṛitu* (season) there came to the Sūrya-maṇḍala one each from among the *ṛiṣis*, *dēvatās*, *nāgas*, *gandharvas*, *apsarasas*, *yakṣas* and *rākṣasas*. In one of these turns Vāsuki, the *nāga*, presented Sūrya with a cord called the *avyaṅga* or *ahyaṅga* which was produced from his body. This cord was composed of gold and had the colour half white and half red. From this time forwards the followers of the Sūrya-cult were required to wear a similar cord round their loins.

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As we have already seen the Ādityas are twelve in number; and each of them is said to preside over a month of the year. Their names are given variously in various works; and a good many of them agree in naming them in order as Dhātri, Mitra, Aryaman, Rudra, Varuṇa, Sūrya, Bhaga, Vivasvān, Pūshan, Savitri, Tvashtri, and Viṣṇu. The image of each of these twelve Ādityas is described in the Viśvakārma-śāstra; and the description in so far as it relates to their hands and the objects to be carried in them, may conveniently be summarised in the form of a table thus:—

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| No. | Names of the Adityas. | Back Right Hand. | Back Left Hand. | Front Left Hand. | Front Right Hand. |
| 1 | Dhātṛi | Lotus garland | Kaman-dalu | Lotus | Lotus |
| 2 | Mitra | Sōma | Śūla | Do. | Do. |
| 3 | Aryaman | Chakra | Kaumō-daki | Do. | Do. |
| 4 | Rudra | Akshamālā | Chakra | Do. | Do. |
| 5 | Varuṇa | Chakra | Pāśa | Do. | Do. |
| 6 | Sūrya | Kamaṇḍalu | Aksha-mālā | Do. | Do. |
| 7 | Bhaga | Śūla | Chakra | Do. | Do. |
| 8 | Vivasvān | Śūla | Garland | Do. | Do. |
| 9 | Pūshan | Lotus | Lotus | Do. | Do. |
| 10 | Savitṛi | Gadā | Chakra | Do. | Do. |
| 11 | Tvashtṛi | Sruk | Hōmaja-kalika(?) | Do. | Do. |
| 12 | Vishṇu | Chakra | Lotus | Do. | Do. |

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Of these, Mitra, it is said, should have three eyes; Rudra is considered to be an important Āditya. Pūshan is required to be sculptured beautifully; he is declared to be the destroyer of all sins. Savitṛi is the Āditya who is capable of fulfilling the wishes of his devotees and bestowing boons on them. Of all the Ādityas the most lustrous one is Viṣṇu. It cannot fail to be interesting to note here that the names of some of the Ādityas according to the Indian Āryas are the same as those according to Iranian Āryas: the Mitra, Aryaman and Bhaga of the Hindus are identical with the Mithra, Airyaman and Baga or Bagho of the Parsis.

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Sūrya : Stone : Mēlchēri.

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The photographs of some of the images of Sūrya or the Sun-god may be seen reproduced here on Pls. LXXXVI to XCIV. It may be seen that there are two varieties among these images, namely, the North Indian and the South Indian. Each of these possesses very marked peculiarities which are easy of recognition. The South Indian figures of Sūrya have, as a rule, their hands lifted up as high as the shoulders, and are made to hold lotus flowers which are only half blossomed; the images have invariably the udara-bandha, and their legs and feet are always left bare. The North Indian images, on the other hand, have generally their hands at the natural level of the hips or the elbows, and are made to carry full-blown lotuses which rise up to the level of the shoulders, and their forelegs have coverings resembling modern socks more or less in appearance and the feet are protected with a pair of footwear resembling boots. The *udara-bandha* is not found in the northern variety of the images of the Sun-god, but there is a thin cloth or a sort of coat of mail shown as being worn on the body. The South Indian images are as often with the seven horses and their driver Aruṇa as not; those which belong to the extreme south of South India, to such parts as the Tamil districts of the Madras Presidency, do not possess any attendant deities like Daṇḍa, Piṅgala and the goddesses. The images of the Sun-god as found in the Karṇāṭadēśa and the Southern Mahratta country, corresponding roughly to the ancient Chālukya and Hoysaḷa kingdoms, have invariably two goddesses sculptured one on each side of Sūrya. The common features of both Southern and Northern varieties of Sūrya are that the head is in all cases adorned with a *kirīṭa* surrounded by a circular halo or *prabhāmaṇḍala*, and that in several instances the characteristic seven horses and their driver Aruṇa are not missing.

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The image of Sūrya on Pl. LXXXVI appears to be the oldest among those whose illustrations are published here. It belongs to the Paraśurāmēśvara temple at Guḍimallam in the Madras Presidency. It has its hands lifted up to the level of the shoulders, and from the features of the face This page appears to be blank or contains only extremely faint, illegible markings that do not constitute readable text.

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Sūrya : Stone : Guḍimallam.

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(Fig. 1.) Sūrya : Bronze : Madras Museum.

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(Fig. 2.) Sūrya : Stone : Ellora. (Taken from Cave Temples of India by Fergusson and Burgess).

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(Fig. 3.) Sūrya : Marble : Rūpnagar Kishangarh District, Rājaputāna.

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and the peculiarities of the modelling in general this image may well be taken to belong to a period anterior to the seventh century A. D. The image whose drawing is reproduced on Pl. LXXXVIII is found in the Śiva temple at Mēlchēri near Kāvēripākkam and belongs to the later Pallava period (A. D. 800). Here Sūrya may be seen standing upon a flat seat under which are worked out the seven horses and the driver Aruṇa. Fig. 2, Pl. LXXXVIII is a fine piece of sculpture found in Ellora. In this Sūrya is seen standing within a chariot drawn by the seven horses driven by Aruṇa. As in the case of all South Indian images of this god the hands of Sūrya are, in this instance also, lifted up to the level of the shoulders and carry each a lotus flower. On the right and left of Sūrya are Ushā and Pratyushā driving away the darkness before them with their bows and arrows. The chariot of Sūrya has here two wheels instead of only one as required by the Sanskrit authorities. This sculpture may be assigned to the eighth century. Of about the same time is the seated figure of Sūrya whose photograph is reproduced on Pl. LXXXIX. In this sculpture Sūrya is seated cross-legged in his chariot drawn by seven horses driven by Aruṇa. Around him are to be seen the figures of the goddesses Rājñī, Suvarṇā, Suvarchasā and Chhāyā, as also the figures of Daṇḍa and Piṅgala. The photographs reproduced on Pl. XC are interesting and represent the North Indian type of the image of the sun-god.

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The images of Sūrya illustrated by them wear a curiously shaped *kirīṭa-makuṭa* with a flat top, and have the characteristic round face associated with North Indian sculptures. Their hands are placed at the level of the hip and a lotus with a long stalk is held in each of them, the flower itself being at the level of the shoulders. In figs. 1 and 2, the goddesses Rājñī and Nikshubhā are seen on the extreme right and left of Sūrya, while nearer him on either side are Daṇḍa and Piṅgala. In fig. 1, the Aśvinī-dēvatās with horse-faces are shown seated in small niches specially provided for them, whereas in fig. 2, the figures of Ushā and Pratyushā are seen as if engaged in chasing darkness with their bows and arrows. Below these are seen the somewhat damaged figures of the goddesses Rājñī and Nikshubhā; and immediately below the feet of Sūrya are worked out the seven horses of the Sun-god's chariot. The images of Sūrya in figs. 1 and 2 on this plate have a broad belt round their waist which is perhaps the *avyaṅga* or *ahyaṅga* mentioned in the *Bhavishyat-purāṇa*. Fig. 3 contains the central image of Sūrya and surrounding it are the images of Daṇḍa and Piṅgala and the horse-faced Aśvini-dēvatās, as also Ushā and Pratyushā: the latter are as usual chasing away darkness with their bows and arrows, and are sculptured near the kāntimaṇḍala of Sūrya. The body of Sūrya is shown as covered with a thin fabric through which the body of Sūrya is clearly visible.

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The ahyanga in this figure is not a broad band but a narrow belt encircling the waist. The three figures on this plate are seen wearing socks and boots. The photographs reproduced on Pls. XCI and XCII are of Sūrya of the South Indian variety belonging to the Chālukya-Hoysaḷa country. The hands of Sūrya in these cases are lifted up to the level of the shoulders and are found to carry half-blown lotuses. There are the udara-bandha and the ahyanga, but no sort of footwear. In Pl. XCI the goddesses Rājñi and Nikshubhā are worked out as standing one on each side of Sūrya with a chāmara in their hands. In Pl. XCII the goddesses Ushā and Pratyushā are, as usual, driving away darkness with bows and arrows. Besides these, a number of small figures are carved probably to represent Daṇḍa and Piṅgala and others. On the top-most tier of the sculpture stand five figures resembling boys; these are perhaps the rishis Sanaka and others. In the tier below this first one are a set of musicians playing upon different musical instruments. In Pls. XCI and XCII are the seven horses, but in the latter alone is the figure of Aruṇa shown. Fig. 1, Pl. XCIII and figs. 1 and 2 on Pl. XCIV also belong to the South Indian variety of Sūrya and to the Tamil country. In these the absence of the attendant deities may be noticed; these images, excepting fig. 1, Pl. XCIV, wear udara-bandha and ahyanga; the figures of the seven horses carved below the seat of Sūrya are not seen in the remaining images. Fig.

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1, Pl. LXXXVIII is the reproduction of the photograph of a bronze statuette of Sūrya preserved in the Madras Museum. In this, Sūrya is seen seated upon a chariot having a single wheel drawn by seven horses and driven by Aruṇa. This figure is encircled by a prabhāvaḷi. The goddesses Rājñī waving a chāmara and Nikshubhā with what appears to be an umbrella are seen standing on either side of Sūrya. Fig. 2 on the same plate is a piece of sculpture belonging to the modern Bombay school. It is carved in marble; Sūrya is here shown with four hands carrying a lotus each in the back hands and the akshamālā and the kamaṇḍalu in the front ones, and seated upon a chariot drawn by seven horses driven by Aruṇa. Fig. 2, Pl. XCIII belongs to the North Indian [To face page 317]

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Seated Sūrya : Stone : Chitorgarh : Marwar.

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(Fig. 3.)

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(Fig. 1 and 2.) Images of Sūrya : Stone : Ajmere, Rājputāna Museum.

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Sūrya : Stone : Havēri, Dharwar District.

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Sūrya : Stone : Nuggehaḷḷi.

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(Fig. 1.)

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(Fig. 2.) Sūrya : Stone : Ajmere, Rajputana Museum. Compare this with the Fig. on Pl. XL of V.A.Smith's Hist. of Fine Arts.

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(Fig. 1.) Sūrya-Nārāyaṇa : Stone : Bēlūr.

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(Fig. 2.) Surya : Stone : Madras Museum.

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Tōraṇa of a Sūrya Temple: Stone: Junagarh Museum.

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variety; the figure of Sūrya has a face belonging to the pān type. Strangely enough it is seen holding the hands as high as its shoulders and the lotuses carried in them are at the higher level than the shoulders. Near the legs of the image of Sūrya are those of Daṇḍa and Piṅgala and the goddesses Rājñī and Nikshubhā and one other between the legs of Sūrya; it is difficult to say whom this figure is meant to represent. Fig. 1, Pl. XCIV belongs to the Hoysaḷa country; the image of Sūrya has in this instance four hands, in the front two of which are the lotuses and the back ones are seen carrying the chakra and the śankha. The seven horses and Aruṇa are sculptured below the foot of Sūrya. Pl. XCV represents the toraṇa or gateway of a Sūrya temple. On the columns and the archway of this toraṇa are sculptured the figures of eleven Ādityas, which together with the one in the central shrine make up the usual number of twelve Ādityas. Some of the Ādityas have two, others four goddesses attending upon them; each one is enshrined in a small fane and are seen carrying lotuses in their hands. All except the central figure on the archway are standing; the central figure is seated in a chariot to which are yoked the seven horses characteristic of Sūrya. In the niches below the two Ādityas on either side of the central one are some figures whose significance is not known.

The Eight Other Grahas

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In Hindu astronomy as well as astrology, the sun, the moon, the five planets—Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn, and also the ascending and the descending nodes of the moon, called Rāhu and Kētu, constitute the well known *nava-grahas* or nine *grahas*. It has been stated that all these are worshipped in certain Hindu temples, where there are special images installed in representation of them. The sun is the chief of the *grahas*, and the description of the sun-god and of his images has therefore been given first in some fulness. The other eight *grahas* are now taken up for consideration.

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Chandra or the moon is also known as Sōma.

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Chandra or the Moon. His figure according to the *Aṃśumadbhēdāgama* may be represented either as standing or sitting. In the latter case, the seat, upon which he is to sit, should be a *siṃhāsana*. The colour of Chandra should be perfectly white and his head should be surrounded by a halo or *prabhāmaṇḍala*. He should also be adorned with various ornaments and a garland composed of all sorts of flowers, and should be clothed in white garments. He should have two hands, each of which should hold a white water-lily (*kumuda*). On his chest there should be shown a golden *yajñōpavīta* and his countenance should be beautiful and possess a peaceful look. The *Śilparatna* requires that the figure of Chandra should be shown as seated in a chariot drawn by ten horses, that this deity should hold a *gadā* in the right hand and that the left should be held in the *varada* pose. The *Matsya-purāṇa* agrees with the *Śilparatna* in stating that Chandra should be seated in a chariot to which ten horses are yoked, and adds that on the right and left of Chandra there should be the goddesses Kānti and Śōbhā, and that the lion banner of this god should also be placed on his left. The *Pūrva-kāraṇāgama* gives the name of the only goddess, who is to be by the side of Chandra as Rōhiṇī.

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Diferent authorities give different descriptions of the figure of Bhauma. Some say that it should be seated upon a goat, some upon a *simhāsana*, and some again in a golden chariot drawn by eight horses. The colour of the image of this planetary deity should be red like the fire; it should have four arms; one of the right hands should be in the *abhaya* or the *varada* pose, while the other should carry the weapon śakti. In the left hands, the gadā and the śūla should be held. It should be adorned with garlands of red colour, and should be clothed in red garments.

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Budha is sometimes known as Grahapati and is said to be the son of Chandra. His image should be seated upon a lion and should be adorned with garlands of yellow flowers and ornaments of gold. The colour of the body of Budha should be the yellow of the karṇikāra flower, and that of his garments should be also yellow. Budha should have four arms; one of the right hands should be in the varada pose, and the other three hands should carry the weapons known as khaḍga, kheṭaka and gadā. The Viṣṇudharmōttara, however, states that the image of Budha should resemble that of Viṣṇu and be seated in a chariot resembling that of Bhauma.

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The two planetary deities Bṛihaspati and Śukra should each be represented with four arms; one of the hands should be in the varada pose and the remaining three hands should carry the kamaṇḍalu, the akṣamālā, and a daṇḍa. The colour of Bṛihaspati is golden yellow. According to the Viṣṇudharmōttara, however, Bṛihaspati should have only two arms, and in his two hands he should carry a *pustaka* and the *akshamālā*. He should be adorned with all suitable ornaments and also clothed in yellow garments. The same authority says that Śukra, the son of Bhr̥igu, should be of white complexion, should have only two arms; in his two hands he should carry a *nidhi* (treasure?) and a *pustaka* (book), and should be seated in a silver chariot drawn by eight horses. The colour of his clothings also should be white.

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The complexion of Śanaiśchara and also the colour of his garments should be black. He should be small in stature and somewhat lame in one leg. He should have two arms; in the right hand he should hold a *daṇḍa*, and the left should be in the varada pose. This is according to the *Amśumadbhēdāgama*; but the *Vishṇudharmōttara* requires that there should be the *daṇḍa* in the one hand and the *akshamālā* in the other. The former authority prescribes the *padma-pīṭha* as the seat appropriate for Śanaiśchara, while the latter prescribes an iron chariot drawn by eight horses.

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The figure of Rāhu should, according to the *Śilparatna*, be seated upon a *siṃhāsana*, while according to the *Vishṇudharmōttara*, a silver chariot drawn by

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Sanaischar or Saturn.

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Rahu.

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eight horses has to be his seat. According to the first of these authorities, Rāhu should possess four arms, one of his hands should be in the *varada* pose and the remaining three should carry the *khaḍga*, *khēṭaka* and *śūla*. But according to the second authority, Rāhu should have only two hands, in the right of which there should be a book and a woollen blanket while the left hand should carry nothing at all.

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Ketu. Kētu is to be of dark colour and should have two arms, one of his hands is to be in the *abhaya* pose and the other should carry a *gadā*. He should be mounted upon a kite. The *Viśvakarma-Śilpa* states that Kētu should resemble Bhauma in all respects, but that his chariot should be drawn by ten horses.

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The *Rūpamaṇḍana* gives a summary of the description of the colours, weapons and emblems and vehicles and seats of the nine *grahas*, which may be tabularly presented thus:—

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| Name of the deity. | Colour. | Weapons etc. | Seat and Vehicle. | Remarks |
| | | Right hand. | Left hand. | | |
| Sūrya | White | Padma | Padma | Chariot with seven horses | |
| Sōma | Do. | Kumuda | Kumuda | Chariot with ten horses | |

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Sūrya.

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Bṛhaspati. Bhauma. Śani. Budha.

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Rāhu. Śukra. Kētu. Sōma.

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| Name of the deity. | Colour. | Weapons etc. | Seat and Vehicle | Remarks. |
| | | Right hand. | Left hand. | | |
| Bhauma | Red. | Daṇḍa | Kamaṇḍalu | A goat | All the nine deities should be adorned with kīriṭa and ratna-kuṇḍalas. |
| Budha | Yellow | Hands in yōga-mudrā | Sarpāsana | | |
| Guru | Do. | Akṣamālā | Kamaṇḍalu | Haṃsa | |
| Śukra | White | Do. | Do. | A frog | |
| Śani | Black | Daṇḍa | Do. | | |
| Rāhu | Smoke-colour | | | A sacrificial pit (kuṇḍa) | |
| Kētu | Do. | Arms folded as in the añjali attitude. | The lower portion of the body of Rāhu should be that of a snake. | |

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Pl. XCVI contains the reproductions of the photographs of the bronze images of the Nava-grahas to be found in the Sūrya temple at Sūryanārkōyil in the Tanjore district. The central shrine of this temple, which faces the west, is dedicated to Sūrya, the sun-god; near the image of the Sun-god are also placed those of Viśvēśvara and his consort Viśālākshi. The figure of Bṛhaspati is set up in front of the central and those of the other grahas in small shrines constructed round the central shrine.

Devi

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GOD, according to Hindu philosophy and theology, may be viewed as being either with or without attributes, that is, as *saguṇa* or *nirguṇa*. In the former case God is spoken of as He or She, and in the latter case as It. In the *saguṇa* form of worship, which is prescribed for all common people, the Vaiṣṇavas worship him as Viṣṇu and the Śaivas as Śiva. Those Hindus who worship the Supreme deity exclusively as a female principle are called Śāktas. The classification of Hindu worshippers into Vaiṣṇavas and Śaivas on the one hand and Śāktas on the other is not, however, exclusively rigid or inviolable, in as much as Vaiṣṇavas and Śaivas also worship the Dēvī in the form of Lakshmī and Pārvatī, although the supreme place of honour is reserved for the male Dēva, that is, for Viṣṇu or Śiva as the case may be. Here the Dēvī comes only next to the Dēva. But the Śāktas make the Dēvī supreme deity and assert that without the co-operation of this goddess the absolute Brahman of itself can achieve nothing. This Śakti may be conceived to be the personification of universal energy in the abstract. She resides in the macrocosm as well as in the microcosm. The discovery and development of Śakti or psychic energy in man is the aim of the Mantra-śāstras. The Śakti which resides in man, and the development of which is one of the aims of the Yōga-śāstra, is called the Kuṇḍalini Śakti. The place where it resides is called the Mūlādhāra, and is understood to be at the lower extremity of the spinal cord. By a successful development and working of this Śakti at the Mūlādhāra, even the attainment of mōksha or the liberation of the soul is believed to become possible. In the ordinary condition the Kuṇḍalini Śakti is latent and sleeps quietly at the Mūlādhāra. The yōgic aspirant may first awaken the sleeping faculty in two ways, that is, either by means of the prāṇāyāma or by means of mantras. Of these the former process consists in the regulation and the holding of the breath for certain definite periods of time. This is the course advocated in works on the Yōga śāstra. The second process requires the aspirant to be initiated in certain mantras or incantations which he has to repeat a fixed number of times at certain hours of the day, keeping all the while before his mental vision the image of the deity associated with the mantra. When thus roused up, the Kuṇḍalinī ascends from the Mūlādhāra to the next higher centre the Svādhiṣṭhāna: thence to the centres Maṇipūra and Anāhata in the latter of which this psychic śakti is transformed into sound; then to the centre Viśuddhi where it becomes sāttvic; and then at last to the centre Ājñā where the śakti becomes manifest in the form of a flash of light. By repeatedly practising the process of holding the breath and controlling it, as laid down in the Yōga śāstras, one may be enabled to enjoy this divine light perpetually, and thus be in union with Divinity itself. The practice of holding the breath and controlling it for the purpose of rousing the Kuṇḍalinī śakti possibly brings into active play some latent power residing in the several parts of the spinal cord of the human being, which has not been as yet examined by Western Science.

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The effects produced in each of the six centres mentioned above are often depicted diagramatically; and the diagrams may convey to the initiates some concrete idea of the internal psychic results attained by the practice of yōgic breath control and mental concentration. These diagrams are called by the names of Chakras and Yantras. A chakra is defined in the Tantras as a figure consisting of angles and petal-like parts; that which consists of angles alone is called a yantra. The yantras generally consist of triangles cutting each other or straight lines crossing each other so as to produce a number of rectangular spaces and terminating in trident-like projections. Certain letters called bījāksharas or seed-letters are associated with these chakras and yantras, and are written down invariably in specified parts thereof. The bījāksharas may be imagined to be something like code words, whose significance is known only to the initiates. The worship of yantras is common throughout India; perhaps the most important of these yantras is the Śrīchakra. It generally consists of forty-three triangles interestingly arranged in a plane and may also be produced in three other different forms called Mēru, Kailāsa and Bhū. The Mēru is the same as the plane Śrīchakra in plan; but the various triangles, surrounding the innermost one, are piled one over another in different planes so that the whole becomes shaped into the form of a pyramid. The topmost layer of the Mēru contains a circle called the bindu. If associated with the eight mātṛikā deities the Mēru becomes the Kailāsa; and with the Vāsinī deities it becomes the Bhū. The Śruti or Vēdic revelation itself supports the worship of yantras (vide, Taitt. Āran.). The drawing of the famous yantra known as the Śrīchakra is given herein: the lettering of the spaces is also shown in the photograph reproduced below; with an ordinary reading lens, the letters of the Dēvanāgari alphabet may be seen engraved in various parts on this mystic figure.* This and other yantras are generally engraved on some metallic plate, preferably one of gold; silver and copper also are often enough employed. The Śrīchakra engraved on metallic plates is an object of worship. In South Indian temples of the medieval and later periods, there are shrines called by the name of Śakti-pīṭhālayas, in which there is a pīṭha or smaller altar very much resembling the common bali-pīṭha whereon the oblations of formal worship are usually offered in temples. It is said that these pīṭhas associated with the Śakti-pīṭhalayas contain inside them the plate on which the Śrīchakra is engraved. Regular pūjā is offered to the Śakti-pīṭha at least twice a day. In as much as this is thus an object of worship, it has been treated in this work as an icon.

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∗ The belief in the mystic potency of the interlacing triangle and other geometrical figures, does not belong exclusively to the Hindus. The interlacing triangle, which is known to the Freemason under the name of Agla, once contained cabalistic characters in each of its spaces and was considered to represent either the design of Solomon's seal or the Shield of David. By some strange and occult process of reasoning it was believed to be a security against wounds, to serve as an extinguisher of fires and to possess other marvellous properties. The interlacing triangle, or the pentangle, with the letter G placed in the centre forms jewel of the Mark-Mason; and the same, with an Egyptian Tau in the middle space and with a tail-devouring snake encircling the whole, constitutes the seal of Modern Theosophical Societies.

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Śrīchakra.

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Śrīchakara : On metal Pletī : Srīngāri Maṭha.

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The other yantras are engraved upon thin gold, silver or copper plates, which are rolled into a cylinder and then put into a golden or other metallic case so that they may be worn on the body of person with a view to avoid diseases, possession by devils, and other such evils, which, it is supposed, they have the power to ward off. Occasional worship is also offered to this case containing the magical yantra, and the wearer's faith in its efficacy may well effect cures in many cases.

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The goddess Dēvī is worshipped in many forms. She is variously named sometimes according to her imagined age; thus, when she is worshipped as an year old baby, she is known by the name of Sandhyā; if she is conceived to be two years old, she is called Sarasvati; if of seven years of age, Caṇḍikā; if of eight years of age, Sāmbhavi; if of nine years of age, Durgā or Bālā; of ten years of age, Gauri; of thirteen, Mahālakshmi; and of sixteen, Lalitā. Sometimes she is named in recognition of one or other of her heroic achievements; for instance, she is called Mahishāsuramarddani in consequence of her having destroyed the Mahishāsura. There are special forms of images corresponding to these various ways of conceiving the goddess Dēvi. In the Dēvimāhātmya found in the Mārkaṇḍeya-purāṇa, the Dēvi herself is made to say “In the Vaivasvata-manvantara, at the end of the Dvāpara-yuga and the beginning of the Kali-yuga, a new set of asuras called by the names Śumbha and Niśumbha, would be born; and then I shall also be born as Nandā to the cow-herd Nanda-gōpāla, and shall take up the Vindhya mountain as my abode. Thereafter, at the end of the Dvāpara-yuga, I shall kill the asuras born in the family of Viprachitta and eat them up; then my teeth, hair, body and weapons will all become red with their blood and for that reason they will call me in the world as Rakta-Chāmuṇḍa. Then there would occur a famine of a hundred years' duration in the world, when there would not be available in it even a drop of water. In response to the prayers of the Munis I shall at that time come out of the body of Pārvatī with a hundred eyes; and then people would call me by the name of Śatākshī. In the fortieth *yuga* of the Vaivasvata-manvantara I shall protect all the beings in the world with such vegetables as are necessary for the maintenance of life and relieve them from the famine. People would then call me Śākambharī. In this form of mine I shall kill an *asura* named Durgama, and shall thenceforth be known as Durgādēvī. I shall then proceed to the Himalayas and assume the terrific form of Bhīmā. There will then appear an *asura* by name Aruṇa; and in the sixtieth *yuga* I shall, with the aid of a swarm of wasps (*bhramaras*), attack him and kill him. I shall, for this reason, be called Bhrāmarī”. In this way the Mārkaṇḍēya-purāṇa gives the clue to some of the names of Dēvī, indicating that they often depend upon the achievements that are attributed to her.

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Regarding the supremacy of Dēvī as a deity and her position as the source of all divine as well as cosmic evolution, it is worth quoting from the same authority. It is said in the Mārkaṇḍēya-purāṇa—“The Gupta-rūpi Dēvī, that is, the Dēvī who is unmanifested, takes the three forms of Lakshmī, Mahākālī and Sarasvatī, representing the

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Rājasa, the Sāttvika and the Tāmasa attributes or guṇas of prakriti. She is also known in various other ways; for instance, at the time of srishti or creation, she is Mahākālī exercising control over Brahmā and bringing the world into existence; at the time of the pralaya or universal destruction, she is Mahāmārī; as giver of wealth and prosperity she is Lakshmī and as destroyer of wealth and prosperity Alakshmī or Jyēshṭhadēvī.”

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. . . . “ During the time of creation, she assumes the form of a dark coloured woman under various names, such as Mahāmāyā, Mahākālī, Mahāmārī, Kshudhā, Trishā, Nidrā, Trishṇā, Ēkavīrā, Kālarātri and Duratyayā. In obedience to the command of the supreme goddess Mahālakshmī, she divides herself into two portions, a male portion known by the names of Nīlakaṇṭha, Raktabāhu, Śvētāṅga, Chandraśēkhara, Rudra, Śaṅkara, Sthāṇu, and Trilōchana, and a female portion of white colour known as Vidyā, Bhāshā, Svara, Akshara, and Kāmadhēnu. Similarly, the Sattva form, of moon-like splendour, possessed of akshamālā, aṅkuśa, vīṇā and pustaka, is also generated by Mahālakshmī, the supreme goddess; this aspect of the goddess is known by the names of Mahāvidyā, Mahāvāṇī, Bhāratī, Vāk, Sarasvatī, Āryā, Brāhmī, Kāmadhēnu, Vēdagarbhā, Dhī and Īśvari. She also gives rise to a male and a female form by the command of the supreme Dēvi; the male form produced out of this aspect of the goddess is the black coloured deity known as Viṣṇu, Kṛṣṇa, Hṛṣīkēśa, Vāsudēva and Janārddana; and the female is the fair coloured goddess known as Umā, Gaurī, Satī, Caṇḍī, Sundarī, Subhagā and Śivā. The Rājasa form of the supreme Mahālakshmi is simply called Lakshmi. She carries a mātuluṅga (pomegranate) fruit, the gadā, the pātra (vessel) and the khēṭaka, and has a chihna or mark consisting of the male and female signs (Liṅga). Hers is the colour of molten gold. She has also divided herself into male and female parts; the former is known as Hiraṇyagarbha, Brahman, Vidhi, Viriñcha and Dhātā and the latter is called Śrī, Padmā, Kamalā, and Lakshmi. And the mother of the universe, Mahālakshmi, ordered Brahman to take Sarasvatī as his consort. The great Brahmāṇḍa was born by their union. Rudra, that is, Śiva married Gaurī, and they both broke open the ‘egg of gold’. Lakshmi became herself the consort of Viṣṇu and they both afforded protection to the universe. From Māyā the whole lot of created beings came into existence.” Thus, according to the Dēvimāhātmya,all the gods and goddesses mentioned above are but manifestations of the one single Supreme Being Mahālakshmi and should not be understood to be separate individual deities.”

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The evolution of the various cosmic gods and goddesses from the supreme Goddess Mahālakshmi, as given in the Dēvīmāhātmya of the Mārkaṇḍeya-purāṇa, is shown below in a tabular form :—

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[Figure: The Supreme Mahalaksmi.

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Sattva-gunatmika = Sarasvati.

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Gauri. Vishnu md. Lakshmi,

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Rajasa-gunatmika = Lakshmi.

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Hiranyagarbha md. Sarasvati.

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Tamasa-gunatmika = Mahakali.

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Rudra. md.]

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It may be seen from the above table that all the manifestations of divine power are here conceived to flow from Mahālakshmi, who is looked upon in the Mārkaṇḍeya-purāṇa as the Supreme source of all power. This Dēvī is indeed at the basis of the worship of Śakti; and hence, as proceeding out of the supreme Dēvī, all the minor Dēvis are described in this chapter irrespective of whether they belong to the Śaiva or the Vaishṇava cult. They are, however, for the purposes of description, grouped according to the cult to which they belong, as certain convenience is gained by so doing.

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General features of the images of the Devi.

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It was pointed out already that Dēvī is worshipped independently as the Supreme Deity under the name of Śakti in Śāktism, and that she is also worshipped in association with Śiva in Śaivism and Viṣṇu in Vaiṣṇavism. It has to be noted, however, that Śāktism is often considered to be more akin to Śaivism than to Vaiṣṇavism. Hence the characteristics of the Dēvī as an independent goddess and her Purāṇic associations may be noticed to have somewhat marked relations to the cult of Śiva-worship; and the study of Dēvī-icons confirms this view. The ordinary or common form of the image of the Dēvī as the consort of Śiva is given in the Uttara-kāmikāgama. There it is described as having four arms and three eyes and a pacific countenance. It should wear on the head a karaṇḍa-makuṭa and be clad in silk garments. In two of the hands the pāśa and the aṅkuśa should be carried, while the remaining two are to be held in the varada and the abhaya poses.

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If the image of the Dēvī is such as is made to stand by the side of the image of her consort, then it generally has only two hands; one of these is made to hold a lotus or is kept in the kaṭaka pose, evidently to have a fresh natural flower put in every day, instead of having to carry metallic or stone representation of the same; the other hand is allowed to hang down freely by the side. This kind of goddess should have only two eyes and be of golden colour and handsome in appearance. Even when the Dēvī is not made to stand by the side of her consort, she may sometimes be given only two hands, one of which may be made to carry a parrot or a mirror and the other a blue-lily; or, she may be made to hold a śūla and a pāśa, or any other weapons which please the fancy of the artist.

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The Dēvī may also be sculptured with six arms; then she should be wielding in four of her hands the pāśa, aṅkuśa, śaṅkha and chakra and the remaining hands should be in the varada and abhaya poses. Sometimes she may be given even as many as ten hands: in this case she should be represented with five faces having terrific look and with side tusks. Her hands should carry the same weapons which Śiva does when he is given ten hands. She should have the same āsana as Śiva.

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Again, the Dēvī is sometimes sculptured as embracing Śiva or as sitting on the same or a different seat near Śiva. In the former case she is seated on the lap of Śiva. In the latter case, one of her legs, either the right or the left, should be folded and made to rest upon the seat, and the other should be left hanging down. Since it is said that either of the two legs might be folded and made to rest upon the seat, it is clear that the goddess may be seated on the right or the left of Śiva.

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Whether the image of the Dēvi happens to be an independent figure or in association with the image of Śiva—in either of these cases, the body of the goddess may have two bends and be of the *dvibhaṅga* variety or it may be perfectly erect and be of the *samabhaṅga* variety. When by the side of her lord Śiva, the Dēvi is known by the names of Manōnmaṇi or Gaurī. If Śiva is conceived as Sadāśiva, the Dēvi associated with him is Manōnmaṇi; and she happens to be Gaurī, when she is associated with Naṭarāja and other *mūrtis* of Śiva. There is, however, not the least difference in the sculpturing of these two differently named forms of the goddess. She might be shown as being black, white or red according to the taste of the artist.

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The *Suprabhēdāgama* says that the image of the Dēvi should have large and prominent breasts, and that it should be adorned with all ornaments. The standing figure of the Dēvi with only one pair of arms is, according to the *Pūrva-kāraṇāgama*, known by the name of Bhavānī also.

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