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Early Tamil Epigraphy: From the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D. c27: 7. Grammar

Early Tamil Epigraphy: From the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D. c27

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7. Grammar

I. Phonology

7.1 The Tamil alphabet

c27.s2.1

Tamil has an alphabet of 30 letters (*Tol. Eḻu.* 1). All except *au* occur in the Corpus. However, the length of *e* and *o* is not indicated in the earlier inscriptions, and only sporadically in the later inscriptions. Three 'dependent' sounds (*cārpeḻuttu*), viz., the shortened *-i* and *-u* and the *āytam* (*ḵ*) are also enumerated (*Tol. Eḻu.* 2), out of which only the last has a graphic form. The *āytam* does not occur in the Corpus. The Brāhmī characters *dh* and *s* occur marginally in loanwords from Indo-Aryan. See Chapters 5 and 6 for the distinctive palaeographic and orthographic features respectively of the Tamil-Brāhmī script.

7.2 Phonemic inventory

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As the language of the inscriptions is Tamil, it is possible to set up the following phonemic inventory based on a comparison with Literary Tamil (LT).

7.2.1 Vowels (uyir)

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| | Front | | Central | | Back | |
| | Short | Long | Short | Long | Short | Long |
| High | *i* | *ī* | | | *u* | *ū* |
| Mid | *e* | *ē* | | | *o* | *ō* |
| Low | | | *a* | *ā* | | |

c27.s3.t1.2

The diphthong *ai* may be interpreted as *ay* (*Tol. Eḻu.* 56); cf. *-aiyaṉ* (55.3.b) and *-a(y)yaṉ* (55.5.b) occurring in the same inscription and also *koṟṟantai* / *koṟṟantay* (67.1 & 77.2) and *matirai* / *matiray* (24.2 & 36.1).

7.2.2 Consonants (mey)

c27.s3.t2.1

| | Stops (*valliṉam*) | Nasals (*melliṉam*) | Liquids (*iṭaiyiṉam*) |
| Velar | *k* | *ṅ* | |
| Palatal | *c* | *ñ* | *y* |
| Retroflex | *ṭ* | *ṇ* | *ḷ* *ḻ* |
| Alveolar | *ṟ* | *ṉ* | *r* *l* |
| Dental | *t* | *n* | |
| Labial | *p* | *m* | *v* |

c27.s3.t2.2

The velar nasal *ṅ* occurs in the Corpus only as an allophone of *m* before *-k* in sandhi. (e.g.) *peruṅkaṭuṅkōṉ* (*perum* + *kaṭum* + *kōṉ*) 'a personal name' (61.9).

7.3 Dependent sounds (cārpeluttu)

7.3.1 Shortened -i (kuṟṟiyal-ikaram)

c27.s4.t1.1

While there is no graphic representation of the sound, its presence in the language can be inferred from the following passage:

c27.s4.t1.2

*mēṟcēriku-y=āṭi* 'having fought for Mēṟcēri' (112.2-3)

c27.s4.t1.3

Here *-ku* seems to have been pronounced *-ki* as indicated by the glide *-y-* following it. Cf. *Tol. Eḻu.* 35 & 410. It also appears that the shortened *-u* following the front vowel *-i* has changed into the shortened *-i*. See Commentary for discussion.

7.3.2 Shortened -u (kuṟṟiyal-ukaram)

c27.s4.t2.1

There seems to have been an interesting but short-lived attempt in the Early Tamil-Brāhmī script to distinguish the shortened *-u* from the short *-u* as illustrated by the following example:

c27.s4.t2.2

**ū** **pu** for *upu* (*uppu*) 'salt' (39.1.a)

c27.s4.t2.3

where the initial *ū-* stands for *u-* and the final *-u* for the shortened *-u*. In this orthographic system, the graphic **ū** stands for the vowels *ū* or *u* and the graphic **u** for the short vowel *u* or the shortened *-u* according to the context. See section 6.15 for explanation of the rationale of this system.

7.3.3 The āytam (ẖ)

c27.s4.t3.1

The unique Tamil sound *āytam* (*ẖ*) is mentioned in *Tolkāppiyam* (*Eḻu.* 2). The sound has been reconstructed to Proto-Dravidian (Bh. Krishnamurti 1997: pp. 147-151). Even though the *āytam* does not occur in the Tamil-Brāhmī or Early Vaṭṭeḻuttu inscriptions, its presence in the language may be inferred from the words:

c27.s4.t3.2

*ittā-a* < *iẖtu* + *ā-a* 'lo, behold, look here !' (1.4)
*ītā* < *iẖtu* + *ā* id. (2.4, 16.1)
(cf. LT *itā* / *ītā* in the same sense.)

c27.s4.t3.3

*itta* < *iẖtu* + *a* 'this (accusative case)' (13.3)
(cf. LT *itai* / *ittai* in the same sense.)

c27.s4.t3.4

In these words, the *āytam* (*ẖ*) seems to be elided with compensatory doubling of the succeeding stop or lengthening of the preceding vowel (see Bh. Krishnamurti 1997: p. 160 for the rule).

7.4 Distribution of vowels

7.4.1 Initial

c27.s5.t1.1

All the 12 vowels can occur initially in Tamil (*Tol. Eḻu.* 59). All of them (except *ō* and *au*) occur initially in the Corpus:

c27.s5.t1.2

| a- | *aṟam* | 'charity' | 76.4 |
| ā- | *āka* | 'having become' | 61.13 |
| i- | *iruvar* | 'two persons' | 48.5 |
| ī- | *ītta* | 'which was given' | 59.3 |
| u- | *uṟai* | 'abode of ascetics' | 9.3 |
| ū- | *ūr* | 'village, town, city' | 19.2 |
| e- | *em* | 'our' | 19.1 |
| ē- | *ēva* | 'when commanded' | 76.2 |
| ai- | *aimpattēḻ(u)* | 'fifty-seven' | 116.1 |
| o- | *o(p)paṉ* | 'a personal name' | 79.1.a |

c27.s5.t1.3

The absence of word-initial *ō-* in the Corpus is not significant. Cf. *ōtalaṉ* 'a personal name' in the Tamil-Brāhmī legend on a ring (No. 2, Table 1.8).

7.4.2 Medial

c27.s5.t2.1

All the 12 vowels can occur medially in Tamil. All of them except *-au-* occur medially in the Corpus:

c27.s5.t2.2

| -a- | *kal* | 'stone' | 48.7 |
| -ā- | *kāttāṉ* | 'a personal name' | 58.2 |
| -i- | *kiḻār* | 'a title' | 84.2 |
| -ī- | *kīraṉ* | 'a personal name' | 65.4.a |
| -u- | *kuṉṟu* | 'hill' | 73.5 |
| -ū- | *nūṟu* | 'hundred' | 16.3 |
| -e- | *nel* | 'paddy' | 16.5 |
| -ē- | *vēḷ* | 'a title' | 32.1.c |
| -ai- | *tai(t)ta* | 'which was made' | 101.2 |
| -o- | *poṉ* | 'gold' | 36.2.a |
| -ō- | *kōṉ* | 'chief' | 73.4 |

7.4.3 Final

c27.s5.t3.1

All vowels can occur word-finally in Tamil (*Tol. Eḻu.* 69-70). This general rule is, however, subject to restrictions in respect of some consonant-vowels occurring word-finally (*Tol. Eḻu.* 71-77) considered below in section 7.6.2.2. Only the following 7 vowels occur in final position in the Corpus:

c27.s5.t3.2

| **-a** | *aṟutta* | 'which was carved' | 61.14 |
| **-ā** | *ītā* | 'behold!' | 2.4 |
| **-i** | *aṇṇi* | 'honorific (fem.)' | 83.4.c |
| **-u** | *koḻu* | 'ploughshare' | 43.1.a |
| **-ē** | *kuv-aṉkē* | 'to Kuvaṉ' | 1.2.c |
| **-ai** | *aṟuvai* | 'cloth' | 46.2.a |
| **-ō** | *kō* | 'king' | 61.6 |

c27.s5.t3.3

*ī* occurs word-finally in *visākī* 'a personal name' in a Tamil-Brāhmī inscription on pottery from Kodumanal (K. Rajan 1994: p. 76, Pl. 26).

7.4.4 Vowel clusters

c27.s5.t4.1

Vowel clusters occur in Old Tamil as further elongation (*aḷapeṭai*) of a long vowel by adding the corresponding short vowel in some grammatical forms or to meet prosodic requirements (*Tol. Eḻu.* 6). There is only one instance of an *aḷapeṭai* in the Corpus in the interjection *ittā-a* 'behold!' (1.4).

c27.s5.t4.2

However, there is a relative abundance of vowel clusters in the Corpus as mere juxtaposition of vowels. This phenomenon is due to the marked preference, especially in the earlier inscriptions, for the separation of word-segments and grammatical suffixes commencing with vowels (see section 6.18.2).

c27.s5.t4.3

There are 13 types of clusters with two vowels each in the Corpus as illustrated below:

c27.s5.t4.4

| **a-a** | *cēnta-a* | 'of Cēntaṉ' | 28.1.b |
| **a-u** | *muḻa-ukai* | 'cave' | 17.3.b |
| **ā-a** | *ittā-a* | 'behold!' | 1.4 |
| **ā-i** | *(ā)-iṉa* | 'who is' | 41.2 |
| **i-i** | *ti(ṭ)ṭi-il-* | 'a place name' | 33.1 |
| **i-ū** | *kā(p)pi-ūr* | 'a place name' (only in sandhi) | 74.1 |
| **i-ō** | *ko(ṭ)ṭi-ōr* | 'they who carved' | 6.3 |
| **u-a** | *ku-aṉ* | 'a personal name' | 2.2.c |

c27.s5.t4.5

| u-i | *karu-iya* | 'which was carved' | 17.2 |
| u-ū | *karu-ūr* | 'a place name' (only in sandhi) | 69.1 |
| e-i | *e-iyl* | 'a place name' (-*iy-* error for -*yi*-) | 18.1 |
| ē-i | *cē-iya* | 'which was made' | 2.10 |
| ai-ū | *vintai-ūr* | 'a place name' (only in sandhi) | 57.1 |

c27.s5.t4.6

The only instance of a cluster of three vowels seems to be due to scribal error:

c27.s5.t4.7

| iru-a-ar(for iru-ar) | 'two persons' | 45.3.b |

7.5 Distribution of consonants

7.5.1 In the Corpus

c27.s6.t1.1

The distribution of consonants including clusters in the Corpus is summarised in Table 7.1. Examples of the distribution are listed below. Brief explanatory remarks on exceptional cases are added within brackets to the relevant entries.

c27.s6.t1.2

| k- | *kal* | 'stone' | 48.7 |
| -k- | *makaṉ* | 'son' | 20.2 |
| -kk- | *vaṇṇakkaṉ* | 'a clan name' | 85.3.b |
| -ṅk- | *peruṅkaṭuṅkōṉ* | 'a personal name' (only in sandhi) | 61.9 |
| c- | *cuṉai* | 'spring' | 84.6 |
| -c- | *muciṟi* | 'a place name' | 56.3 |
| -cc- | *kaccavaṉu* | 'a personal name' (loanword) | 119.2.a |
| -ñc- | *añci* | 'a personal name' | 59.2.d |
| -ṭ- | *koṭu* | 'given' | 10.4 |
| -ṭṭ- | *koṭṭupi(t)tōṉ* | 'he who caused to be carved' | 8.3 |
| ṇ- | *ṇākaṉ* | 'a personal name' (*ṇ*- due to influence of Pkt.) | 72.1 |
| -ṇ- | *amaṇaṉ* | 'Jaina monk' | 24.1 |
| -ṇ | *veṇ-* | 'pure, bright' (only in sandhi) | 14.1.a |
| -ṇṇ- | *aṇṇi* | 'honorific (fem.)' | 83.4.c |
| -ṇṭ- | *karaṇṭai* | 'cave' | 51.1 |
| -ṇk- | *veṇkāsipaṉ* | 'a personal name' (only in sandhi) | 14.1 |
| -ṇp- | *veṇpa(!)li* | 'a place name' (only in sandhi) | 46.1 |
| t- | *tanta* | 'who took (in battle)' | 73.3 |

c27.s6.t1.3

| -*t*- | *mutā* | 'elder, senior' | 61.1 |
| -*tt*- | *eḻuttu* | 'letter (of the alphabet)' | 85.1 |
| *n*- | *nūṟu* | 'hundred' | 16.3 |
| -*n*- | *veni* | 'a personal name' (-*n*- error for -*ṉ*(*ṉ*)-) | 70.2.a |
| -*n* | *atiyan* | 'a personal name' (-*n* error for -*ṉ*) | 59.2.a |
| -*nn*- | *aṉacaṉaṉ-nōṟṟa* | 'who observed the penance of fasting' (only in sandhi ) | 116.2-3 |
| -*nt*- | *tantai* | 'father' | 2.8 |
| -*nm*- | *tanmaṉ* | 'a personal name' (only in a loanword; -*n*- probably error for -*ṉ*-) | 45.1 |
| *p*- | *piṟanta* | 'who was born' | 49.3 |
| -*p*- | *ceyipi(t)ta* | 'which was caused to be made' | 65.5 |
| -(*p*)*p*- | *u(p)pu* | 'salt' (-*p*- not doubled in original) | 39.1.a |
| *m*- | *malai* | 'mountain' | 85.3.a |
| -*m*- | *ama* | 'who abide' | 48.6 |
| -*m* | *pēr-ay-am* | 'large tank' | 35.2 |
| -*mm*- | *kuṟummakaḷ* | 'young daughter' (exceptional doubling; alternatively, *kuṟum makaḷ*) | 65.3 |
| -*mp*- | *vēmp(u)-* | lit., 'neem'; part of a place name | 35.1.a |
| *y*- | *yāṟṟu* | lit., 'of the river'; a place name | 62.3 |
| -*y*- | *iḷayar* | 'a clan name' | 49.6 |
| -*y* | *matiray* | 'a place name' | 36.1 |
| -(*y*)*y*- | *a(y)yaṉ* | 'honorific' (-*y*- not doubled in original) | 55.5.b |
| -*yk*- | *poykai* | 'pond' | 102.2 |
| -*y*(*c*)*c*- | *āy(c)ca-* | 'part of a personal name' (-*c*- not doubled in original) | 55.5.a |
| -*yt*- | *ceyta* | 'which was made' | 49.7 |
| -*yl* | *e-iyl* | 'a place name' (-*iy*- error for -*yi*-) | 18.1 |
| -*yv*- | *kāyvaṉ* | 'a personal name' (-*y*- error for -*yi*-) | 104.2 |
| -*r*- | *ēri* | lit., 'lake'; a place name | 60.4 |
| -*r* | *iruvar* | 'two persons' | 48.5 |

c27.s6.t1.4

| *-l-* | *kala-* | 'a measure' | 16.4 |
| *-l* | *nel* | 'paddy' | 16.5 |
| *-ll-* | *nalli-* | 'a personal name' (part of a place name) | 66.1.a |
| *-lk-* | *ko(t)ṭalku* | 'for carving' | 12.2 |
| *-lp-* | *palpuli* | 'a place name' (only in sandhi) | 118.1 |
| *-lm-* | *nalmula-ukai* | 'auspicious cave' (only in sandhi) | 17.3 |
| *-lv-* | *poṇ-kolvaṇ* | 'goldsmith' | 36.2 |
| *v-* | *vai(k)ka* | 'to endow' | 16.2 |
| *-v-* | *kavi* | 'cave' | 57.3 |
| *-v* | *av-* | 'those' (only in sandhi) | 45.3.a |
| *-vv-* | *avv-iru-a-ar-um* | 'those two persons also' (only in sandhi) | 45.3 |
| *-ḷ-* | *kiḷār* | 'a title' | 84.2 |
| *-ḷ* | *perumpokaḷ* | 'a place name' | 83.1 |
| *-ḷ-* | *iḷa-* | 'young' | 17.1.a |
| *-ḷ* | *makaḷ* | 'daughter' | 66.3 |
| *-ḷḷ-* | *paḷḷi* | 'hermitage' | 83.6 |
| *-ṟ-* | *aṟai* | 'rock'; part of a place name | 6.1.b |
| *-ṟṟ-* | *koṟṟi* | 'a personal name' (fem.) | 66.4.b |
| *-ṟk-* | *poṟkoṟṟi* | 'pet name of a cock' (only in sandhi) | 113.3 |
| *-ṟc-* | *mēṟcēri* | 'a place name' (only in sandhi) | 112.2 |
| *ṉ-* | *ṉākaṉ* | 'a personal name' (*ṉ-* error for *n-*) | 37.1 |
| *-ṉ-* | *paṉai* | 'palmyra palm'; (part of a place name) | 50.1.a |
| *-ṉ* | *poṉ* | 'gold' | 36.2.a |
| *-ṉṉ-* | *kuṟṟaṉṉ-aṟu(p)pitta* | 'caused to be carved by Kuṟṟaṉ' (in sandhi) | 63.4.b-5 |
| *-ṉṟ-* | *kuṉṟu* | 'hill' | 73.5 |
| *-ṉk-* | *teṉku* | 'south' | 49.5.a |
| *-ṉv-* | *poṉ-vāṇikaṉ* | 'gold merchant' (only in sandhi) | 69.2 |

c27.s6.t1.5

| Initial | Medial | Final | Geminates | Homorganic nasal+ stop | Other clusters |
| *k-* | *-k-* | | *-kk-* | | |
| | | | | *-ṅk-* | |
| *c-* | *-c-* | | *-cc-* | | |
| | | | | *-ñc-* | |
| | *-ṭ-* | | *-ṭṭ-* | | |
| *ṇ-* | *-ṇ-* | *-ṇ* | *-ṇṇ-* | *-ṇṭ-* | *-ṇk-* *-ṇp-* |
| *t-* | *-t-* | | *-tt-* | | |
| *n-* | *-n-* | *-n* | *-nn-* | *-nt-* | *-nm-* |
| *p-* | *-p-* | | *-(p)p-* | | |
| *m-* | *-m-* | *-m* | *-mm-* | *-mp-* | |
| *y-* | *-y-* | *-y* | *-(y)y-* | | *-yk-* *-y(c)c-* *-yt-* *-yl* *-yv-* |
| | *-r-* | *-r* | | | |
| | *-l-* | *-l* | *-ll-* | | *-lk-* *-lp-* *-lm-* *-lv-* |
| *v-* | *-v-* | *-v* | *-vv-* | | |
| | *-ḻ-* | *-ḻ* | | | |
| | *-ḷ-* | *-ḷ* | *-ḷḷ-* | | |
| | *-ṟ-* | | *-ṟṟ-* | | *-ṟk-* *-ṟc-* |
| *ṉ-* | *-ṉ-* | *-ṉ* | *-ṉṉ-* | *-ṉṟ-* | *-ṉk-* *-ṉv-* |

c27.s6.t1.6

Table 7.1. Distribution of consonants in the Early Tamil inscriptions in the Corpus.

7.5.2 Comparison with Tolkāppiyam

c27.s6.t2.1

7.5.2.1 *Initial consonants

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Only the following 9 consonants can occur initially (*Tol. Eḻu.* 61-65):

c27.s6.t2.3

**k c ñ t n p m y v**

c27.s6.t2.4

All the above consonants except *ñ-* occur initially in the Corpus. Additionally, *ṇ-* and *ṉ-* also occur initially in the exceptional circumstances noted in the examples.

c27.s6.t2.5

7.5.2.2 *Final consonants

c27.s6.t2.6

Only the following 11 consonants can occur finally (*Tol. Eḻu.* 78):

c27.s6.t2.7

**ñ ṇ n m y r l v ḻ ḷ ṉ**

c27.s6.t2.8

Among them, 4 consonants, viz., *-ñ -n -v* and *-ṇ* can occur finally subject to some restrictions (*Tol. Eḻu.* 79-82).

c27.s6.t2.9

All except *-ñ* occur finally in the Corpus. However, *-ṇ -n* and *-v* occur finally only in the exceptional circumstances noted in the examples.

c27.s6.t2.10

7.5.2.3 *Consonant clusters

c27.s6.t2.11

Consonant clusters can occur only medially except *-nm* once in the final position as in *pōṉm* (*Tol. Eḻu.* 51).

c27.s6.t2.12

All consonant clusters in the Corpus occur only medially except *-yl* once finally in a case of scribal error; *-nm-* occurs once medially in a loanword. (See examples.)

c27.s6.t2.13

7.5.2.4 *Geminates

c27.s6.t2.14

All consonants except *r* and *ḻ* can occur as geminates (*Tol. Eḻu.* 30).

c27.s6.t2.15

In addition to the two exceptions, the geminates *-ṅṅ-* and *-ññ-* are also not found in the Corpus. Further, the geminates *-nn- -pp- -mm- -yy-* and *-vv-* occur only in the exceptional circumstances noted in the examples.

c27.s6.t2.16

7.5.2.5 *Use of single for double consonants in the inscriptions

c27.s6.t2.17

As the orthography of the inscriptions permits the use of single consonants in writing to represent the long (doubled) consonants in the language, the number of geminates recorded in the Corpus is correspondingly less. (The basic consonant of the geminates not occurring in the original inscriptions is shown within brackets. e.g., *u(p)pu* for *upu* 'salt'.) See section 6.17 for discussion.

c27.s6.t2.18

7.5.2.6 *Homorganic nasals plus stops

c27.s6.t2.19

All the six possible clusters of homorganic nasals with stops can occur (*Tol. Eḻu.* 25):

c27.s6.t2.20

*-ṅk- -ñc- -ṇṭ- -nt- -mp- -ṉṟ*

c27.s6.t2.21

All of them occur in the Corpus. However, *-ṅk-* occurs in the Corpus only in sandhi as noted in the example.

c27.s6.t2.22

| | *-a* | *-ā* | *-i* | *-ī* | *-u* | *-ū* | *-e* | *-ē* | *-ai* | *-o* | *-ō* |
| *k-* | *ka* | *kā* | *ki* | *kī* | *ku* | *kū* | – | *kē* | *kai* | *ko* | *kō* |
| *ṅ-* | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| *c-* | *ca* | *cā* | *ci* | *cī* | *cu* | – | *ce* | *cē* | *cai* | – | – |
| *ñ-* | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| *ṭ-* | *ṭa* | *ṭā* | *ṭi* | – | *ṭu* | *ṭū* | – | – | *ṭai* | – | – |
| *ṇ-* | *ṇa* | *ṇā* | *ṇi* | – | – | – | – | – | *ṇai* | – | – |
| *t-* | *ta* | *tā* | *ti* | – | *tu* | – | *te* | *tē* | *tai* | *to* | *tō* |
| *n-* | *na* | *nā* | *ni* | *nī* | *nu* | *nū* | *ne* | – | – | – | *nō* |
| *p-* | *pa* | *pā* | *pi* | – | *pu* | *pū* | *pe* | *pē* | – | *po* | *pō* |
| *m-* | *ma* | *mā* | *mi* | – | *mu* | *mū* | – | *mē* | – | – | *mō* |
| *y-* | *ya* | *yā* | *yi* | – | *yu* | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| *r-* | *ra* | *rā* | *ri* | – | *ru* | *rū* | – | – | *rai* | – | – |
| *l-* | *la* | *lā* | *li* | – | – | – | – | – | *lai* | – | – |
| *v-* | *va* | *vā* | *vi* | – | *vu* | – | *ve* | *vē* | *vai* | – | *vō* |
| *ḻ-* | *ḻa* | *ḻā* | *ḻi* | – | *ḻu* | – | – | – | *ḻai* | – | – |
| *ḷ-* | *ḷa* | *ḷā* | *ḷi* | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| *ṟ-* | *ṟa* | – | *ṟi* | – | *ṟu* | *ṟū* | – | – | *ṟai* | – | – |
| *ṉ-* | *ṉa* | *ṉā* | *ṉi* | – | – | *ṉū* | – | – | *ṉai* | – | – |

c27.s6.t2.23

Table 7.2. Distribution of consonant-vowels in the Early Tamil inscriptions in the Corpus.

c27.s6.t2.24

7.5.2.7 *Other consonantal clusters

c27.s6.t2.25

64 other clusters of two consonants each (other than geminates and homorganic nasal-stop clusters) can also occur (*Tol. Eḻu.* 23, 24, 26-29).

c27.s6.t2.26

Only 14 of these clusters are attested in the Corpus as noted in Table 7.1 and the examples thereunder. However, excepting **-yk-**, **-yt-**, **-lk-**, **-lv-** and **-ṉk-**, the rest occur in the Corpus only in the exceptional circumstances noted in the examples.

c27.s6.t2.27

Further, 2 clusters viz., **-yl** and **-lm-** not mentioned in *Tol.* occur in the Corpus. However, these clusters occur only in the exceptional circumstances noted in the examples.

c27.s6.t2.28

7.5.2.8 *Clusters of three consonants

c27.s6.t2.29

24 clusters of three consonants each can occur (*Tol. Eḻu.* 48).

c27.s6.t2.30

None of these is attested in the Corpus. However, **-ycc-** can be reconstructed in ***āycayaṉ*** (***āycca*** + ***ayyaṉ***) 'part of a personal name'.

7.6 Distribution of consonant-vowels

7.6.1 In the Corpus

c27.s7.t1.1

The Tamil script is an alpha-syllabic writing system in which not only vowels and consonants but also consonant-vowels (*uyirmey*), open syllables of the CV type, are graphically represented as single letters (*Tol. Eḻu.* 17-18). In theory, 216 consonant-vowels are possible by the combination of 18 consonants with 12 vowels. However, the actual number is less as some of the combinations do not occur in the language.

c27.s7.t1.2

101 consonant-vowels are attested in the Corpus out of a possible total of 198 (combinations of 18 consonants with 11 vowels). The distribution of consonant-vowels in the Corpus is summarised in Table 7.2.

7.6.2 Comparison with Tolkāppiyam

c27.s7.t2.1

7.6.2.1 *Initial

c27.s7.t2.2

(i) The 5 consonants *k t n p* and *m* may be followed by any of the 12 vowels initially (*Tol. Eḻu.* 61).

c27.s7.t2.3

Only 36 out of these 60 consonant-vowels occur initially in the Corpus (See Etymological Index: Dravidian in Appendix IV). The smaller number appears to be due to the limited size of the Corpus, apart from the absence of the vowel *au*.

c27.s7.t2.4

(ii) *ca*, *cai* and *cau* do not occur initially (*Tol. Eḻu.* 62).

c27.s7.t2.5

The following exceptions are found in the Corpus:

c27.s7.t2.6

***caṭikaṉ*** 'a personal name' (2.7.b, 2.9). The name is not attested elsewhere.

c27.s7.t2.7

***caliyaṉ*** 'part of a personal name' as in ***neṭiñ-caliyaṉ*** (2.5) and ***neṭuñ-caliyaṉ*** '(1.5). The corresponding LT form is ***ceḻiyaṉ***.

c27.s7.t2.8

*cam*- 'good, beautiful' as in *cam-pokal* (105.1) and *cam-poykai-pēṭu* (101.1)' place names'. The corresponding LT form *cem*- also occurs as in *ceṅkāyapaṉ* (61.4), *ceṅkuviraṉ* (22.1) and *cēntaṉṟaṉ* (109.1) 'personal names'.

c27.s7.t2.9

*caiy-aḷaṉ* (*caiyaḷaṉ*) 'a personal name' (57.2), probably a loanword. See Commentary for discussion.

c27.s7.t2.10

(iii) *ñ*- occurs initially only with *-ā* *-e* and *-o* (*Tol. Eḻu.* 64).

c27.s7.t2.11

*ñ*- does not occur word-initially in the Corpus. However, *nāḷal* 'place named after a flowering tree' (77.1) is a variant of LT *ñāḻal* (-*ḷ* error for -*l*).

c27.s7.t2.12

(iv) *y*- can occur initially only with *-ā* (*Tol. Eḻu*.65).

c27.s7.t2.13

This restriction is observed in the Corpus. Cf. *yāṟṟu* (62.3) and *yāṟṟūr* (61.3) 'place names'.

c27.s7.t2.14

(v) *v*- does not occur initially with *-u* *-ū* *-o* and *-ō* (*Tol. Eḻu.* 63).

c27.s7.t2.15

There are no examples to the contrary in the Corpus.

c27.s7.t2.16

7.6.2.2 Final

c27.s7.t2.17

(i) No consonant-vowel ending in *-e* or *-o* can occur finally except *-no* (*Tol. Eḻu.* 71-72).

c27.s7.t2.18

(ii) -*ñē* / -*ñō* and -*nu*/-*nū* do not occur finally (*Tol. Eḻu.* 73-74).

c27.s7.t2.19

There are no examples to the contrary in the Corpus except *kaccavanu*'a personal name' (119.2.a) in an Early Vaṭṭeḻuttu inscription where -*nu* is an error for -*ṉu*.

c27.s7.t2.20

(iii) -*vu* / -*vū* do not occur finally (*Tol. Eḻu.* 74).

c27.s7.t2.21

There are no examples to the contrary in the Corpus. -*u* is added directly to the stems without the glide -*v*- in *piṇa-u* 'cleft (cave)' (3.8) and *muḻa-u-kai*'cave' (17.3.b).

c27.s7.t2.22

(iv) -*cu* occurs finally only in 2 words (*Tol. Eḻu.* 75), which are identified as *ucu* and *mucu* in the commentaries.

c27.s7.t2.23

-*cu* occurs word-finally in the Corpus once in *par-acu* (*paracu*) 'a personal name' (9.2), probably derived from *paracu* 'to praise'. See Commentary for discussion.

c27.s7.t2.24

(v) -*pu* occurs finally in only one word with active or causative meaning (*Tol. Eḻu.* 76).

c27.s7.t2.25

The commentators identify the word as *tapu* 'to die, destroy'. From the examples in the commentaries, it appears that the rule relates only to words of more than one syllable and ending in short -*u*.

c27.s7.t2.26

The common word *u(p)pu*'salt' (39.1.a) occurs in the Corpus. This word is monosyllabic, ending in the shortened -*u* and hence presumably does not contradict the rule in *Tolkāppiyam*.

7.7 Sound variations

c27.s8.1

The same words are sometimes written differently when compared with the corresponding words in Literary Tamil and also within the Corpus itself. These differences may be due to dialectal or regional variations or evolution over a period of time or different environments of the sounds in the texts or merely scribal errors. The sound variations found in the Corpus are listed below. (Sound variations in loanwords caused by adaptation to the Tamil phonetic pattern have been discussed in section 6.21.)

7.7.1 Vowels

c27.s8.t1.1

| Variation | LT | Corpus | Ref. No. |
| *a ~ ā* | *vaṇikaṉ* | *vaṇikaṉ* | 43.1.b, 46.2.b |
| | *vāṇikaṉ* | *vāṇikaṉ* | 39.1.b, 42.1.b, 69.2.b |
| *a ~ i* | *atikaṉ* | *kāḷ=itikaṉ* | 3.6.b |
| | | (*i*- error for *a*-) | |
| *a ~ u* | *atta-* | *attuvāyi* | 60.6.a |
| | | (-*u* error for -*a*) | |
| *ā ~ a* | *atiṭṭāṉam* | *atiṭ-aṇam* | 49.8 |
| | | (-*a* error for -*ā*) | |
| *i ~ a* | *atiṭṭāṉam* | *ataṭ-aṇam* | 50.3 |
| | | (-*a*- error for -*i*-; -*a* error for-*ā*) | |
| *i ~ u* | *kumiḻ* | *kumuḻ* | 49.2.a |
| *i ~ e* | *iṭai* | *eḷai* | 34.1.a |
| | *iḷa-* | *iḷa-* | 2.7.a, 17.1.a, 49.6, 61.11.a, 61.12.a, 62.11.c, 62.12.a, 67.1.c, 76.1.a |
| | | *eḷa* | 43.2.a, 46.3.a, 56.5.a |
| *i ~ iy* | | *ar-itaṉ* (*aritaṉ*) | 8.2 |
| | | *ar-iytaṉ* (*ariytaṉ*) | 18.2 |
| | | *ariti* | 34.2 |
| | | *ariyti* | 25.1.b |
| *i ~ y* | | *cē-i-ya* | 2.10 |
| | | *cē-y-a* | 31.2 |

c27.s8.t1.2

| Variation | LT | Corpus | Ref. No. |
| ~ i | *īḻa-* | *iḻa-* (*i-* error for *ī-*) | 55.2.a |
| | *vīra-* | *vira-* (-*i-* error for *-ī-*) | 79.1.c, 81.2.b |
| u ~ i | *maturai* | *matira* | 27.1 |
| | | *matiray* | 36.1 |
| | | *matirai* | 24.2 |
| | | *mattirai* (-*tt-* error for *-t-*) | 38.1 |
| | *ācu* | *āci* | 73.6 |
| u ~ o | *pukal* | *pokal* | 105.1.b |
| | *pukaḻ* | *pokaḻ* | 83.1.b |
| u ~ u | *ūr* | *ūr* | 13.1.b, 19.2, 30.1.b, 34.1.b, 35.1.c, 49.2.b, 56.1.c, 57.1.b, 61.3.b, 63.1.b, 63.3.b, 65.1.b, 66.1.b, 69.1.b, 73.2.b, 74.1.b, 76.3.b, 84.1.c |
| | | *ur* (*u-* error for *ū-*) | 55.1.c, 121.1.b |
| | | *uru* (*u-* error for *ū-*) | 112.1.b |
| e ~ a | *cem-* | *cem-* | 22.1.a, 61.4.a, 62.4.a, 63.2.a, 109.1.a, 110.1.a |
| | | *cam-* | 101.1.a, 105.1.a |
| | *kevi* | *kavi* | 57.3 |
| ey ~ e | *cey* | *cey* | 49.7, 55.4 |
| | | *cē* | 2.10, 18.3, 31.2, 35.3 |
| ai ~ a | *aṇai* | *aṇa* | 120.2. b |
| | *amai* | *ama* | 48.6 |
| | *ittai* | *itta* | 13.3 |
| | *kuṟai* | *kuṟa* | 11.1 |
| | *matirai* | *matira* | 27.1 |
| ai ~ i | *ārāttaṉai* | *ārātaṇi* | 115.6 |
| ai ~ e | *vai* | *vai(k)ka* | 16.2 |
| | | *ve(p)pōṉ* | 13.4 |

c27.s8.t1.3

| Variation | LT | Corpus | Ref. No. |
| *ai* ~ *ay* | -(a)ntai | *antai* | 3.7.a, 20.1.a, 25.1.a, 26.1.a, 27.2.a, 28.1.a, 29.1.b, 31.1.b, 32.1.b, 66.2.b, 67.1.b |
| | | (a)*ntay* | 77.2.b |
| | *aiyaṉ* | *aiyaṉ* | 55.3.b |
| | *ayyaṉ* | *a(y)yaṉ* | 55.5.b |
| | *matirai* | *matirai* | 24.2 |
| | | *matiray* | 36.1 |
| | *iḷaiyar* | *iḷayar* | 49.6 |
| *o* ~ *u* | *koṭu* | *koṭu* | 3.9, 5.2, 7.4, 10.4, 11.2, 15.2, 44.3, 53.2 |
| | | *kuṭu* | 14.2, 45.4 |
| | *poṟai* | *-poṟai* | 61.7.d |
| | | *-puṟai* | 62.7.d |

7.7.2 Consonants

c27.s8.t2.1

| *k* ~ Ø | *makaṉ* | *makaṉ* | 20.2, 40.4, 56.5.b, 61.8, 61.10, 62.8, 62.10, 72.2, 84.3, 88.5 |
| | *-māṉ* | *-mān* (*-n* error for *-ṉ*) | 59.2.c |
| | | *-māṉ* | 73.1.b |
| *ñ* ~ *n* | *ñāḻal*, *nāḻal* | *nāḷaḷ* (*-ḷ* error for *-l*) | 77.1 |
| *ṭ* ~ *ḷ* | *iṭai* | *eḷai* | 34.1.a |
| | *kaṭu-* | *kaṭu-* | 61.9.b, 61.11.b, 62.9.b, 62.11.a, 62.11.d, 80.1.a |
| | | *kaḷu-* | 44.1.a |
| *n* ~ *ṇ* | *nanti* | *nanti* | 116.4.b |
| | | *ṇaṇti* (*n-* due to Pkt. influence) | 115.3.b |

c27.s8.t2.2

| Variation | LT | Corpus | Ref. No. |
| | *nākaṉ* | *nāka-* | 56.1.a |
| | | *nākaṉ* | 48.2 |
| | | *ṇākaṉ* (*ṇ-* due to | |
| | | Pkt. influence) | 72.1 |
| *n* ~ *ṇ* | *nākaṉ* | *ṇākaṉ* (*ṇ-* error for *n-*) | 37.1 |
| *p* ~ *v* | *ipam* | *iva-* | 60.1.a |
| *y* ~ *i* | | *kaṇi-y* | 1.1, 2.1, 4.1 |
| | | *kaṇi-i* | 3.1 |
| | | *pa(!)ḷi-y* | 2.11, 15.1, 52.4, 77.3 |
| | | *pa(!)ḷi-i* | 10.5, 46.1.b |
| *y* ~ *iy* | | *pa(!)ḷi-y* | 2.11, 15.1, 52.4, 77.3 |
| | | *pa(!)ḷi-iy* | 1.9 |
| | | | |
| *y* ~ *yi* | *cey* | *cey* | 49.7, 55.4 |
| | | *ceyi* | 65.5, 73.7, 76.6, 83.5 |
| | | *siri-y* | 2.2.b, 3.2.b |
| | | *siri-y-i* | 1.2.b |
| *ya* ~ *yi* | | *kāyapaṉ* | 61.4.b, 62.4.b, 63.2.b |
| | | *kāyipaṉ* | 60.7.b, 76.1.b |
| *yi* ~ *iy* | *eyil* | *e-iyl* (*-iy-* error for *-yi-*) | 18.1 |
| *yi* ~ *y* | | *kāyvaṉ* (*-y-* error for *-yi-*) | 104.2 |
| | | | |
| *vi* ~ *pi* | *koṭṭuvitta* | *koṭṭupitta-a* | 1.8 |
| | | *koṭṭupi(t)tōṉ* | 8.3, 9.4 |
| | *ceyvitta* | *ceyipi(t)ta* | 65.5 |
| | | *ceyivitta* | 83.5 |
| | | *cēvi(t)t-ōṉ* | 18.3 |
| *ṉ* ~ *n* | *atiyaṉ neṭumāṉ* | *atiyan neṭumān* | 59.2.a-c |
| | *veṉ* | *ven* | 20.3 |

c27.s8.t2.3

The use of the dental *n* for the alveolar *ṉ* is one of the commonest errors in inscriptional Tamil. See A. Velu Pillai (1976: pp. 11-12, p. 24, n. 5) for examples from early medieval inscriptions and for discussion. It is interesting that the falling together of *n* and *ṉ* had started even in the Early Tamil-Brāhmī inscriptions as attested by 20.3.

7.8 Some phonological processes

7.8.1 Addition of paragogic suffixes (-y ~ -i, -iy, -yi) to noun-stems ending with -i or -ai

c27.s9.t1.1

The addition of *-i* or *-y* at the end of words is provided for in *Tolkāppiyam* (*Eḻu*. 58). While the traditional example that *nāy* 'dog' may be written as *nā i* or *nāyi* is not supported by literary evidence, there is inscriptional evidence for the addition of the paragogic suffixes *-i* or *-y* after nouns ending in *-i* or *-ai*. This seems to be the true import of the rule cited above.

c27.s9.t1.2

| LT | Corpus | Ref. No. |
| **7.8.1.1 *-y after stems ending in -i*** | | |
| *kaṇi* | *kaṇi-y* | 1.1, 2.1, 4.1 |
| *kevi* | *kavi-y* | 57.3 |
| | *natti-y* | 4.2 |
| *paḷḷi* | *pa(ḷ)ḷi-y* | 2.11, 15.1, 52.4, 77.3 |
| *vaḷuti* | *vaḷutti-y* | 1.7.b |
| | *siri-y* | 2.2.b, 3.2.b |
| **7.8.1.2 *-y after stems ending in -ai*** | | |
| | *atai-y* | 56.2 |
| *-(a)ntai* | *antai-y* | 20.1.a |
| *uṟai* | *uṟai-y* | 61.5, 62.5 |
| *tantai* | *tantai-y* | 2.8 |
| *malai* | *malai-y* | 85.3.a |
| *veḷḷaṟai* | *veḷ-aṟai-y* | 3.3 |
| **7.8.1.3 *-i after stems ending in -i*** | | |
| *kaṇi* | *kaṇi-i* | 3.1 |
| | *kavuṭi-i* | 49.4 |
| | *tāra-aṇi-i* | 44.2 |
| *paḷḷi* | *pa(ḷ)ḷi-i* | 10.5, 89.4 |
| | *veṇ-pa(ḷ)ḷi-i* | 46.1 |
| **7.8.1.4 *-iy after stems ending in -i*** | | |
| *kāviti* | *kāviti-iy* | 3.5 |
| | *nelveḷi-iy* | 7.1 |
| *paḷḷi* | *paḷ(! )i-iy* | 1.9 |

c27.s9.t1.3

| LT | Corpus | Ref. No. |
| **7.8.1.5** *-y-i after stems ending in -i* | | |
| | *siri-y-i* | 1.2.b |
| **7.8.2** *Addition of the euphonic vowel -u to stems ending in liquid consonants* | | |
| **7.8.2.1** *After noun-stems* | | |
| *āciriyar* | *ācirikaru* | 116.5 |
| *erukkāṭṭūr* | *ekkāṭṭūru* | 117.1 |
| | *eru(k)kā(ṭ)ṭu-ūru* | 52.1 |
| | *kaccavanu* | 119.2.a |
| | *tāyiyaru* | 83.3 |
| *mukaiyūr* | *mukaiyuru* | 112.1 |
| **7.8.2.2** *After verb-stems* | | |
| *ār* | *āru* | 114.2.b |
| *puṇar* | *puṇaru-* | 85.2 |
| **7.8.3** *Addition of the prothetic vowel i- before a loanword commencing with a liquid consonant* | | |
| *irācar* (< Skt. *rāja-*) | *irācar* | 111.1 |
| **7.8.4** *Contraction* | | |
| *pem-* (< *perum-*) as in *pemmāṉ* | *pentōṭaṉ* (*pem*+ *tōṭaṉ*) | 102.1 |
| *erukkāṭṭūr* | *ekkāṭṭūru* (*eru-k-* > *ek-*) (cf. *eru(k)kā(ṭ)ṭu-ūru*) | 117.1 |
| **7.8.5** *Loss of initial palatal c-* | | |
| *camaṇa-* (< Pkt. *samaṇa*) | *amaṇaṉ* | 24.1 |
| | *amaṇṇaṉ* | 61.2, 62.2 |
| **7.8.6** *Elision of nasal n* | | |
| *-(a)ntai* | *atai* | 30.2, 56.2 |
| *nantaṉ* | *nataṉ* | 17.1.b, 44.1.c, 48.4 |
| | *nata-* | 3.2.a |
| **7.8.7** *Elision of nasal n with doubling of the succeeding consonant* | | |
| *nanti* | *natti* | 4.2, 69.3 |
| **7.8.8** *Elision of nasal ṉ (probably with nasalisation of the previous vowel)* | | |
| *ceytāṉ* | *ceytā*[ṉ*] | 55.4 |

II. Morphophonemics

7.9 Definition

c27.s11.1

Morphophonemics is the study of changes which occur in the process of joining morphemes in a word or words in a sentence, known respectively as internal and external sandhi (*puṇarcci*). In this study, both categories are treated together as the rules governing them are virtually the same. However, while internal sandhi occurs from the earliest inscriptions, cases of external sandhi tend to occur more in the later inscriptions. (Citations from the Corpus, for which meanings are not given, refer to personal or place names.)

7.10 Sandhi without change

c27.s12.1

Sandhi may take place without any change. This is known as 'natural sandhi' (*iyalpu-p-puṇarcci*) in traditional grammar. In the Corpus, sandhi without change occurs mostly at the junction of a stem-final vowel followed by a consonant (nasal or liquid) as illustrated below.

c27.s12.2

| *aṟuvai-vaṇikaṉ* | 'cloth merchant' | 46.2.a-b |
| *iḷanataṉ* | | 17.1.a-b |
| *u(p)pu-vāṇikaṉ* | 'salt merchant' | 39.1.a-b |
| *eṇṇai-vāṇṇikaṉ* (- *vāṇikaṉ*) | 'oil merchant' | 70.1.a-c |
| *erumināṭu* | | 49.1.a-b |
| *eḷamakaṉ* | 'a clan name' | 56.5.a-b |
| *kaṇimāṉ* | | 73.1.a-b |
| *koḷu-vaṇikaṉ* | 'ironmonger' | 43.1.a-b |
| *ciṟuceṇṇaṉ* | | 106.1.a-b |
| *neṭuma(l)laṉ* | | 42.2.a-b |
| *poṉ-vāṇikaṉ* | 'gold merchant' | 69.2.a-b |

7.11 Sandhi of consonant and vowel

c27.s13.1

When a final consonant is followed by a vowel, they join to form the corresponding consonant-vowel (*uyirmey*). This process is also called natural sandhi (*iyalpu-p-puṇarcci*) in traditional grammar.

c27.s13.2

| *ūratai-(ūr+ atai)* | 'the *a(n)tai* of the village' | 56.1.c-2 |
| *uraṟam* (*ūr+ aṟam*) | 'charity by the village' | 76.3.b-4 |
| *ēḷur* (*ēḷ* + *ur* (*ūr*)) | | 121.1.a-b |
| *o(p)paṇa(p)pa-(oppaṉ* + *appa-)* | | 79.1.a-b |
| *kāḷitika-(kāḷ* + *itika* (*-atika-*)) | 'superintendent of pearls' | 3.6.a-b |

c27.s13.3

*tēṉūr* (*tēṉ* + *ūr*) 73.2.a-b

c27.s13.4

*nīraṇa-* (*nīr* + *aṇa-*) 'dam across the river' 120.2.a-b

c27.s13.5

*māṇākkarārātaṇi* (*māṇākkar* + *ārātaṇi*)

c27.s13.6

'penance of fast by the disciple' 115.5-6

c27.s13.7

*Exceptions*

c27.s13.8

There are many exceptions to the above rule in the Corpus due to the orthographic style of writing separately words and suffixes commencing with a vowel. The following list of exceptions is confined to 'inscriptional words' (as listed in the Inscriptional Glossary) including composite names, noun phrases, compound verbs, etc. There are more exceptions if a sentence is taken as the unit.

7.11.1 In personal names

c27.s13.t1.1

*ataṉ ataṉ* 36.3.a-b

c27.s13.t1.2

*kaṭal-aṉ* 1.7.a

c27.s13.t1.3

*kuv-aṉ* 1.2.c

c27.s13.t1.4

*cilivaṉ atiṭaṉ* 7.2.a-b

c27.s13.t1.5

*ceṟ-ataṉ-ōṉ* 12.4

c27.s13.t1.6

*neṭumān* (*-māṉ*) *añci* 59.2.c-d

7.11.2 In place names

c27.s13.t2.1

*akaḻ-ūr* 76.3.a-b

c27.s13.t2.2

*eḻai-y-ūr* 34.1.a-b

c27.s13.t2.3

*kumuḷ-ūr* 49.2.a-b

c27.s13.t2.4

*tāvaṉ-ūr* 63.3.a-b

c27.s13.t2.5

*nalli-y-ūr* 66.1.a-b

c27.s13.t2.6

*patiṉ-ūr* 30.1.a-b

c27.s13.t2.7

*pākaṉ-ūr* 13.1.a-b

c27.s13.t2.8

*veḷ-aṟai* 6.1.a-b

c27.s13.t2.9

*vēmpiṟ-ūr* 35.1.b-c

7.12 Mutation of initial stem in sandhi

c27.s14.1

When the adjectival stem *peru-* is followed by a vowel, the final -u is elided with compensatory lengthening of the included vowel in the preceding syllable.

c27.s14.2

| *pērataṉ* (*peru* > *pēr* + *ataṉ*) | | 13.2.a-b |
| *pēr-ay-am* (*peru* > *pēr* + *ayam*) | 'large tank' | 35.2.a-b |
| *pērūr* (*peru* > *pēr* + *ūr*) | | 56.1.b-c |

7.13 Changes in sandhi

c27.s15.1

The changes which take place in sandhi involving the final sound of the preceding part and the initial sound of the succeeding part (*vikāra-p-puṇarcci*) may be studied under the following heads :

c27.s15.2

(1) Assimilation (*tirital*)

(2) Addition (*tōṉṟal*)

(3) Elision (*keṭutal*)

7.14 Assimilation

7.14.1 Regressive assimilation (of the preceding to the succeeding consonant)

c27.s16.t1.1

7.14.1.1 *nasal* + *stop

c27.s16.t1.2

| *m* + *k* > -*ṅk*- | [*i*^\*]!*aṅkaṭuṅkō* (*iḷam* + *kaṭum* + *kō*) | 61.11.a-b-c |
| | *iḷaṅkāyipaṉ* (*iḷam* + *kāyipaṉ*) | 76.1.a-b |
| | [*i*^\*]!*aṅkō* (*iḷam* + *kō*) 'heir apparent' | 61.12.a-b |
| | *kaṭuṅkōṉ* (*kaṭum* + *kōṉ*) | 62.11.a-b |
| | *ceṅkāyapaṉ* (*cem* + *kāyapaṉ*) | 61.4.a-b |
| | *ceṅkuviraṉ* (*cem* + *kuviraṉ*) | 22.1.a-b |
| | *peruṅkaṭuṅkōṉ* (*perum* + *kaṭum* + *kōṉ*) | 61.9.a-b-c |
| | *peruṅkīraṉ* (*perum* + *kīraṉ*) | 72.3.a-b |
| | *peruṅkūṟṟaṉ* (*perum* + *kūṟṟaṉ*) | 88.6.a-b |
| | *veṅkōmalai* (*vem* + *kō* + *malai*) | 119.1.a-b |
| *m* + *c* > -*ñc*- | *iḷañcaṭikaṉ* (*iḷam* + *caṭikaṉ*) | 2.7. a-b |
| | *neṭiñcaḻiyaṉ* (*neṭim* + *caḻiyaṉ*) | 2.5.a-b |
| | *neṭuñcaḻiyaṉ* (*neṭum* + *caḻiyaṉ*) | 1.5.a-b |
| *m* + *t* > -*nt*- | *centaṇṭaṉ* (*cem* + *taṇṭaṉ*) | 109.1.a-b |
| | *pentōṭaṉ* (*perum* > *pem* + *tōṭaṉ*) | 102.1.a-b |
| | *perunta(c)caṉ* (*perum* + *taccaṉ*) 'master mason' | 117.3.a-b |

c27.s16.t1.3

† *m* + *p* > *-mp-* *aimpattēḻ-* (*aim* + *pattu* + *ēḻ*) 'fifty-seven' 116.1.a-b *irumpoṟai* (*irum* + *poṟai*) 61.7.c-d *campokal* (*cam* + *pokal*) 105.1.a-b *campoykaipēṭu* (*cam* + *poykai* + *pēṭu*) 101.1.a-b *perumpokaḷ* (*perum* + *pokaḷ*) 83.1.a-b

c27.s16.t1.4

† Listed here for the reason that *m* is the homorganic nasal for *p*; the items may also be regarded as sandhi without change.

c27.s16.t1.5

*ṉ* + *k* > *-ṟk-* *poṟkoṟṟi* (*poṉ* + *koṟṟi*) 113.3.a-b

c27.s16.t1.6

*ṉ* + *c* > *-ñc-* *mōnalañ-cāttaṉ* (*mōnalaṉ* + *cāttaṉ*) 121.2.a-b

c27.s16.t1.7

This sandhi is also a semantic indicator of father-son relationship (*Tol. Eḻu.* 350). The situation is uncertain when the change does not occur, as in

c27.s16.t1.8

*ātaṉ cāttāṉ* (*cāttaṉ*) 74.2.a-b *tiyaṉ cantaṉ* 47.1.a-b *tēvaṉ cāttaṉ* 85.4.a-b

c27.s16.t1.9

7.14.1.2 *nasal* + *nasal

c27.s16.t1.10

*m* + *n* > *-nn-* *aṇacaṉan-nōṟṟa* (*aṇacaṉam* + *nōṟṟa*) 'who observed the penance of fasting' 116.2-3

c27.s16.t1.11

7.14.1.3 *liquid* + *stop

c27.s16.t1.12

*l* + *c* > *-ṟc-* *mēṟcēri* (*mēl* + *cēri*) 112.2.a-b

c27.s16.t1.13

*ḷ* + *k* > *-ṭk-* *veṇkāsipaṉ* (*veḷ* + *kāsipaṉ*) 14.1.a-b

c27.s16.t1.14

*ḷ* + *p* > *-ṭp-* *veṇpa(!)ḷi* (*veḷ* + *paḷḷi*) 46.1.a-b

c27.s16.t1.15

7.14.1.4 *liquid* + *nasal

c27.s16.t1.16

*ḷ* + *n* > *-ṇṇ-* *eṇṇai* (*eḷ* + *nai* (*ney*)) 'gingily oil' 70.1.a-b

c27.s16.t1.17

*Exceptions*

c27.s16.t1.18

*l* + *k* *kal kañcaṇam* 'a stone structure' 14.3.a-b

c27.s16.t1.19

*l* + *m* *nalmuḷa-ukai* 'auspicious cave' 17.3.a-b

c27.s16.t1.20

*ṉ* + *k* *poṉ-kolvaṉ* 'goldsmith' 36.2.a-b

7.14.2 Progressive assimilation (of the succeeding to the preceding consonant)

c27.s16.t2.1

*nasal* + *nasal*

c27.s16.t2.2

*ṉ* + *n* > *-ṉ-* *pāṉāṭṭu* (*pāṉ* + *nāṭṭu*) 115.2.a-b (In this case there is also elision of the preceding *-ṉ-*. See discussion in the Commentary.)

7.14.3 Mutual assimilation (of preceding and succeeding consonants)

c27.s16.t3.1

*liquid* + *stop*

*l* + *tt* > *-ṟṟ-*
*nōṟṟa* (*nōl* + *tt* + *a*) 'who observed the penance' 116.3
*nōṟṟu* (*nōl* + *tt* + *u*) 'having observed the penance' 115.7
*vēmpiṟ-ūr* (*vēmpil* + *tt* + *ūr*) (-*ṟ*- not doubled in original.) 35.1.b-c

7.15 Addition

7.15.1 Addition of glide -y-

c27.s17.t1.1

The glide *-y-* is inserted between two vowels when the preceding one is a front vowel or the diphthong *-ai*.

c27.s17.t1.2

@ *karu-iya* 'which was carved' 17.2
*karu(k)kiya* 'which was carved' 112.4
*ko(t)tiy-avaṉ* 'he who engraved' 4.3
@ *cē-iya* 'which was made' 2.10
*tāyiyaru* 'mother' (honorific singular) 83.3
† *na(l)li-y-ūr* 65.1.a-b
† *nalli-y-ūr* 66.1.a-b
*uraiyuḷ* '(in) the abode (of ascetics)' 60.2.a-b
† *eḷai-y-ūr* 34.1.a-b
† *mukaiyuru* 112.1.a-b

c27.s17.t1.3

@ In these cases, the glide does not occur after the stem, but occurs after the past tense marker.

c27.s17.t1.4

† In these cases, *-y-* may also be considered as the paragogic suffix added to nouns ending in *-i* or *-ai*.

c27.s17.t1.5

*Exceptions*

c27.s17.t1.6

In the following 2 items, addition of the glide *-y-* is exceptional in the place of the glide *-v-* prescribed by traditional grammar.

c27.s17.t1.7

*iḷayar* 'a clan name' (Cf. LT *iḷaiyar*) 49.6
*mēṟcēriku-y=āṭi* 'having fought for Mēṟcēri' 112.2.b-3
In this case the preceding dative suffix *-ku* was probably pronounced *-ki* being influenced by the front vowel preceding it, leading to the use of the glide *-y-*.

c27.s17.t1.8

There are also cases where the glide *-y-* is absent resulting in a vowel-cluster at the junction.

c27.s17.t1.9

| *(ā)-iṉa* (cf. LT *āyiṉa*) | 'who is' | 41.2 |
| *veṇi* (*veṇṇi*) *ātaṉ* | | 70.2.a-b |
| *ti(ṭ)ṭi-il* | | 33.1.a-b |
| *kā(p)pi-ūr* | | 74.1.a-b |
| *ko(ṭ)ṭi-ōr* | 'they who carved' | 6.3 |
| *cē-iya* | 'which was made' | 2.10 |
| *antai ariyti* | | 25.1. a-b |
| *antai a(s)sutaṉ* | | 3.7.a-b |
| *antai irāvataṉ* | | 26.1.a-b |
| *viṉtai-ūr* | | 57.1.a-b |

7.15.2 Addition of glide -v-

c27.s17.t2.1

The glide *-v-* is inserted between two vowels when the preceding one is a central or back vowel.

c27.s17.t2.2

| *(il)lavōṉ* | | 10.3 |
| [*i*⸮]*ḷavaṉ* | | 67.1.c |
| *iṭtavaṉ* | 'he who gave' | 12.3 |
| *kuṇāviṉ* | 'of Kuṇā ' | 89.1 |
| *ko(ṭ)ṭiy-avaṉ* | 'he who carved' | 4.3 |
| *koṭu(p)pi(t)ta-avaṉ* | 'he who caused to be given' | 44.3 |
| *koṭu(p)pi(t)tavaṉ* | 'he who caused to be given' | 11.2 |
| *cētavar* | 'they who made' | 35.3 |
| *iruvar* | 'two persons' | 48.5 |
| *kōvātāṉ* (*-ātaṉ*) | 'King Ātaṉ' | 82.1-2 |
| [*kō*⸮]*viṉ* | 'of the chief' | 88.4 |

c27.s17.t2.3

*Exceptions*

c27.s17.t2.4

There are also several cases where the glide *-v-* is absent, resulting in a vowel-cluster at the junction.

c27.s17.t2.5

| *eḷa-a* | (attributive form of *eḷa(v)aṉ*) | 46.3.a |
| *paṇa-aṉ* | 'servant' | 1.6 |
| *piṇa-u* | 'cleft (cave) ' | 3.8 |

c27.s17.t2.6

*muḻa-ukai* 'cave' 17.3.b
*avviru-a-ar-um* 'those two persons also' 45.3
*karu-iya* 'which was carved' 17.2
*karu-ūr* 69.1.a-b
*ku-aṉ* 2.2.c

7.15.3 Doubling of the final consonant

c27.s17.t3.1

The final consonant (nasal or liquid) of a monosyllabic stem with a short vowel is doubled (*iraṭṭittal*) when followed by a vowel.

c27.s17.t3.2

*avviru-a-ar-um* (*av* + *iru*-) 'those two persons also' 45.3.a-b
*uḷḷāṟu* (*uḷ* + *āṟu*) 'fitted inside' 114.2.a-b
[*ce*\\*]*llirumpuṟai* (*cel* + *irumpuṟai*) 62.7.b-c
*cellirumpoṟai* (*cel* + *irumpoṟai*) 61.7.b-c

c27.s17.t3.3

*Exceptions*

c27.s17.t3.4

Words are written separately without joining or consequent doubling of the final nasal or liquid consonant of a monosyllabic stem.

c27.s17.t3.5

*veḷ-aṟai* (cf. LT *veḷḷaṟai*) 6.1.a-b
*piṉ-aṉ* (cf. LT *piṉṉaṉ*) 63.4.a

c27.s17.t3.6

Another interesting category of exceptions to this rule is the doubling of the word-final consonant of a stem which is not monosyllabic. Such exceptions are also numerous in later Tamil inscriptions. (see Commentary on 63.4 for discussion and citations).

c27.s17.t3.7

*amaṇṇaṉ* (*amaṇ* + *aṉ*) 'Jaina monk' 61.2
*kaṭummi* (*kaṭum* + *i*) 80.1.a
*kurraṇṇ*-*aṟu*(*p*)*pitta* (*kurraṇ* + *aṟuppitta*) 'caused to be carved by Kurraṉ' 63.4.b-5
*tuṟukayyuḷḷāṟu* (*tuṟukay* + *uḷ* + *āṟu*) 'fitted inside the vent of a sluice' 114.1-2.a

7.15.4 Doubling of the initial consonant

c27.s17.t4.1

The initial consonant (*k*- *c*- *t*-or *p*-) of the succeeding part is doubled in various environments. The rules governing this usage (*mikutal*) in traditional grammar are numerous and rather complex with many exceptions. The actual occurrences in the Corpus are listed below.

c27.s17.t4.2

7.15.4.1 *After a vowel

c27.s17.t4.3

| ***āṭi-kkaru(k)kiya*** | **'engraved after fighting'** | **112.3-4** |
| ***e-kkāṭṭūru-kkōṉ*** | **'chieftain of Ekkāṭṭūru'** | **117.1-2** |
| ***kīḻ (kīl)-ccēri-kkōḻi*** | **'(fighting) cock of Kīḻccēri'** | **113.1.b-2** |
| ***cē-kkanti*** | | **83.2.a-b** |
| ***ti (!) ṭi-kkāttāṉ*** | **'Kāttāṉ of Tiṭṭi'** | **58.1-2** |

c27.s17.t4.4

7.15.4.2 *After a consonant (liquid)

c27.s17.t4.5

| ***kīḻ (kīl)-ccēri*** | | **113.1.a-b** |
| ***tāvaṇ-ūr-ppiṇ-aṇ-*** | **'Piṇṇaṇ- of Tāvaṇūr'** | **63.3.b-4.a** |

c27.s17.t4.6

7.15.4.3 *Exceptional doubling

c27.s17.t4.7

| ***kuṟu-mmakaḷ* (cf. LT *kuṟumakaḷ*)** | **'young daughter'** | **65.3. a-b** |

c27.s17.t4.8

Alternatively, this may be regarded as two words *kuṟum makaḷ* in sandhi without change.

c27.s17.t4.9

*Exceptions*

c27.s17.t4.10

In the following cases the initial consonant (*k-* *c-* *t-* or *p-*) of the succeeding part is not doubled.

c27.s17.t4.11

| ***kāviti-kōṉ*** | **'chief *kāviti*'** | **52.2.a-b** |
| ***campoykaipēṭu*** | | **101.1.b-c** |
| ***teṇku-ciṟupocil*** | | **49.5.a-b** |
| ***nākapērūr*** | | **56.1.a-b** |
| ***paṇaiturai*** | | **50.1.a-b** |
| ***pētalai*** | | **21.1.a-b** |
| ***mattiraikē*** | **'of Matirai'** | **38.1** |
| ***mācakōṭu*** | | **120.1.a-b** |
| ***mēṟcēriku*** | **'for Mēṟcēri'** | **112.2.b** |

c27.s17.t4.12

7.15.4.4 *Addition of -m- > -ṅ- in sandhi

c27.s17.t4.13

| ***pāṅkā(ṭ)ṭa* (*pā* + *m* + *kāṭu* + *a*)** | **'of Pāṅkāṭu'** | **8.1.a-b** |

7.16 Elision

7.16.1 Elision of a stem-final vowel before a succeeding vowel

c27.s18.t1.1

| ***kaṇatikaṉ* (*kaṇa* + *atikaṉ*)** | **'chief of scribes'** | **40.1.a-b** |
| ***sa(p)pami(t)tā-iṉa* (*sappamittā* + *ā-iṉa*)** | | |
| | **'who is Sappamittā'** | **41.1.b-2** |

c27.s18.t1.2

*cēkkantaṇṇi* (*cēkkanti* + *aṇṇi*) 83.4.b-c

c27.s18.t1.3

*toṇṭi*(l)*lavōṉ* (*toṇṭi* + *illavōṉ*) 'Illavōṉ of Toṇṭi ' 10.2-3

c27.s18.t1.4

*aritiṉ* (*ariti* + *iṉ*) 'of Ariti ' 34.2

c27.s18.t1.5

In the following exceptional case the succeeding vowel is elided: *mūtāmaṇṇaṉ* (*mūtā* + *amaṇṇaṉ*) 'the senior Jaina monk' 62.1-2

7.16.2 Elision of the stem-final shortened -u before a vowel

c27.s18.t2.1

*aimpattēḷaṇacaṇa*(m)(*aimpattēḷu*+ *aṇacaṇam*) 'fasting for fifty-seven (days) ' 116.1.c-2

c27.s18.t2.2

*kuv-aṅkē* (*kuvaṅku* + *ē*) 'to Kuvaṇ' 1.2.c

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