A Comparative Grammar of the Modern Aryan Languages of India v2.c12: Errata
A Comparative Grammar of the Modern Aryan Languages of India v2.c12
- Language
- English
Contents
- v2.c12.1407 — 3 parts
- v2.c12.s1 I. Near Demonstrative—"this" — 1 part
- v2.c12.s2 II. Far Demonstrative—"that" — 94 parts
- v2.c12.s3 I. The Near Demonstrative—Type इ — 1 part
- v2.c12.s4 II. The Far Demonstrative—Type उ — 2 parts
- v2.c12.s5 III. The Relative—Type ज — 1 part
- v2.c12.s6 IV. The Correlative—Type त — 3 parts
- v2.c12.s7 V. The Interrogative—Type क — 34 parts
Errata
v2.c12.1
Page 11, line 7, for *nadâ* read *nadá*, i.e. the mark on the final *a* is the accent, not the long vowel; and so in the six words which follow. Page 25, line 21, for तुहीनाम read तुही नाम. Page 26, line 14, for हिवं read हिव. Page 30, line 5, for मांड read भाडें. Page 39, line 6, for माम read माम्. Page 53, line 10, for चंडना read छंडना. Page 53, line 11, for चोडना read छोडना. Page 58, line 27, for *jâjarú* read *jágarú*. Page 65, line 23, for घुजाना read घुलाना. Page 70, line 8, for बिछामा read बिछाना. Page 70, line 14, *dele* “a” after “with.” Page 70, line 19, for आमण read आमणी. Page 78, line 9, for B. read Pr. Page 81, line 3 from bottom, for derivatives read desideratives. Page 83, line 1, for *gaurâsâ* read *gaṇrâsâ*. Page 93, line 8, for क्रतालु read कृपालु. Page 95, line 20, for चठै read चढै. Page 100, line 19, for *quarrel* read *quarrelsome*. Page 113, line 18, for *it* read *them*. Page 122, line 7, transfer the comma from after ‘mute’ to after ‘consonant.’ Page 128, line 5, for लमतंगा read लमतंगा. Page 128, line 5, for तंगा read टंग. Page 128, line 20, for लांबटांग्या read लामटांग्या. Page 128, line 20, for तांग read टांग. Page 132, line 17, in “so-much-used” *dele* the first hyphen.
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Page 141, line 3, for “fifty-three” read “fifty-five.”
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Page 150, line 1, for घोड़ं read घोड़ें.
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Page 154, line 1, after ‘except’ insert M.
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Page 161, line 17, for झझू read जझू.
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Page 179, line 22, for *future* read *past*.
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Page 201, line 7, for इंद्रराज read इंद्रराज.
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Page 201, line 7, for फिरिङ्गी read फिरिङ्गी.
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Page 201, line 4 from bottom, for *these* read *those*.
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Page 202, line 23, for इडांओ read इडांओ.
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Page 212, line 11, for काली read कालि॥
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Page 219, line 8, for द्व्यान read द्व्यान.
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Page 254, line 3 from bottom, for साथ read हाथ.
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Page 267, line 13, for दुह read दह.
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Page 269, line 6, for नही read नही.
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Page 275, line 13, for युद्ध read युध.
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Page 275, line 20, for जारी read जोरी.
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Page 293, line 18, for *termination* read *combination*.
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Page 293, line 3 from bottom, for सझार read मझार.
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Page 295, line 23, for हत्ती read हत्तींत.
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Page 297, line 22, for तीचे read पीचे.
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Page 316, line 4, for महियै read गहियै.
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Page 332, line 11, for *you* read *yore*.
v2.c12.25
MODERN ARYAN LANGUAGES OF INDIA.
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FORMATION OF THE STEM.
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CONTENTS.—§ 1. STRUCTURE OF THE NOUN.—§ 2. SUFFIXES.—§ 3. STEMS IN -A.—§ 4. ADJECTIVES FORMED FROM A-STEMS.—§ 5. EXCEPTIONS.—§ 6. STEMS IN -NA, AND -ANA.—§ 7. STEMS IN -A PRECEDED BY A SEMIVOWEL.—§ 8. STEMS IN -MA.—§ 9. THE KA-SUFFIX AND ITS RAMIFICATIONS.—§ 10. STEMS IN -TRA.—§ 11. TREATMENT OF FEMININE STEMS IN -A.—§ 12. GROUP OF STEMS IN THE PALATAL AND LABIAL SHORT VOWELS.—§ 13. THE LONG VOWELS OF THOSE ORGANS.—§ 14. STEMS IN R.—§ 15. DISSYLLABIC AND CONSONANTAL SUFFIXES.—§ 16. STEMS OF UNCERTAIN ORIGIN OR PARTIAL APPLICATION.—§ 17. SECONDARY STEMS.—FORMATION OF ABSTRACT NOUNS.—§§ 18, 19.—THE SAME—POSSESSIVES AND ATTRIBUTIVES.—§§ 20-22. THE SAME.—§ 23. STEMS WITH DOUBLE SUFFIXES.—§ 24. FORMATION OF DIMINUTIVES.—§ 25. COMPOUND NOUNS.—§ 26. NUMERALS—CARDINALS.—§ 27. NUMERALS—ORDINALS.—§ 28. OTHER NUMERALS.
v2.c12.28
§ 1. NOUNS are divided into two classes: those which name objects, and are called appellatives, or in the older phraseology *substantives*; and those which describe the qualities of objects, and are called attributives, or in the older phraseology *adjectives*. Both classes will be considered in this Chapter.
v2.c12.29
The noun as employed in Sanskrit contains three divisions—the root, the suffix, and the termination; the root and suffix taken together constitute the stem, the whole three combined form the perfect noun fitted for use in speaking or writing.
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Thus *naras*, "a man," consists of three parts, *nar* + *a* + *s*, where *nar* is the root, *a* the suffix, *s* the termination; *nar* + *a* = *nara* is the stem.
v2.c12.31
The terminations vary with every relation or connexion of the noun, and their variations constitute what are called cases. In the modern languages the terminations of the Sanskrit noun no longer exist in their original form; in some of the seven languages no trace of them is perceptible in the singular, and only weakened and half-obliterated traces remain in the plural; in none of the languages are more than slight and doubtful indications of their presence still observable. The variations of case are expressed in the modern languages by particles placed after the stem, just as in modern European languages they are expressed by particles placed before the stem. The English declension, *fish*, *of fish*, *to fish*, stands in the same relation to the Gothic *fisks*, *fiskis*, *fiska*; and French *champ*, *de champ*, *à champ*, in the same relation to Latin *campus*, *campi*, *campo*; as Hindi *nar*, *nar kâ*, *nar ko*, does to Sanskrit *naras*, *narasya*, *narâya*.
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The first point then to be considered is the formation of the stem, and in this inquiry our attention is entirely concentrated on the final syllable or suffix. When treating, in the First Book, of Phonetic Changes, I exhibited, as far as the materials at my command permitted, those alterations and corruptions which have operated to change the form of the root; and the next step is to discuss the processes by which the stem, consisting of the combination of root and suffix, has been built up in its manifold developments.
v2.c12.33
Sanskrit grammarians divide nominal stems into two classes. They do not admit the possibility of a noun being a primitive word, derived from nothing else, but hold that all the words in their language are derived from verbal roots (called *dhâtu*), by additions and changes of various kinds. The first class, therefore, consists of those nouns derived from the *dhâtu* directly:
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these they call *kṛidanta*; the second, of those derived immediately from other nouns: these they name *taddhita*. I shall use for *kṛidanta* the term “primary stem”; for *taddhita*, “secondary stem.”
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§ 2. Derivation is effected by the addition to the *dhātu*, or root, of certain syllables called *pratyaya*, or suffix. These suffixes in many cases not merely add a vowel or syllable to the root, but also effect some change in the root itself, either by lengthening the vowel, eliding a final consonant, or in some other way. In order to indicate the effect the suffix has on the root, the Indian grammarians have prefixed or added to each suffix certain letters, which serve as a sort of *memoria technica*. Thus पाक “cooking,” would be described as पच् + घञ्, that is, derived from the root पच् “to cook” by the suffix घञ्; the effect of this suffix is principally to add a final अ to the root, but it also lengthens the root-vowel, and this effect is indicated by the letter ञ; it moreover changes a final palatal into a guttural, and this is denoted by the घ. The number of *pratyayas* is very great, the grammarians having multiplied them without stint, in order to give expression to the large mass of minute distinctions with which they have encumbered their writings. As, however, we are not discussing Sanskrit grammar, but only the simpler grammar of its modern descendants, it will not be necessary to consider all these suffixes in detail. They may be conveniently thrown into groups according to the vowel or syllables which they actually add to the root, the technical letters being referred to only when the distinction which they mark is of importance in its bearing on the forms of the spoken languages. Among the *kṛidantas* or primary stems the Indian grammarians include participles and verbal forms of all kinds, as well as abstract nouns. It will, however, be more in accordance with the principles of linguistic science to reserve the consideration of participles and all verbal formations till the chapters on the Verb are reached, and to discuss in this place merely those suffixes which form substantives and adjectives.
v2.c12.36
§ 3. Stems in -a. The nouns of this class are of all three genders, and make in the nominative case of Skr., masc. -as, fem. -â, neut. -am. The s of the masc. nom., however, is not permanent; before a word beginning with a sonant letter, it, together with the a of the stem, changes into o. Inasmuch as the sonant letters in Sanskrit are more numerous than the surds, the form of the nominative case in -o was much more frequently heard than any other; and the vulgar, who are not careful of minute grammatical distinctions, appear even in the earliest times to have used the termination in -o to the exclusion of all others. Thus Vararuchi (v. 1) gives it as a general rule that o is substituted for su (= as), the technical name of the nom. sing. ending, in all words whose base ends in a, as vachchho, vasaho, puriso, for vrikshas, vrishabhas, purushas. He considers that the a of the suffix has been elided, though it is more probable that the whole termination -as changed into -o through the intermediate form -ah, the labial vowel owing its origin to the involuntary contraction of the
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Suffixes are monosyllabic or dissyllabic. Out of the vast mass of suffixes mentioned by the Sanskrit grammarians, many may be dismissed as unconnected with the present subject, inasmuch as the stems formed by them were so formed before the rise of the modern languages, and the question of their construction is a matter not of modern, but of ancient, grammar. Our seven languages took over these words ready made, and, as far as we are concerned therefore, they may be regarded as primitive words. Only such suffixes will here be introduced as have left traces in the speech of the present times; and if it be necessary to speak of certain of them which are of purely Sanskrit use, it is merely because of their bearing on phonetic or structural processes of recent introduction.
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lips during the passing of the soft breathing indicated by the visarga. In Magadhi Prakrit the nom. is sometimes formed in -e, and in Apabhrańśa in -u.
v2.c12.39
In more recent times two separate sets of stems developed themselves out of this a-stem. The first probably ended in u in all the languages down to about the fourteenth century; since then it has ended in -a in all but Sindhi, which still retains the termination in -u. In old Hindi and Marathi the nominative in u is distinctly traceable, and in the former is even lengthened to û at the end of a verse where the metre requires a long syllable. This is especially the case in Tulsi Das's Ramayan, a work which exhibits a wide range of popular forms and phrases. Thus we have शरीरू, बीरू, कपारू, प्रचारू, at the ends of rhyming lines for शरीर, बीर, in modern H. शरीर, बीर, śarîr, bîr. The second ended in o, which in the broad pronunciation of old Hindi sounds au, though the form in o is often used by the earlier poets; and there is no distinction between the two: it is merely a matter of manuscripts, some using one, some the other form. This o softened subsequently still further into â, in all but G. and S., which still retain o.
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Concerning the cause of the parallel existence of the two forms there has hitherto been much doubt. Dr. Trumpp considers it a mere matter of accident, and thinks the presence of one form or the other is due to habit and daily usage.¹ Dr. Hoernle, however, holds, and with justice, that this reasoning is insufficient, and would ascribe all words which exhibit the â = o termination to the forms of nouns with an added क, which are extremely common in Prakrit. To this opinion I in the main subscribe. I think myself fortunate in this second volume to have hints from other and better scholars than myself, which were wanting when the First Volume was written.
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¹ "Eine Regel scheint bei dieser Separation nicht vorgewaltet zu haben, wenigstens habe ich bis jetzt noch keine entdecken können, sondern der tagtägliche Gebrauch scheint sich für die eine oder andere Endung entschieden zu haben."—Zeitsch. d. D.M.G. vol. xvi. p. 131.
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There is, however, one other possible way of accounting for the peculiarity. This is the influence of the accent.¹ It is vigorously denied by some that the Sanskrit accent has persisted until modern times; but it may be urged that the idea is a new one, not altogether without support in facts, nor in any way *à priori* impossible, and it is not quite fair to dismiss it contemptuously without due consideration.² The influence of the accent is naturally confined to words of the early Tadbhava class, namely to words which have come down uninterruptedly from those times when Sanskrit was spoken, and whose form depends on the ear, not on the eye. This is all that is claimed for it: it is not pretended that the Sanskrit accent has been preserved in words resuscitated from the written language by learned men, centuries after it had ceased to be spoken.
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¹ See Vol. I. Ch. I. § 6, pp. 17 ff.
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² Unfortunately little is known of the spoken accent in Skr. In the following pages, the rules laid down in Bopp's *Vergleichendes Accentuationssystem* have been my guide; but perhaps since that was written advances have been made by European writers. These, in my isolated position in the depths of an Indian province, I have no means of obtaining. I am, however, quite conscious of the unfavourable effect isolation has on this, and all other parts of my work, and only wish my critics would bear it in mind sometimes.
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With these reservations, the reader is invited to examine the lists hereinafter given, given not in a spirit of dogmatism, but merely because I cannot satisfy myself in rejecting accentual influence in them, till I am met by something more convincing than sneers; though in the desire to arrive at the truth, which is the only object which these researches can possibly have for one in my position, I shall be ready to throw down my weapons and acknowledge myself beaten directly I feel myself fairly convinced.
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In any case, whether the influence of the accent be admitted or rejected, the collection of words now given will be useful as affording instances of the development of the -a suffix, whatever be thought of the cause of it. Those who hold that the termination â = o is due to the Prakrit (and at times also Sanskrit) suffix क must explain to us why this क, producing â = o, has been so capriciously employed, why, in fact, Skr. ओष्ठ “lip,” should not have taken a क and become Pr. ओट्ठओ, H. ओठा, just as much as, according to them, अण्ड “egg,” took क and became अण्डक, अण्डओ, अण्डा. If, as is asserted, all nouns might and did take this क, why do not all nouns of this stem end in the moderns in â = o, why do some end in a = u?
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(1). Barytones.—The Sanskrit words in the following list are all accented on the penultimate; they are all primary stems formed by the addition to the verbal root of one or other of the simple suffixes, such as अच्, अप, घञ्, and the like: they are all therefore fair cases in point.
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Skr. ओष्ठ “lip,” Pr. ओट्ठं, H. ओठ, P. होंठ, G. होट, ओठ, M. ओठ, O. ओठ.
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Skr. कर्ण “ear,” Pr. कण्णो, H. कान, P. कन्न, G. M. B. O. कान, S. कनु.
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Skr. काष्ठ “wood,” H. काठ, and so in all, but S. काठु.
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Skr. कक्ष “armpit,” Pr. कक्खो, H. कांख, P. कच्छ, G. M. B. O. काख, S. ककु.
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Skr. क्रोश “kos,” H. कोस, P. कोह, the rest कोस, S. कोझ.
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Skr. क्लेश “trouble,” H. क्लेस, P. कलेस, M. किलेस, किलोस, S. किलेसु.
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Skr. क्षण “moment,” H. खन, छन, छिन, the rest खण, S. खिण (fem.).
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Skr. गर्भ “womb,” H. गरभ, गाभ, P. id. and गब्भ, M. G. गाभ, S. गभु, गरभु.
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Skr. ग्राम “village,” H. गांव, G. गाम, M. गांव, B. O. गां, S. गामु, गांउ.
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Skr. जाल “net,” H. जाल, so in all, but G. जांकु, जांरु, S. जारु.
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Skr. तान “tone,” H. तान, so in all, G. ताण, S. तानु.
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Skr. तैल “oil,” H. तेल, so in all, S. तेलु.
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Skr. दन्त “tooth,” H. दांत, so in all, P. दंत, S. दंदु.
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Skr. दिन “day,” H. दिन, so in all, S. डिणु. Skr. देश “country,” H. देस, in the rest देश, S. डेसु. Skr. पाश “noose,” H. पास, फांस, G. and the rest पाश, P. पाह, S. फाही, फासी. Skr. फाल “ploughshare,” H. फाल, and so in all, but P. फळ, S. फारु. Skr. मार्ग “road,” H. मग, मांग, in the rest माग, S. मागु. Skr. लोक “world,” H. लोग (“people”), in the rest लोक, S. लोकु, लोगु. Skr. वंश “bamboo,” H. बांस, बांश and so in all, S. बांसु. Skr. वट “banian-tree,” H. बड, so in all, M. O. वट, S. बडु. Skr. विष “poison,” H. बिख, B. विष, M. G. id. and विख, P. बिख, बिस, विह, S. विखु and बिझ.
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Instances might be multiplied to a large extent, but the above will suffice to show that the rule holds good in a vast majority of instances, Sindhi having uniformly u, the other languages a, though Gujarati now and then retains u. This final short a is not pronounced at all in Hindi, Panjabi, Marathi, or Gujarati, and very slightly in Bengali and Oriya. We hear jâl, tân, tel, dánt, and so on, not jâla; words of this class may, for practical purposes, be regarded as ending in consonants, except in M. and G., where it is necessary, as will be shown hereafter, to bear in mind the existence of the final mute a, in order to effect the necessary changes of the base in the oblique cases of the singular.
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(2). Oxytones.—The list which follows comprises, like that which precedes, none but primary stems formed by simple suffixes, as अच, घञ and the like; but the words which it contains are all accented on the last syllable, and accordingly it will be seen that they all end in the modern languages in á or o.
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Skr. अण्ड “egg,” H. अंडा, P. id., B. अंडा, O. id., S. आनो, M. and G. are exceptions, M. अंडे, G. इंडुं. Skr. कीट “worm,” H. कीडा, and so in all, G. and S. कीडो.
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Skr. छुर “knife,” H. छुरा, and so in all, G. and S. छुरो. (In all the fem. छुरी is more common.)
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Skr. चेट “slave,” H. चेडा, चेला, so in all, G. and S. चलो.
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Skr. चूर्ण “dust,” H. चूरा (“powder”), so in all, G. and S. चूरों, M. and B. also चूर.
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Skr. चूर्ण “dust,” H. चूना (“lime”), P. id., M. चुना, चूणा, B. O. चुना, B. also चुन, G. and S. चूनो, चूर्णो.
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Skr. दीप “candle,” H. दिपा, O. B. id., P. दीआ, दिवा, M. दिवा, G. दीवो, S. ड़िप्रो.
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Skr. ध्वज “flag,” H. धजा, P. id., G. धजो.
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Skr. नाल “stream,” H. नाला, and so in all, G. नाळो, and नाकुं, S. नारो.
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Skr. फण “snake’s hood,” H. फणा, M. B. O. id., G. फणो, S. फणि (fem.).
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Skr. वत्स “young,” H. बचा, बच्चा, and so in all, B. बाच्चा, G. बच्चो, S. बचो.
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Skr. भल्ल “spear,” H. भाला, P. M. O. id., G. and S. भालो.
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Skr. श्याल “brother-in-law,” H. साला, P. M. साळा, B. O. शाला, G. and S. सालो, G. also साळो.
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Skr. स्कन्ध “shoulder,” H. कांधा, P. कंधा, M. खांदा, O. B. कांधा, G. S. कांधो.
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Skr. स्तम्भ “post,” H. खंभा, P. B. O. id.
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Skr. मूष “mouse,” H. मूसा, P. B. id., O. मूषा.
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Skr. वर्ष “rain,” H. बरसा, बरखा, O. बरषा, B. M. id., G. वर्षों.
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The Hindi in this, as in so many other instances, vindicates its right to be considered the leading language of the group, by the fidelity with which it adheres to rule. The other languages are less faithful to the long vowel representing the oxytone, than they are to the short vowel derived from the barytone stems, Marathi especially diverges in this respect, but the divergence is probably due, as will be seen hereafter, to its practice in modifying the final vowel of the stem in the oblique cases.
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Bopp’s rule¹ for stems formed by the addition of simple *a* is that they carry the accent on the root-syllable in most cases. He excepts, however, a class of abstract stems formed from roots in *i* and *ī*, which allow the accent to sink down to the final syllable. They are as follows:
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¹ Vergl. Accentuationssystem, § 115.
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Skr. चि चय “destruction,” H. चय, P. छै, S. कोछो, G. खे, M. खै. Not used in B. and O. except as Tatsama.
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Skr. चि चय “heap.” In compounds H. संचै, M. चय, संचय, etc.
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Skr. जि जय “victory.” In all जय or जै.
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Skr. स्मि स्मय “smiling.” Not in use.
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Skr. हि हय “horse.” हय and है in the old poets; often with an additional syllable हेंवर in Chand.
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Skr. क्री क्रय “buying.” In compounds H. बिक्री (विक्रय), B. O. *id.*, P. बिक्री, S. विकिरो.
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Skr. भी भय “fear,” H. भय, B. O. *id.*, P. भै, S. भइ and भउ, M. G. भय.
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Skr. ली लय “abode.” In the compounds with आलय, as below.
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Skr. देवालय “temple,” H. देवल, P. देवाळा, S. देविली, G. देवळ, M. देऊळ, O. *id.*, B. देवल.
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Skr. श्वशुरालय “father-in-law’s house,” H. सुसराल, M. सासरें.
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Skr. श्रि श्रय “refuge.” In the compound आश्रय, H. आसरा, P. *id.*, M. आश्रा, B. O. *id.*, G. आसरो, S. आसर, आसिरो.
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In all these words the inherent weakness of the य has led to the corruption of the two syllables of the Skr. into one in such words as *ásrâ*, *devâlâ*, while in others it has been practically softened into a diphthong in combination with the preceding consonant. It may also be conjectured that though the learned accentuated the last syllable of stems of this small class, the masses did not at any time observe this distinction, but treated them as barytones, and the final vowel has therefore not been preserved.
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There is also a rule of a somewhat intricate character, which declares that stems of this form, when simple appellatives, which, according to their original meaning, are nouns of agency, bear the accent on the last syllable. Under this head are such words as
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nadá, “river,” or the sounder (root नद् “to sound”). plavá, “ship,” or the swimmer (root प्लु “to float”). chorá, “thief,” or the stealer (root चुर् “to steal”). kará, “hand,” or the maker (root कृ “to do”). maghá, “cloud,” or the wetter (root मिह् “mingere”). devá, “god,” or the shiner (root दिव् “to shine”).
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It is obvious, however, that nouns of this class may be formed to any extent by a little exercise of the imagination. Every noun in fact formed by the suffixes ach, ghañ, or ap and the like, which merely add a vowel to the root, might be classed as a nomen agentis, and expected to be an oxytone. There is no reason why gárbha, “womb,” should not be considered as a noun of the agent, meaning the container (root ग्रह “to hold”), or kárna, “the ear,” as the piercer (root कर्ण् “to pierce”), or visha, “poison,” as the pervader, from its action in stealthily creeping into the blood (root विष “to penetrate”); and as a matter of fact the grammarians do so regard them all. The rule appears to be too subtle for general practical use, and the following list of oxytones of this class, mostly formed with अच्, which is said specially to form agents, will show that in a majority of instances the modern languages have not regarded these words as oxytones.
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Skr. कर “hand,” H. कर, and so in all, S. करु. Skr. नद “river,” H. नद, M. id., perhaps S. नडी “tube,” but also नडु. Skr. मेघ “cloud,” H. मेघ, and so in all, S. मेघु. Skr. चोर “thief,” H. चोर, and so in all, S. चोरु.
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Skr. देव “god,” H. देव, देउ, so in all, S. डेउ and देउ. (In Muhammadan Sindh it means “a devil.”)
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Skr. दंश “gadfly” (the biter), H. दंश, दंख, and so in all, S. डंगु “the bite of an insect or reptile.”
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Skr. वर “bridegroom,” (he who chooses the wife), H. बर, P. B. O. id., M. G. वर, S. वरू.
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§ 4. Under this rule is included a large number of adjectives which are oxytone in Sanskrit, and end with long á or o in the moderns. It may, however, be observed, that the majority of adjectives from a-stems end in á or o in the masculines, except in B. and O., where the habitual neglect of quantity has led to the final vowel being shortened. The rule therefore hardly covers all the examples, and is perhaps not meant to do so, as Bopp merely includes adjectives with the meaning of the present participle. We may suppose that the rule, once established for this class of adjectives, gradually extended itself to the others also, on account of the facility which the variety of terminations so obtained afforded for making the distinctions of gender. In those languages which pay little or no attention to gender, as the Bengali and Oriya, the distinction was not needed, and we hear in O. such phrases as boṛo bhái, “eldest brother,” and boṛo bhauni, “eldest sister.”
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Examples of adjectives—(a) indicates oxytone, (b) barytone adjectives:
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Skr. अच्छ (b) “clear, good,” H. अच्छा, P. id., G. अच्छो, S. अच्छो (“white”), B. O. अच्छ.
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Skr. अन्ध (o) “blind,” H. अंधा, P. अन्हा, G. अंधलो, M. अंधळा, B. O. अन्ध, S. अंधो.
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Skr. अर्ध (b) “half,” H. आधा, P. अद्धा, G. आध, आरधो, S. अधु,¹ M. अर्धा, B. आधा, O. आधा, अघे.¹
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¹ Used as a substantive.
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Skr. उच्च (o) “high,” H. ऊंचा, P. उच्चा, S. ऊंचो, G. ऊंचो, M. उंच, B. O. id.
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Skr. काल (b) “black,” H. काला, P. M. काळा, G. काळो, B. काल, काला, O. कळा.
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Skr. काण (o) “one-eyed,” H. काना, P. M. काणा, G. S. काणो, B. काणा, O. काण.
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Skr. गंभीर (o) “deep,” H. गहिरा, गहरा, and so in all, O. पहिर. The Tatsama गंभीर is also in use in all.
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Skr. गाढ (o) “intense,”¹ H. गाढा, P. id., G. गाढो, M. B. O. गाढ.
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¹ Deep (colour), strong (infusion of a drug), thick (cloth), etc.
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Skr. गौर (b) “pale,” H. गोरा, P. id., S. G. गोरो, M. (dimin.) गोरटा, O. गोरा, B. गोर.
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Skr. घन (o) “dense,” H. घना, P. घणा, S. G. घणो (many, much), M. घण, O. B. घन.
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Skr. कठिन (o) “hard,” H. कठिन, O. B. id., P. कठण, ०ण, G. कठण, M. कठीण, O. B. कठिन, S. कटनु.
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Skr. दक्षिण (b) “right” (hand), H. दहिना, O. डाहाण, B. डाइन.
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Skr. बधिर (o) “deaf,” H. बहरा, बहिरा, M. id., G. बेहेरो, S. बोडो, B. बहेरा, O. बहिरा.
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Skr. शुष्क (o) “dry,” H. सूखा, P. सुक्का, G. सुको, M. सुका, S. सुको, O. सुखिला, B. शुका.
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There are very many other instances. Hindi preserves the long vowel which naturally arises from oxytones, and lengthens the vowel in many cases in barytones; in a few Tatsamas like कठिन the long vowel is not taken. The accent is thus virtually neglected, and in this respect Hindi is followed generally by P. S. and G. Marathi halts between two opinions, sometimes taking the short vowel, sometimes the long; the latter, however, appears to be the more common of the two, as might be expected in a gender-ridden language like this. More remarks about the adjectives will be found scattered amongst the various stems.
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§ 5. The influence of the accent is only claimed for the early Tadbhava class, and it is natural therefore that there should be many instances in which it does not apply. Seeing that there are among the late Tadbhavas many which approach closely in point of antiquity to the latest of the early Tadbhavas, the line is hard to draw. We merely give examples therefore of these exceptions, and wish for explanation as to why, if the stems in â-o are due to the addition of क, that suffix has not been used here also. Many of the words now given appear, from their phonetic structure, to be early Tadbhavas, as for instance दूध, which exhibits the Prakrit process of assimilation from दुग्ध into दुग्धो, and the modern further elimination of the first element of the nexus and compensatory lengthening of the preceding vowel.
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(1). Of Sanskrit oxytones which take the short or barytone ending in the moderns, the following are some of the more prominent examples:
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Skr. सिंह “lion,” H. सिंघ, P. id., the rest spell सिंह but pronounce singh, S. both सिंघो and शींङ.
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Skr. ऋच्छ “bear,” H. रीछ, G. id., M. रीस, P. रिच्छ, S. रिक्कु, O. (rare) रिक्क.
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Skr. गृह “house,” H. घर, and so in all, S. घरु, O.-H. गेह, M. id.
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Skr. वर्ष “year,” H. बरस, and so in all, but S. वर्षु.
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Skr. पर्ण “leaf,” H. पान (betel), and so in all, S. पानु.
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Skr. भाव “nature,” H. भाव, भाओ, and so in all (भाउ).
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Skr. दास “slave,” H. दास, and so in all, S. दासु.
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Skr. दुग्ध “milk,” H. दूध, and so in all, S. ड़ोधि.
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These words are all very common words in constant daily use, and as such should, according to the क theory, have taken that suffix in Prakrit, and consequently end in â-o in the moderns. Some of them have an alternative form in â, as पर्ण, which has पत्ता “a leaf;” वर्ष, which has बरसा and वरषा in the sense of “rain;” the meanings of पान and बरस are secondary or restricted, as compared with पन्ना and बरसा, and they are perhaps late Tadbhavas in the former, but early Tadbhavas in the latter sense.
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(2). Barytones in Sanskrit, but taking the long vowel in the moderns, are the following:
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Skr. लोह “iron,” H. लोहा, P. B. id., but M. G. O. लोह (O. also लुहा), S. लोड़.
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Skr. सुवर्ण “gold,” H. सोना, P. B. O. id., but M. सोनें, G. S. सोनु.
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I cannot find many undoubted examples of this class, and even those that do occur do not run through the whole seven languages, which seem as a general habit to be more faithful to the barytone accent, especially in substantives, than they are to the oxytone, or, if we accept the क theory, to be derived from words which did not take the क termination, more frequently than from those which did.
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§ 6. Stems in -na and -ana. The former of these is in use only in a very small class of words, all of which, with one exception, are oxytone in Sanskrit. The words are—
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| *yajná* | from *yaj*, | “to sacrifice.” |
| *praśná* | ,, *prachh*, | “to ask.” |
| *yatná* | ,, *yat*, | “to strive.” |
| *viśná* | ,, *vichh*, | “to shine.” |
| and fem. *yâchnâ* | ,, *yâch*, | “to ask.” |
| *trishṇâ* | ,, *trish*, | “to thirst.” |
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The exception is *svápna* from *shwap*, “to sleep,” which, however, the grammarians derive by the suffix नन्, while the others are formed by नङ्.
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In the modern languages these words, many of which are much corrupted, take the under-mentioned forms:
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Skr. यज्ञ “sacrifice,” Old-H. जजन, जग्ग, जग्न, H. जाग, P. जग, M. B. O. जाग, S. जगु.
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Skr. यत्न "effort," H. जतन, P. M. G. *id.*, S. जतनु.
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Skr. प्रश्न, "question." Not in use, except as a rare Tatsama.
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Skr. विस्र "shining, light," H. बिहान ("dawn"), बिहनसार or भिनसार, M. भिंभरटें, S. भिंभास, भिंभिकौ. (The M. and S. are compounds, of which the first part represents विस्र.)
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Skr. स्वप्न "dream," Old-H. सुपन, सोपन, P. सुफन, सुफना, S. सुपनों, G. सुपन.
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In these words the accent is entirely neglected; strangely the only word in which Panjabi and Sindhi exhibit oxytone terminations is precisely that one which is barytone in Sanskrit. It will be more convenient to take the feminines of this and all the other -a stems together later on.
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The suffix -ana is one of the most commonly used of all. It is of all three genders, and in the large majority of instances is barytone, carrying the accent on the root-syllable. A few cases exist in which the first syllable of the suffix bears the accent, and some in which it is oxytone, but the rule is that they should be barytone.
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The masculine contains simple appellatives whose original meaning was that of the agent. They are not much used in the modern speech, and when they are, occur as Tatsamas, or as very slightly changed Tadbhavas. Being mostly simple words with strong consonants, they offer no opportunity for phonetic changes, and may therefore, in spite of their identity with the Skr. form, be ancient words. I give a short list, as there is not much to be learnt from them, beyond the fact, important to the present portion of our inquiry, that they take in every case the barytone form.
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Skr. नन्दन "son" (the delighter), H. नंदन, and so in all. Chiefly used in poetry.
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Skr. गायन "singer," H. गायन, and so in all. Chiefly used in poetry.
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Skr. दर्पण "mirror" (the flatterer), H. दर्पण, and so in all, except S.
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Skr. दहन “fire” (the burner), H. दहन, and so in all. Skr. दशन “tooth” (the biter), H. दशन, and so in all, except S. Poetic. Skr. तरण “raft” (the crosser), H. तरण, and so in all, except S. Poetic. Skr. किरण “ray” (the shiner), H. किरन, and so in all, S. किरणि. Skr. ओदन “boiled rice” (the moistener), H. ओदन, and so in all, except S. Poetic.
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Three adjectives, oxytone: Skr. क्रोधन “angry,” H. क्रोधन (rare). Skr. रोषण “angry,” H. रोशन (rare), S. रुसिणो comes from another stem. Skr. रोधन “obstructive,” H. रोधन (rare).
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Far more widely used, and in every sense more important, is the neuter form. Two classes must be here distinguished: the first, simple appellatives, or names of objects or actions; the second, abstract nouns which have the meaning of the performance of an action, or the being in a state. The latter are in fact the infinitives of verbs.
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The first class is always barytone, both in Sanskrit and the moderns.
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Skr. अङ्गन, “courtyard,” H. आंगन, अंगन, P. B. O. id., G. आंगणु, S. अडणु. Skr. काञ्चन “gold,” H. कांचन, and so in all but S. Skr. चन्दन “sandal-wood,” H. चंदन, in all, B. संदल. Skr. जीवन “life,” H. जीबन, so in all, P. जीव, S. जीउ. Skr. गान “song,” H. गान, so in all. Skr. स्नान “bath,” H. स्नान, असनान, P. B. O. id., G. स्नान and नहाण, M. नहाण, नाहण, S. सनानु. Skr. नयन “eye,” H. नयन, नैन, so in all, G. नैन (masc. pl.), S. नेणु. Skr. स्मरण “memory,” H. सुमिरन, so in all. Skr. वेल्लन “rolling pin,” H. बेलन, so in all, O. बेलणा.
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The second class consists of words which, though simple nouns, and as such regularly declined, perform nevertheless in four out of the seven languages the functions of an infinitive.
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Thus from Skr. करण "the act of doing," H. करना "to do," P. करना, S. करण, M. करणे.
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It is unnecessary to multiply instances, as every verb in each of these languages forms its infinitive in this way, absolutely without exception. In Bengali and Oriya the form exists, but simply as an abstract noun, almost entirely restricted to grammatical and other works. The real every-day infinitives of those languages are formed in a different way. Gujarati also wants this form.
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In Sanskrit the formations of this class are regularly barytone, and accentuate the root. In M. and S. they are also barytone, but in H. and P. they take the long vowel. It does not appear, however, that this is a regular exception. In old Hindi the infinitive of this class—I say "of this class" because there is another infinitive in ओ—ends always in the short vowel. For example, Chand (A.D. 1200) uses the phrases: जय हरन की " (in order) to seize the victory," बंधन बिचारि "having plotted to bind," जंग जुरन जालिम जुझार "a warrior terrible in the tug of war." In the modern idiom we should have हरने को, बांधना, and जोडने में respectively. This consonantally terminated form, or rather (as it is pronounced in poetry) this form ending in short *a*, is used by the poets as far down as the middle of the seventeenth century. Gambhir Rai (*circa* 1650) has कोऊ न छूहन पावे "(that) no one might be able to touch." Tulsi Das (1600) employs this form regularly in his Ramayan, *e.g.* रखवारे तब बरजन लागे "the keepers then began to forbid (them)," Sundara Kánd. 60, 15. From Bhaktamâla (1630): मांगन कीं धायो "he ran to beg." I have only picked out an instance or two at random, as the practice is universal.
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It will be more appropriate to discuss this matter at full length under the Verb, and I therefore content myself here with saying that the long vowel appears not to be in any way whatever due to the accent, but to have arisen from the influence of the anuswâra (see Vol. I. § 65), by which karaṇam became first करणीं, then करणीं, करनां, and lastly karnâ. In M. the infinitive is still neuter, and it is masculine in the H. P. and S. merely because those languages have lost the neuter, and only retain the other two genders.¹
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¹ Hoernle in a recent article in Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, 1873, vol. xlii. p. 66, contends for the derivation of these infinitives from Skr. karaṇiyam, etc., overlooking the intermediate forms of the mediæval poets, which militate strongly against his conjecture.
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This infinitive is also in certain phrases used as a simple noun, as in Hindi लेना देना or लेन देन, literally “taking and giving,” but idiomatically expressing the state of one’s loan account with a banker or money-lender; देना पाउना “to give and to receive,” idiomatically the outstanding assets and liabilities of a mercantile concern. In Sindhi, words of this class sometimes take the form in o, as
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ड़िअणो “a debt,” ड़िअणो वठणो or ड़िअणो लहणो “debts and credits” (but ड़िअणु “to give”).
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भरिणो or भरणो “embroidery” (lit. “filling up,” भरणु “to fill”).
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मड़िणो “betrothal” (मड़णु “to ask for”).
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In these cases the इ inserted before the termination is inorganic, and merely due to the preference of Sindhi for that sound (Vol. I. § 32). In Hindi and the other languages, nouns of this kind are more generally feminine, and so in Sindhi; in Marathi and Panjabi also the fem. form is more usual. Thus
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Sindhi चवणी “saying,” verb चवणु “to say.”
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” हलणी “going,” verb हलणु “to go.”
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And with short i—
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Sindhi गिहणि “swallowing,” verb गिहणु “swallow.”
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When added to causal verbs, this suffix, which then takes also the form आणि aṇi, is used to express the idea of the cost of doing, or wages for doing, an act; as
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Sindhi खवाणी “porterage,” verb खवाइणु “to cause to carry.” ” चाराणी “grazing fees,” verb चाराणु “to cause to graze.” ” धुआरिणी “cost of washing,” verb धुआरणु “to cause to wash.”
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Hindi has words of this class, as संयनी “betrothal,” भरनी “woof,” लदनी “lading,” but more frequently as consonantly terminated masculines, as भरण पोषण “feeding and protecting,” “maintenance.” Marathi is perhaps the richest of all the languages in words of this formation. It is, however, as will be seen from the following examples, very capricious in its use of such words, sometimes using a masc. in णे, at others fem. in णी or ण, or neut. in ण or णे.
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Verb अडणे “to stop,” अडणी (m.), a slip of bamboo to fasten a door with. अडणी (f.) } a slip of bamboo to strengthen the अडण (n.) } edge of a winnowing-basket. Verb कसणे “to bind,” कसणी (f.), ligature. Verb काटणे “to cut,” काटणी (f.), a cutting or reaping, i.e. the quantity cut at one time. Verb काढणे “to take out,” काढणी (f.), removal of crops from a field. ” ” काढणे (n.), a pitcher to draw water from a well with. Verb खोदणे “to dig,” खोदणी (f.), a digging. Verb घोळणे “to stir,” घोळण (n.), a sifting, the quantity sifted at one time. ” ” घोळणा (m.) } a stick for stirring grain while it ” ” घोळणे (n.) } is being parched.
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§ 7. The next class of -a stems is that in which the final letter is preceded by a semivowel, as ya, ra, la, va. Of these
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*ya* is chiefly used in Taddhitas or secondary stems; there are only a few primaries, which, being feminine, will be treated separately.
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(1). Stems in *ra* are of two kinds, those in which the suffix is joined immediately to the root, and those where a joining vowel intervenes. Both kinds are for the most part oxytone in Sanskrit, and the accent is lost by the rejection of the last letter of the nexus; the whole suffix thus ordinarily disappearing.
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(a). Examples of words where the suffix is joined immediately to the root—
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Skr. अभ्र (*o*) “cloud,” M. आभ, अभ्रा, G. आभ, S. अभु. In the rest Tatsama.
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Skr. आम्र (*o*) “mango,” H. आम, अंब, P. *id.*, B. O. आंब, आम, G. आंबो (the tree), M. आंब, अंबा, S. अंबु and आमो.
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Skr. उद्र (*o*) “otter,” H. ऊद, P. उत, M. G. उद, B. O. उद्र.
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Skr. चन्द्र (*o*) “moon,” H. चांद, and so in all; but P. चंद, S. चंड.
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Skr. गृध (*b*) “vulture,” H. गिद्ध, P. *id.*, M. G. गिध, गीध, गिध, S. गिद्ध, B. O. not used.
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Skr. ताम्र (*o*) “copper,” H. तांबा, P. *id.* and तंबा, O. *id.*, B. तामा, G. तांबु, M. तांबिं, S. टामो.
v2.c12.185
Skr. व्याघ्र (*o*) “tiger,” H. बाघ, and so in all, S. वाघु.
v2.c12.186
Skr. समुद्र (*o*) “ocean,” H. समुदर, समुद, समुंदर, P. *id.*, the rest समुद्र, S. समुंडु.
v2.c12.187
Skr. शूद्र (*o*) “Sudra,” H. सूद्रा. In the rest Tatsama.
v2.c12.188
Only two of these words take the long -*â*, and of these तांबा may be derived from the Sanskrit form ताम्रक, which would lose the क, and the two vowels would coalesce into a long vowel, as will be shown hereafter. सूद्रा was probably regarded as an adjective. अंबा in M. is fem., the change of gender accounts for the long vowel.
v2.c12.189
(β). Examples of words where the suffix is joined to the root by a joining vowel—
v2.c12.190
Skr. चमर (o) “chowry,” H. चौर, चौरी, P. चौर, G. चौरी, M. id., O. चंवर, B. चौर, S. चौह.
v2.c12.191
Skr. दर्दुर (o) “frog,” H. दादुर, P. G. id., S. डेड़रु.
v2.c12.192
Skr. देवर (o) “husband’s younger brother,” H. देवर, P. M. id., G. देर, B. O. देयर, S. डेह.
v2.c12.193
Skr. धत्तूर (o) “dhatura tree,” H. धतूरा, P. B. M. id., G. धतूरो, S. धातुरो, O. धुतुर, धुदुरा.
v2.c12.194
Skr. बदर (o) “jujube,” H. बैर, बेर, P. id., M. G. बोर, B. बदर, O. वर, S. बेह, बेर.
v2.c12.195
Skr. भ्रमर (o) “bee,” H. भंवर, भौंर, P. id., O. भंवर, M. भोंर, B. भोमर, S. भौंरु.
v2.c12.196
Skr. मन्दिर (o) “temple,” H. मन्दिर, and in all.
v2.c12.197
Skr. वर्कर (o) “goat,” H. बकरा, B. P. id., O. बक्रा, G. बकरो, S. बकिरो, but M. बोकड.
v2.c12.198
Skr. श्वशुर (b) “father-in-law,” H. ससुर, P. सौहरा, S. सुहरो, M. सासरा, G. ससुरा, B. O. श्वशुर.
v2.c12.199
There is not much uniformity in this list. Sanskrit oxytones end in the short vowel in Hindi and the rest; and the one barytone is in P. S. M. and G. terminated by the long vowel, though the others keep the short vowel. Under the head of nouns in क will be found an attempt to explain a good deal of this discrepancy. My method of reasoning does not admit of the usual slipshod way of accounting for the difficulty by setting it down to “caprice” or “lawless licence.” There is a reason for everything in this world, if we can only find it out; and if we cannot find it out, it is only honest to say so, and not to try and cover our ignorance by saying there is no law. Some words of wide daily use have all sorts of forms; if we knew more about the subject, we should be able to give a reason for all of them: perhaps some day we or our descendants may be able to do so. For instance, the word चक्र (oxytone) “a wheel,” has the following long list of forms in modern times.
v2.c12.200
H. चकर “cart-wheel;” चक्कर, चाक, चकरी, चक्की (a mill-stone); चकला, चक.
v2.c12.201
P. चक्र, चकर, चक्कर; चकला, चकली, चकळी; चक्की, चकुला, चाकळी.
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