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History of Dharmashastra (Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Law in India) v5.c73: Section III

History of Dharmaśāstra (Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Law in India) v5.c73

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Section III

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ŚRĀDDHA

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This subject is of great practical importance from several points of view.

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The Brahmapurāṇa defines śrāddha as follows: 'whatever is given with faith to brāhmaṇas intending it to be for the (benefit of) *pitṛs* at a proper time, in a proper place, to deserving persons and in accordance with the prescribed procedure is called śrāddha⁷⁵¹. The Mit on Yāj I. 217 defines śrāddha as 'abandonment with faith of an article of food or some substitute thereof, intending it for (the benefit of) the departed'. The Kalpataru on śrāddha defined it as 'the giving up of sacrificial material intending it for *pitṛs* and its acceptance by brāhmaṇas'. The Śrāddhaviveka of Rudradhara and the Śrāddhaprakāśa define śrāddha in the same way as the Mit. but in a more involved manner. Yāj. I. 268 (= Agnipurāṇa 163. 40-41) states that the *pitṛs* viz. Vasus, Rudras and Ādityas that are the deities of śrāddha, being gratified by śrāddha, give gratification to the ancestors of human beings. This verse and Manu III. 284 make it clear that the three ancestors of a man, viz. the father, paternal grand-father and the paternal great-grand-father are respectively to be identified with the three orders of superintending *pitṛ* deities, viz. Vasus, Rudras and Ādityas, when performing śrāddha. According to some,⁷⁵² śrāddha denotes three things, viz. *homa*, the offering of *piṇḍa* (ball of cooked food) and gratification of brāhmaṇas invited to a dinner; the application of this word to any one of these three can only be in a secondary sense.

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⁷⁵¹ देशे काले च पात्रे च श्रद्धया विधिना च यत्। पितॄनुद्दिश्य विप्रेभ्यो दत्तं श्राद्धमुदाहृतम्॥ ब्रह्मपुराण q. by श्रा प्र p 3 and 6, श्रा क ल p. 3, परा मा I. 2. p. 299; श्राद्धं नामादनीयस्य तत्स्थानीयस्य वा द्रव्यस्य प्रेतोद्देशेन श्रद्धया त्याग । मिताक्षरा on या I 217; एतेन पितॄनुद्दिश्य द्रव्यत्यागो ब्राह्मणस्वीकरणपर्यन्तं श्राद्धस्वरूपं प्रधानम्। कल्पतरु (श्राद्ध) p. 4, कल्पतरुलक्षणमप्यनुपादेयं सन्यासिनामात्मश्राद्धे देवश्राद्धे सनकादिश्राद्धे चाव्याप्तेः। श्रा क्रि कौ pp 3-4, अत्र कल्पतरुकार पितृनुद्दिश्य द्रव्यपातो ब्राह्मणस्वीकरणपर्यन्तो हि श्राद्धमित्याह तदयुक्तम्। पितृभक्ति of श्रीदत्त (folio 21a) The दीपकलिका on या I 218 accepts कल्पतरु; श्राद्धं नाम वेदबोधितपात्रालम्भनपूर्वकप्रमीतपित्रादिदेवतोद्देशको द्रव्यत्यागविशेषः। श्राद्धविवेक p. 1, अत्रापस्तम्बादिसकलवचनपर्यालोचनया प्रमीतमात्रोद्देश्यकत्यागविशेषस्य ब्राह्मणाद्याधिकरणप्रतिपत्त्यङ्गकस्य श्राद्धपदार्थत्वं प्रतीयते। श्रा प्र p. 4 The श्राद्धविवेक states that द्रव्यत्याग is enjoined by the words of the Veda (वेदबोधित) and the thing abandoned is handed over to a deserving brāhmaṇa (पात्रालम्भनपूर्वक). प्रतिपत्ति in श्रा प्र means the final disposal of a thing used in a sacrifice e g. in Darśa-pūrṇamāsa we have the sentence सह शाखया प्रस्तरं प्रहरति Here शाखाहरण is प्रतिपत्तिकर्म (Jai. IV 2. 10-13) and not अर्थकर्म; similarly, the cremation of an āhitāgni with his sacrificial vessels is a प्रतिपत्तिकर्म so far as the यज्ञपात्रs are concerned.

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⁷⁵² होमश्च पिण्डदानं च तथा ब्राह्मणतर्पणम्। श्राद्धशब्दाभिधेयं स्यादेकस्मिंस्तौपचारक.॥ q. by श्राद्धसार p 30 हरदत्त on आप. ध सू II. 7. 16. 2 says the same thing. श्रीदत्त in पितृभक्ति (folio 23a) says 'पिण्डदानं तु न श्राद्धं किं तु श्राद्धाङ्गं पिण्ड-विरहेपि नित्यश्राद्धदर्शनात्।'

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A firm believer in the doctrine of *kar ma*, *punarjanma* (re-incarnation) and *karma-vipāka* (explained above) may find it difficult to reconcile that doctrine with the belief that by offering balls of rice to his three deceased paternal ancestors a man brings gratification to the souls of the latter. According to the doctrine of *punarjanma* (as very clearly and succinctly put in Bṛ. Up IV. 4.4 and Bhagavad-gītā 2 22)⁷⁵³ the spirit leaving one body enters into another and a new one. But the doctrine of offering balls of rice to three ancestors requires that the spirits of the three ancestors even after the lapse of 50 or 100 years are still capable of enjoying in an ethereal body the flavour or essence of the rice balls wafted by the wind. Further, Yāj. I. 269 (which is the same as Mārk. 29. 38, Matsya-purāṇa 19. 11-12, Agnipurāṇa 163. 41-42) provides that the grand-fathers (i. e. *pitṛs*) being themselves gratified (by the offerings of food in śrāddha) bestow on men (their descendants) long life, progeny, wealth, learning, heaven, *mokṣa* (final beatitude), all happiness and kingdom. In the Matsya-purāṇa (chap. 19, verse 2) a question is asked by the sages how food which a brāhmaṇa (invited at a śrāddha) eats or which is offered into fire is enjoyed by departed spirits that might have assumed (after death) good or evil forms of bodies. The answer given (verses 3-9) is that fathers, grand-fathers and great-grand-fathers are identified with Vasus, Rudras and Ādityas respectively according to Vedic passages, that the name and *gotra* (mentioned at the time of śrāddha), the *mantras* uttered and faith carry to the *pitṛs* the offerings made, that if one's father has become a god (by his good deeds) the food offered in śrāddha becomes nectar and follows him in his state of godhood, if he has become a *daitya* (an *asura*) then (the food) reaches him in the form of various enjoyments, if he has become a beast then it becomes grass for him and if he has become a snake the śrāddha food waits on him as wind (serpents are supposed to subsist on wind) and so on. Verses 5-9 of the Matsya, chap. 19 are quoted as from Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa by the Śrāddha-kalpalatā p. 5. Viśvarūpa ⁷⁵⁴ on Yāj. I. 265 (p. 171 of Tri. ed.) also raises the same objection and gives several replies. One is that this is a matter entirely based on *śāstra* and so when śāstra says that *pitṛs* are gratified and the performer gets desired objects no objection should be raised. Another reply is that the gods Vasus and others that have access everywhere have the power to gratify pitṛs wherever they may be situated. He does not call the questioners (*nāstika*) as some other and later writers do.

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⁷⁵³ अयमात्मेदं शरीरं निहत्याविद्यां गमयित्वान्यन्नवतरं कल्याणतरं रूपं कुरुते पित्र्यं वा गान्धर्वं वा दैवं वा प्राजापत्यं वा ब्राह्मं वान्येषां वा भूतानाम्। बृह. उ IV.4 4; तथा शरीराणि विहाय जीर्णान्यन्यानि संयाति नवानि देही॥ गीता 2.22.

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⁷⁵⁴ 'कथं हि स्वकर्मानुसारादनेकविधयोनिगतपितृतृप्त्युपपत्ति. । शास्त्रप्रमाणकत्वा-दस्यार्थस्याचोद्यमेतत् ।...एते देवा वस्वादयः प्रीता. प्रीणयन्ति यत्रतत्रस्थान् मनुष्याणां पितॄन् श्राद्धान्तरसाहृप्रदानेनेत्यर्थ. । सर्वप्राणिगतत्वाच्चैषां सर्वावस्थितपितृतर्पणसामर्थ्यमविरुद्धम् ।' विश्वरूप on या I 265 p. 171.

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The Śrāddhakalpalatā of Nandapaṇḍita ⁷⁵⁵ (about 1600 A. D.) enters upon an elaborate reply to these persons (whom he dubs atheists) that aver that the performance of śrāddhas for departed fathers and the rest, who according to the particular actions of each go to heaven or hell or to other forms of existence serves no purpose. He asks: why is śrāddha useless? Is it because there is no prescriptive text laying down an obligation to perform it or is it because śrāddha produces no consequences or is it that it is not proved that *pitṛs* and the rest are gratified by śrāddha? To the first he replies that there are such passages as 'therefore a wise man must perform srāddha with all his efforts' that lay down the obligation; nor is the 2nd objection proper, since Yāj. I. 269 does declare the rewards (of śrāddha) viz. long life &c. Nor is the third alternative acceptable. In the śrāddha rites it is not that the mere ancestors named Devadatta and the like are the recipients and that they are denoted by the words *pitṛ*, *pitāmaha* and *prapitāmaha*, but that those words denote them as accompanied by the superintending deities viz. Vasus, Rudras and Ādityas. Just as by the words Devadatta and the like what is denoted is not merely the bodies (so named) nor merely the souls, but what is denoted by the words is individual souls as particularised by the bodies; in the same way the words *pitṛ* and the like denote Devadatta and others together with the superintending deities (viz. Vasus, Rudras and Ādityas). Therefore, the superintending deities viz. the Vasus and the rest, being gratified by the food and drink offered by the sons and the rest, gratify those also viz. Devadatta and the rest and endow the performers (of śrāddha) with such rewards as male progeny and the rest. Just as a woman expecting to be a mother becomes gratified by partaking of the food and drink for which she has a longing in pregnancy and which is given to her by another person for the sustenance of the child in the womb, she satiates also the child in her womb and endows those that offer her the food and drink for which she has longings by bestowing on them some reward in return. Thus the *pitṛs* denoted by the words father, grandfather and great-grand-father are the deities Vasus, Rudras and Ādityas, and not merely (human beings called) Devadatta and the rest. Hence these deities of śrāddha become the recipients (of gifts) in the śrāddha rite, are gratified by the śrāddha and gratify in their turn the ancestors of human beings. The Śrāddha-kalpalatā then quotes 18 verses⁷⁵⁶ from the Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa many of which are found in chap. 28 (verses 3 ff) of the printed text. It is said⁷⁵⁷ that just as a calf finds its own mother from among many cows that are scattered about, so the mantras repeated in śrāddha carry the food to the pitṛs.

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⁷⁵⁵ अथ ये नास्तिका मृतानां पित्रादीना मतिरिक्तशुभाशुभकर्मवशेन स्वर्गनरकादिषु तत्तद्योनिषु वा गताना श्राद्धकरणमनर्थकमित्याहुस्तन्निराकरणं तावत् क्रियते। किं विध्यभावाद्वा श्राद्धकरणमनर्थकसुत फलाभावादुत पित्रादीनां तृप्त्यसिद्धे । न तावदाद्य. तस्मात्सर्वप्रयत्नेन श्राद्धं कुर्याद्विचक्षण —इत्यादिविधिदर्शनात् । न द्वितीय । आयुः प्रजा धनं विद्या स्वर्गं मोक्ष सुखानि च—इत्यादिफलश्रवणात् । न तृतीयः। न ह्यत्र देवदत्तादय एव श्राद्धकर्मणि संप्रदानभूता पित्रादिशब्दैरुच्यन्ते किं त्वधिष्ठातृवस्वादिदेवतासहिता एव। यथा देवदत्तादिशब्देन शरीर-मात्रं नाप्यात्ममात्रं किन्तु शरीरविशिष्टाः प्राणिन एवोच्यन्ते । एवमधिष्ठातृदेवतासहिता एव देवदत्तादय. पित्रादिशब्दैरुच्यन्ते । अतश्चाधिष्ठातृदेवता वस्वादय. पुत्रादिभिर्दत्तेनान्नपानादिना तृप्ताः सन्तस्तानपि देवदत्तादींस्तर्पयन्ति कर्तृंश्च पुत्रादिफलेन योजयन्ति । यथा माता गर्भपोषणायन्द्यदत्तेन दोहदान्नपानादिना स्वयमवपुष्टकेन तृप्ता सती स्वजठरगतमपत्य तर्पयति दोहदाभप्रदायिनश्च प्रत्युपकारफलेन संयोजयति तद्वद्वसुरुरुद्रादित्या पितर पितृपितामहप्र-पितामहशब्दवाच्या न केवलं देवदत्तादय एव । तदेते श्राद्धदेवता श्राद्धकर्मणि सम्प्रदानभूता-श्राद्धेन तर्पिताः सन्तो मनुष्याणां पितॄंस्तर्पयन्तीति । श्राद्धकल्पलता pp 3-4. The passage from न ह्यत्र देवदत्तादयः up to the end is taken almost verbatim from the Mit. on Yāj. I 268. The श्राद्धतत्त्व p 191 remarks 'वसुरुरुद्रादिसुताः—इति एतद्वचनं तु तदाकारत्वेन भावनापरमिति श्राद्धविवेकवादय.।'

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⁷⁵⁶ अन्नप्रकिरणं यत्तु मनुष्यैः क्रियते भुवि। तेन तृप्तिमुपायान्ति ये पिशाचत्वमागताः॥ यदम्बु स्नानवस्त्रोत्थं भूमौ पतति पुत्रक। तेन ये तरुतां प्राप्तास्तेषां तृप्तिः प्रजायते॥ यास्तु गन्धा-म्बुकणिकाः पतन्ति धरणीतले। ताभिराप्यायनं तेषां ये देवत्वं कुले गताः॥ उद्धृतेष्वथ पिण्डेषु याश्चाङ्गकणिका भुवि। ताभिराप्यायनं तेषां ये तिर्यक्त्वं कुले गताः॥ ये चादग्धाः (चादन्ताः¹) कुले बालाः क्रियायोग्या ह्यसंस्कृताः। विप्रक्षारस्तेभ्यविकिरसंमार्जनजलाशिनः॥ भुक्त्वा चाचामतां जलं यच्च जलं यच्चाङ्घ्रिशोधने। ब्राह्मणानां तथैवान्ये तेन तृप्तिं प्रयान्ति वै॥ मार्कण्डेय 28. 8-13, स्कन्द VII I. 205 23-28 (*with slight variations*), ब्रह्मपुराण 220. 89-95, (*Continued on the next page*) (*Continued from the last page*) quoted by स्मृतिच. (आ p 333.), श्राद्धसार p. 7 (the first three from मार्कण्डेय and the rest from मत्स्यपुराण), श्रा क. ल p 5; नामगोत्रं पितॄणां तु प्रापकं हव्यकव्ययोः। नामगोत्रप्रकालदेशा (नाममन्त्रास्तथा देशा) भवान्तरगतानापि॥ प्राणिनाः प्रीणयन्त्येते तदाहारत्वमागतान्। देवो यदि पिता जातः शुभकर्माभियोगतः। तस्यान्नममृतं भूत्वा दिव्यत्वेप्युपतिष्ठति। दैत्यत्वे भोगरूपेण पशुत्वे च तृणं भवेत्। श्राद्धान्नं वायुPathरूपेण सर्पत्वेप्युपतिष्ठति। पानं भवति यक्षत्वे राक्षसत्वे तथाऽमिषम्। दनुजत्वे तथा माया (मांसं?) प्रेतत्वे रुधिरोदकम्। मनुष्यत्वेऽन्नपानानि नानाभोगरसं भवेत्॥ मत्स्य 19.4-9 (with changes in the order of verses) q as from मार्कण्डेय by स्मृतिच (श्रा. p. 448), श्रा क ल pp. 5-6, निर्णयसिन्धु III p. 394 (from मत्स्य) Vide पद्म (सृष्टि 10. 38-43) for same verses with variations The गरुड (प्रेतखण्ड) 10. 4-7 are almost the same as those from देवो etc. to the end and गरुड (प्रेत० 10.12 and 15 are the same as the verses नामगोत्रं... तदाहारत्वमागतान्. The स्मृतिच. (श्रा. 448) explains: नामानि देवदत्तयज्ञदत्तादीनि मन्त्राः पृथिवी ते पात्रमित्यादयः आदेशा इदमन्नादिकममुष्मै भवत्विति एवमादिनिर्देशाः मार्कण्डेय 29, 27-28 are similar.

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⁷⁵⁷ यथा गोषु प्रनष्टासु वत्सो विन्दति मातरम्। तथा श्राद्धेषु दृष्टान्तो (दत्तान्नं?) मन्त्रः प्रापयते तु तम्॥ मत्स्य 141. 76, वायु 56. 85 and 83. 119-120, ब्रह्माण्ड, अनुषङ्गपाद 218. 90-91, उपोद्घातपाद 20. 12-13, q. by स्मृतिच (आ p. 448) which reads गोष्ठप्रणष्टो and आदेशश्चोदितं), श्रा. क ल. p. 5

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The explanation offered by the Śrāddha-kalpalatā relying on passages of the Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa is not satisfactory and is rather far-fetched. The Mārkaṇḍeya and the Matsya appear to agree with the doctrine of Vedānta that immediately on leaving one body the soul has recourse to another body, either as a god or a man or a beast or a snake &c. The hypothesis propounded is that the food and drink offered in śrāddhas becomes transformed into various substances for the use of the ancestors (Matsya 141. 74-75). But the great difficulty in accepting this explanation is that the ancestors might die at different places, while śrāddha may very often be performed at one place far away from those places. It is difficult to believe that the grass growing in one place where the ancestor has been transformed into a beast as a result of his evil actions is the same that might have been produced from the substances offered in śrāddha at a place hundreds of miles away. Further, if one or all the three ancestors have been transformed into beasts or the like how can they recognize their offspring and bestow on them long life, wealth &c? If the Vasus, Rudras and Ādityas bestow these, it is better to say so directly and affirm that pitṛs cannot bestow any thing on their progeny. It appears very probable that the worship of ancestors by means of śrāddhas was a very ancient institution and that the doctrines of *punarjanma* and *karmavipāka* were comparatively later ones and that Hinduism being all-embracing retained the institution of śrāddhas while adopting also the doctrine of metempsychosis. The institution of śrāddha is from one point of view an excellent one. It provides an occasion for remembrance of one's ancestors and relatives that were dear and near when living The Āryasamāja objects to the institution of śrāddha and interprets pitṛs in the Ṛgveda as meaning living men in the Vānaprastha stage. It may be noted that the texts support both views. The Śat. Br. expressly says that food is offered to the father of the sacrificer in the words 'this is for thee.' Viṣṇu Dh. S. 75. 4 'He whose father is dead may put down a piṇḍa for his father &c.' On the other hand Manu III. 284 states that fathers are spoken of as Vasus, grandfathers as Rudras &c and Yāj. I. 269 provides that Vasus, Rudras and Ādityas are the pitṛs and the devatās of śrāddha. These latter are to be explained as containing an injunction to contemplate upon the pitṛs as Vasus, Rudras &c.

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As stated below (p. 347) with regard to the Ṛgvedic passages, it was on account of the supposed power of pitṛs to benefit or harm the living that the cult of the dead became a prominent feature in primitive societies. Offerings and ceremonies which may have in most ancient times been prompted in part at least by the desire to placate the ancestors are continued as tokens of pure affection and remembrance. Various beliefs about pitṛs are mentioned⁷⁵⁸ in post-Vedic literature. The Baud. Dh. S. II. 8. 14 summarizes a brāhmaṇa text stating that pitṛs move about in the form of birds. The Auśanasa-smṛti and Devala quoted by the Kalpataru say the same thing. In the Vāyupurāṇa⁷⁵⁹ it is stated that at the time of śrāddha the ancestors enter the brāhmaṇas (invited) after assuming an aerial form and that when the best of brāhmaṇas are honoured with clothes, foods, gifts, eatables, liquids, cows, horses and villages, pitṛs become pleased. Manu III. 189 and the Auśanasa-smṛti also support this notion that pitṛs enter the invited brāhmaṇas. The Matsyapurāṇa (18. 5-7) enjoins: piṇḍas should be offered to the departed for twelve days after death, since they serve him as food on his journey and give him great satisfaction. Therefore, the soul leaving the dead body is not taken to the abode of the departed for twelve days (after death), the departed spirit hovers near his house, his sons, his wife for twelve days. Therefore for ten days after death milk (and water) should be placed (hung up) in space for ten nights for reducing all torments (or troubles of the departed) and for the removal of the fatigue of the journey (that the departed spirit has to make). The Viṣṇudharmasūtra⁷⁶⁰ (20. 34-36) provides "the departed spirit enjoys in the world of *pitṛs* the food offered in śrāddha with the utterance of the word '*svadhā*'; whether the departed is in the state of a god or in the place of torments (Hell) or in the form of a lower animal or a human being, the śrāddha food offered by his relatives reaches him; when śrāddha is performed, the performer and the departed soul both certainly secure vigour (or prosperity)."

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⁷⁵⁸ वयसां पिण्डं दद्यात् । वयसां हि पितरः प्रतिमया चरन्तीति विज्ञायते। बौ. ध. सू. II.8.14; न च पश्येत काकादीन् पक्षिणस्तु न वारयेत् । तद्रूपाः पितरस्तत्र समायान्ति बुभुत्सवः॥ औशनस (Jiv. I. p. 531). न चात्र श्येनकाकादीन् पक्षिणः प्रतिषेधयेत् । तद्रूपाः पितरस्तत्र समायान्तीति वैदिकाद् ॥ देवल q. by कल्पतरु on श्राद्ध p. 17.

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⁷⁵⁹ श्राद्धकाले तु सततं वायुभूताः पितामहाः । आविशन्ति द्विजान् दृष्ट्वा तस्मादेतद् ब्रवीमि ते ॥ वस्त्रैरन्नैः प्रदानेस्तैस्तर्पयेत्तैस्तथैव च । गोभिरश्वैस्तथा ग्रामैः पूजयित्वा द्विजोत्तमान्। भवन्ति पितरः प्रीताः पूजितेषु द्विजातिषु ॥ तस्मादन्नेन विधिवत् पूजयेद् द्विजसत्तमान् । वायुपुराण 75.13-15 (= वायु. उत्तरार्ध 13.13-15, Venk. ed); ब्राह्मणास्ते समायान्ति पितरो ह्यन्तरिक्षगाः। वायुभूताश्च तिष्ठन्ति भुक्त्वा यान्ति परां गतिम् ॥ औशनसस्मृति (Jiv. I. p. 526).

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⁷⁶⁰ पितृलोकगतश्चान्नं श्राद्धे भुङ्क्ते स्वधासमम् । पितृलोकगतस्यास्य तस्माच्छ्राद्धं प्रयच्छत ॥ देवत्वे यातनास्थाने तिर्यग्योनौ तथैव च । मानुष्ये च तथाप्नोति श्राद्धं दत्तं स्वबान्धवैः । प्रेतस्य श्राद्धकर्तुश्च पुष्टिः श्राद्धे कृते ध्रुवम् । तस्माच्छ्राद्धं सदा कार्यं शोकं त्यक्त्वा निरर्थकम् ॥ विष्णुधर्मसूत्र 20. 34-36 Compare मार्कण्डेय 23.49-51 (Venk. ed) for similar verses

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The Brahmapurāṇa⁷⁶¹ states that śrāddha is to be treated of under five heads, viz. how, where, when, by whom and with what materials. But before proceeding to deal with these five heads, it is necessary to dilate upon the underlying ideas and significance of the word '*pitarah*' from the most ancient times of which we have literary records.

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⁷⁶¹ शृणुध्वं मुनिशार्दूलाः श्राद्धकल्पं सविस्तरात् । यथा यत्र यदा येषु (v. l. येन) यैर्द्रव्यैस्तद्वदाम्यहम् ॥ ब्रह्मपुराण 220. 2.

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The word '*pitṛ*' means 'father', but the word '*pitarah*' is used in two senses, viz. (1) a man's three immediate deceased ancestors, (2) the early or ancient ancestors of the human race that were supposed to inhabit a separate world (*loka*) by themselves.⁷⁶² For this second meaning, vide Ṛg. X 14. 2 and 7, X.15.2 (translated above pp. 191–92, 194) and Ṛg. IX.97.39.762a 'That Soma which becomes stronger and stronger and makes others strong, that is strained through a strainer, that flows in a stream, protected us by means of the luminary (the Sun)—that Soma with whose help our ancestors knowing the place (where the cows were kept concealed) and the higher regions, harassed the mountain for (the sake of recovering) the cows.' In Ṛg. X. 15 1 the *pitṛs* are said to be of three grades, lower, middling or higher. They are also said to be earlier and later ones (Ṛg. X. 15 2). They are all known to Agni, though all *pitṛs* are not known to their descendants (Ṛg. X. 15 13). The *pitṛs* are divided into several groups such as Aṅgirasas, Vairūpas, Atharvans, Bhṛgus, Navagvas and Daśagvas (Ṛg. X. 14. 5–6), the Aṅgirasas being particularly associated with Yama who is invoked to come to the sacrifice along with the Aṅgirasas (Ṛg. X. 14. 3–5). In Ṛg. I.⁷⁶³ 62. 2 it is said: 'through whose (Indra's) help our ancient ancestors (*pitaraḥ*), the Aṅgirasas, who sang his praises and who knew the place, found out the cows.' The *pitṛs* called Aṅgiras were, it appears, again subdivided into two classes viz. Navagva and Daśagva⁷⁶⁴ both of which words occur in Ṛg. I. 62 4, V. 39. 12 and X. 62. 6. In several passages the ancient fathers are identified with the seven sages⁷⁶⁵ as in Ṛg. IV. 42.8 and VI. 22. 2 and sometimes the Navagvas and Daśagvas also are said to be the seven sages (Ṛg I. 62 4). Aṅgirasas are said to be the sons of Agni (Ṛg. X. 62. 5) and also of Heaven (Ṛg. IV. 2. 15). The *pitṛs* are often said to regale themselves in the company of gods, particularly of Yama (Ṛg VII. 76. 4, X. 14 10, X. 15. 8-10) ⁷⁶⁶ The *pitṛs* are said to be fond of Soma drink (Ṛg. X. 15. 1 and 5, IX. 97 39), they lie down on kuśa grass (Ṛg X. 15.5), they come with Agni and Indra to partake of the offerings (Ṛg X. 15. 10 and X. 16. 12) and Agni is also said to carry the offerings to the *pitṛs* (Ṛg X. 15. 12). Fire is supposed to take the spirit of a cremated person to the *pitṛs* (Ṛg. X 16. 1-2, 5 = A. V. 18. 2. 10, Ṛg X. 17. 3). In later works also (e. g. in Mārk. chap. 45), Brahmā is supposed to have created in the beginning four classes viz. gods, asuras, pitṛs and human beings Vide also Brahmāṇḍapurāṇa, Prakriyā, chap. 8, and upodghāta chap. 9. 35 (ityete pitaro devā devāśca pitaraḥ punaḥ anyonyapitaro hyete).

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⁷⁶² This idea is at least Indo-Iranian, if not Indo-European. The ancient Parsi scriptures speak of *Fravashis* that were originally the same as pitṛs of ancient Hindu works or the Manes among the ancient Romans. They were the everlasting and deified souls of the dead. Gradually the meaning of *Fravashi* was extended and even Gods and objects like the Earth and the sky were supposed to have each a *Fravashi*. Vide S. B. E. vol 4 p. 262 for the *Fravashis* of the holy Yama and for the different classes of *Fravashis*, also S. B. E. vol 23 pp. 180, 184, 230.

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762a 762 a येना नः पूर्वे पितरः पदज्ञा स्वर्विदो अभि गा अद्रिमुष्णन्॥ ऋ X. 97 39.

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⁷⁶³ येना नः पूर्वे पितरः पदज्ञा अर्चन्तो अङ्गिरसो गा अविन्दन्॥ ऋ I. 62.2

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⁷⁶⁴ नवग्वासः सुतसोमास इन्द्रं दशग्वासो अभ्यर्चन्त्यर्कैः। ऋ. V. 39 12, ये अग्ने. परि जज्ञिरे विरूपासो दिवस्परि। नवग्वो नु दशग्वो अङ्गिरस्तमः सचा देवेषु मंहते॥ ऋ X 62.6.

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⁷⁶⁵ अस्माकमत्र पितरस्त आसन् सप्त ऋषयो दौर्गहे बध्यमाने। ऋ IV. 42 8; तमु नः पूर्वे पितरो नवग्वाः सप्त विप्रासो अभि वाजयन्तः। ऋ VI. 22 2.

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⁷⁶⁶ त इदद्देवानां सधमाद आसन्नृतावानः कवयः पूर्व्यासः। गूह्ळुं ज्योतिः पितरो अन्वविन्दन् सत्यमन्त्रा अजनयन्नुपासम्॥ ऋ VII. 76 4, अथा पितॄन् सुविदत्राँ उपेहि यमेन ये सधमादं मदन्ति ॥ ऋ. X. 14.10 = अथर्व 18.2 11.

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It was supposed that the departed spirit, after the cremation of the body, was endowed with an ethereal body and became associated with Yama, the gatherer of departed men (Ṛg. X. 14. 1 and 8, X. 15. 14, X. 16 5), and with pitṛs. The departed spirit went to the world of the *pitṛs* and Agni was implored to take the spirit to the world of the departed whose deeds were good and to the stride of Viṣṇu (Ṛg. X. 14. 9, X. 15. 3, X. 16. 4).

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Although Yama is said to dwell in heaven (*divi*) in Ṛg. X. 64. 3, he is really a god of the middle region, as the Nirukta states.⁷⁶⁷ The Atharvaveda states.⁷⁶⁸ 'let us worship with obeisance the fathers and grandfathers of our father, that enter the wide middle regions, that dwell on the earth and in heaven.' In Ṛg. I. 35. 6⁷⁶⁹ it is said there are three worlds; two of them (Heaven and earth) are in the lap of Savitṛ; one (i. e. the middle region) is in the domain of Yama where departed spirits congregate. 'The great Luminary (the Sun) has risen, a gift of the pitṛs' (Ṛg X. 107. 1). In the Tai Br. I. 3. 10. 5⁷⁷⁰ it is said that the pitṛs dwell in the third world from this. This means that after bhūloka and antarikṣa comes the pitṛloka. In the Bṛ. Up. I. 5.16 three worlds of men, pitṛs and gods are separately mentioned. In Ṛg. X. 135. 1-7, Yama is spoken of in somewhat different language. He is in this hymn mentioned as a god by himself and not as the first mortal who made a path (Ṛg. X. 14. 2) or as the gatherer of men (X 14. 1) or as being in company of the pitṛs In a few other places Yama is no doubt called rājan and praised in the same breath with Varuṇa (Ṛg. X. 14. 7). But such a position is very rarely mentioned. For the further development of Yama and his assistants as the punishers of men for evil deeds, vide pp. 159-160 above and notes 381-386.

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⁷⁶⁷ मध्यमिको यम इत्याहुः। तस्मान् माध्यमिकान् पितॄन् मन्यन्ते। निरुक्त XI. 18. The Egyptian legend of Osiris presents many of the details connected with Yama. Vide Vulliamy's 'Immortal man,' chap V pp 140-143

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⁷⁶⁸ ये न पितुः पितरो ये पितामहा य आविशिरुरुर्वन्तरिक्षम्। य आक्षियन्ति पृथिवीमुत द्यां तेभ्यः पितृभ्यो नमसा विधेम ॥ अथर्ववेद 18 2 49.

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⁷⁶⁹ तिस्रो द्यावः सवितुर्द्धा उपस्थाँ एका यमस्य भुवने विराषाट् । ऋ. I 35 6.

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⁷⁷⁰ तृतीये वा इतो लोके पितर । तै. ब्रा. I. 3 10 5, अथ त्रयो वाव लोका मनुष्यलोकः पितृलोको देवलोक इति सोऽयं मनुष्यलोकः पुत्रेणैव जय्यो नान्येन कर्मणा कर्मणा पितृलोको विद्यया देवलोको देवलोको वै लोकानां श्रेष्ठस्तस्माद्विद्यां प्रशंसन्ति। बृह. उ. I. 5.16.

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There is another division of pitṛs viz. *pitaraḥ somavantaḥ*,⁷⁷¹ *pitaraḥ barhiṣadaḥ*, *pitaraḥ agniṣvāttāḥ* The latter two are named in Ṛg X. 15 4 and 11 (which occur also in Tai. S. II. 6. 12. 2). The Śat. Br. defines these as follows.—"those that performed a soma sacrifice are *pitaraḥ somavantaḥ*; those that offered cooked oblations (like *caru* and puroḍāśa) and secured a world are *pitaraḥ barhiṣadaḥ*; those that did none of these (two actions) and whom fire consumes when burning them are '*pitaraḥ agniṣvāttāḥ*;’ these are the only ones that are *pitaraḥ*." The Tai.⁷⁷² Br. has a somewhat similar passage and the Kāṭhaka Saṁhitā IX. 6. 17 also refers to these three kinds of *pitṛs*. Later writers introduced certain changes in the meanings of the words for the different classes of *pitṛs* and also increased the number of the classes of *pitṛs*. For example, the Nandipurāṇa q. by Hemādri states: the *pitṛs* of brāhmaṇas are called 'agniṣvātta', those of kṣatriyas 'barhiṣadaḥ', those of vaiśyas 'kāvyas', those of śūdras 'sukālin' and those of mlecchas and untouchables are called 'vyāma'.⁷⁷³ Even Manu (III. 193-198) mentions several classes of *pitṛs*, connects *pitṛs* called Somapās, Havirbhujah Ājyapās and Sukālins with the four varṇas and in III. 199 states that the *pitṛs* of brāhmaṇas are designated as Anagnidagdha, Agnidagdha, Kāvya, Barhiṣad, Agniṣvātta and Saumya. Those verses of Manu appear to summarize different traditions about the several classes of *pitṛs*. Vide Matsyapurāṇa 141. 4 for the same last four names and 141. 15-18 for their definitions. In Śātātapasmṛti (VI. 5-6) twelve groups or divisions of *pitṛs* are mentioned viz. piṇḍabhājah (three), lepabhājah (three), Nāndīmukhas (three) and Aśrumukhas (three). This is a classification of *pitṛs* from two different standpoints. In Vāyu 72.1 and 73.60, Brahmāṇḍa (Upodghāta 9.53), Padma V. 9. 2-3, Viṣṇudharmottara I. 138 2-3 and other Purāṇas the classes of *pitṛs* are said to be seven, three of which are formless (*amūrtimat*) and four have forms (*mūrtimat*) and they and their offspring are described in detail All this is passed over here. The Skandapurāṇa (VI. 216. 9-10) speaks of nine groups of *pitṛs*, being Agniṣvāttāḥ, Barhiṣadaḥ, Ājyapāḥ, Somapāḥ, Raśmipāḥ, Upahūtāḥ, those called 'āyantuṇaḥ', Śrāddhabhujaḥ, Nāndīmukhāḥ. In this list old and new elements are mixed up The Indian mind often revels in divisions, sub-divisions and classifications without much basis therefor and this is probably an illustration of that tendency. Manu (III 201) states that from the sages the *pitṛs* sprang, from the *pitṛs* sprang gods and human beings and from the gods arose the whole world whether moving or immovable. It is remarkable that here the gods are spoken of as springing from the *pitṛs* This is really a mere eulogy of *pitṛs* (i. e. it is an *arthavāda*).

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⁷⁷¹ तद्ये सोमेनेजानाः। ते पितरः सोमवन्तोऽथ ये दत्तेन पक्वेन लोकं जयन्ति ते पितरो बर्हिषदोऽथ ये ततो नान्यतरच्चन यानग्निरेव दहन्त्स्वदयति ते पितरोऽग्निष्वात्ताः । एत उ ते ये पितर. । शतपथब्रा II 6 1 7

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⁷⁷² पितॄन् बर्हिषदो यजति ये वै यज्वान. । . पितॄनग्निष्वात्तान् यजति ये वा अयज्वानो गृहमेधिन. । ते पितरो अग्निष्वात्ता । अग्निं कव्यवाहनं यजति य एव पितॄणामग्नि । तस्मादा तृतीयात्पुरुषात्सामनि गृह्णन्ति। एतावन्तो हीज्यन्ते । तै. ब्रा I 6.9.5 वायुपुराण (30.6-7) echoes this ‘अग्निष्वात्ताः स्मृतास्ते वै पितरोऽनाहिताग्नयः । यज्वानस्तेषु ये ह्यासंन् पितरः सोमपीथिन. । स्मृता बर्हिषदस्ते वै पितरोऽनाहिताग्नय. ’.

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⁷⁷³ अग्निष्वात्ता ब्राह्मणानां पितरः परिकीर्तिताः। राज्ञां बर्हिषदो नाम विशां काव्याः प्रकीर्तिताः ॥ सुकालिनस्तु शूद्राणां व्यामा म्लेच्छान्त्यजातिषु। q. by श्रा प्र. p 11 from हेमाद्रि, compare मनु III. 197.

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The *pitṛs* were in a class apart from the gods. On the meaning of the word 'pañcajanāḥ' occurring in Ṛg. X. ⁷⁷⁴ 53.4 (pañcajanā mama hotram juṣadhvam) and other passages, the Ait. Br. (13.7 or 3.31) explains that they are the five classes, viz. Gandharvas with Apsarases, pitṛs, devas, sarpas and rākṣasas. The Nirukta III. 8 partly follows this explanation and also gives another. In the Atharvaveda X. 6. 32 the gods, *pitṛs* and men are mentioned in that order. The ancient Vedic texts and practice make a sharp distinction between the Gods and the Pitṛs. The Tai. S. VI. 1. 1. 1 states: 'the gods and men divided the quarters, the gods took the east, *pitṛs* the south, men the west and Rudras the north.' The general rule is that sacrifices for gods are begun in the forenoon, while the pitṛ-yajña is performed in the afternoon (Śāṅ Br.).⁷⁷⁵ The Śat Br. II. 4. 2.2 narrates that the pitṛs wearing the sacred thread over the right shoulder (and under the left arm) and bending their left knee approached Prajāpati, when Prajāpati said to them 'you will have food at (the end of) each month (on the Amāvāsyā), your *svadhā* (cordial) will be swiftness of thought and the moon will be your light,' while to the gods he had said that sacrifice will be their food and the sun their light. The Tai. Br.⁷⁷⁶ I. 3. 10. 4 appears to make a distinction between pitṛs who are of the nature and position of gods and pitṛs that are more or less like human beings.

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⁷⁷⁴ पञ्च जना मम होत्रं जुषध्वम् । गन्धर्वाः पितरो देवा असुरा रक्षांसीत्येके। चत्वारो वर्णा निषादः पञ्चम इत्यौपमन्यवः। निरुक्त III. 8. The तै. ब्रा. 13.7 has 'सप्तदश प्रजानां सूक्तं देवमनुष्याणां गन्धर्वाप्सरसां सर्पाणां च पितॄणां च' The real meaning of पञ्चजना is the same as that of पञ्चकृष्टयः (in Ṛg X 60 4), पञ्च क्षितीर्नाधुषी (Ṛg VII. 79.1), पञ्च चर्षणीः (Ṛg. V. 86 2) and we have यत् पाञ्चजन्यया विशा in Ṛg VIII. 63 7. पञ्चजनाः means विशः, the whole Aryan people divided probably into five clans. By the time of the Ait. Br. the original meaning of पञ्चजना was probably forgotten. The वेदान्तसूत्र (I. 4. 11-13) explains that the expression पञ्चपञ्चजना occurring in Bṛ. Up. IV 4 17 refers to Prāṇa, Cakṣuḥ (eye), ear, food and mind occurring in the next verse (Bṛ. Up IV. 4 18). Śaṅkarācārya in his bhāṣya on Vedāntasūtra I. 4.12 states that the word पञ्चजन in Ṛg. VIII 53 7 means *prajā* (people).

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⁷⁷⁵ अथ यदपराह्ने पितृयज्ञेन चरन्ति अपक्षयभाजो वै पितर । शा. ब्रा. V. 6.

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⁷⁷⁶ देवान् वै पितॄन् प्रीतान् मनुष्या पितरोऽनुप्रपिर्पते । तिस्र आहुतीर्जुहोति त्रिर्निदधाति। षड् सम्पद्यन्ते। षड् वा ऋतवः। ऋतवः खलु वै देवाः पितरः। ऋतूनेव देवान् पितॄन् प्रीणाति। तान् प्रीतान्मनुष्या. पितरोऽनुप्रपिर्पते। तै ब्रा. I. 3, 10 4 (com explains अनुप्रपिर्पते as प्रीता भवन्ति). This is alluded to in the वायुपुराण 30, 4 'मध्वादय षड् ऋत ास्तान् पितॄन्परिचक्षते। ऋतवः पितरो देवा इत्येषा वैदिकी श्रुतिः॥'

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The Kauśika-sūtra (1. 9-23) neatly collects in one place the difference in the procedure of the rites meant for gods and for pitṛs. The performer of rites for gods wears the sacred thread on the left shoulder and under the right armpit, while in the case of the rites for pitṛs it is worn on the right shoulder and under the left arm; the rite for gods is either begun facing the east or north, while that for the pitṛs is begun facing the south; the rite for gods is finished in the north-east (or north or east), while that for the *pitṛs* is completed in the south-west; an action is done only once for *pitṛs*, while for gods at least thrice or as many times as the texts direct; in going round (perambulating) the right side is turned towards gods and the left one in the case of *pitṛs*; offerings are made to gods with the words '*svāhā*' and '*vaṣaṭ*', while they are made to pitṛs with '*svadhā*' and 'namaskāra'; the darbhas employed in rites for Fathers are those that are taken out from the earth with their roots, while for gods darbhas used are cut a little above the roots. The Baud. Śr. II. 2. also mentions some of these in one place.⁷⁷⁷ The Ṛgveda itself (in X. 14. 3 'svāhānye svadhayānye madanti') marks this distinction in the words employed at the offerings to Gods and *Pitṛs*. The Śat. Br. (II. 1. 3. 4 and II. 1. 4. 9) speaks of the gods as immortal and of the Fathers as mortal.

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⁷⁷⁷ प्रागपवर्गण्युदगपवर्गाणि वा प्राङ्मुखः प्रदक्षिण यज्ञोपवीती दैवौनि कर्माणि करोति। दक्षिणामुखः प्रसव्यं प्राचीनार्थीती पित्र्याणि। बौ. श्रौ. II. 2.

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Though the gods and pitṛs are placed in separate classes, still the *pitṛs* partake of some characteristics of the divine. As Ṛg. X. 15. 8 shows, the pitṛs drank Soma. In Ṛg. X. 68. 11 it is said that the *pitṛs* adorned the sky with nakṣatras (nakṣatrebhiḥ pitaro dyām-apiṁśan) and placed darkness in the night and light in the day. The pitṛs are said to have found out the light that was secreted and to have produced the Dawn (Ṛg. VII. 76. 4). Here the *pitṛs* are credited with powers possessed by the highest gods. The pitṛs are invoked with affection and regard for conferring various boons and their favour is sought in various ways. In Ṛg. X. 14. 6 the good will (*sumati*) and favour (*saumanasa*) of the pitṛs are sought. In Ṛg. X. 15. 1 and 5 the protection of pitṛs is sought. They are requested to grant happiness unmixed with trouble (Ṛg. X. 15. 4.), to bestow wealth on the sacrificer (Ṛg. X. 15. 7 and 11) and on his son. Ṛg. X. 15. 11 and A. V. 18. 3. 14⁷⁷⁸ seek the bestowal of wealth and heroic sons. A. V. 14. 2. 73 says 'May the *pitṛs* who throng round the bride to see her grant her happiness endowed with progeny.'⁷⁷⁹ In the Vāj. S. II. 33 occurs the the well-known mantra 'Oh pitṛs! deposit (in this wife) an embryo, a child that (will wear later) a garland of lotuses so that he may become a grown-up male' repeated when the wife of the performer of the śrāddha eats the middle one out of the three piṇḍas. It should not be, however, supposed that the element of fear of the pitṛs is altogether wanting.780a For example, Ṛg. X. 15. 6 prays 'whatever fault we may commit in reference to you through our being (erring) men do not injure us for that.' In Ṛg. III. 55. 2 we read 'May the gods and the ancient *pitṛs* who know the place (of the cows or the path) not harm us here.' In Ṛg. X. 66. 14 it is said 'the Vasiṣṭhas praising the gods fashioned speech (hymns) like *pitṛs* and like sages.' Here pitṛs and ṛṣis are separate groups and Vasiṣṭhas are compared to both.780b

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⁷⁷⁸ परा यात पितर आ च यातावयं वो अत्तो मधूना समन्तः। दतो अस्मभ्यं द्रविणेह भद्रं रयिं च नः सर्ववीरं दधात। अथर्ववेद 18. 3. 14.

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⁷⁷⁹ ये पितरो वधूदर्शों इमं वहतुमागमन। ते अस्मै वध्वै संम्पत्नीं प्रजामूर्जं कृणोतन॥ अथर्व 14. 2. 73.

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⁷⁸⁰ आधत्त पितरो गर्भ कुमारं पुष्करस्रजम् । यथेह पुरुषोऽसत् ॥ वाज. सं. II. 33. The खादिरगृह्य III 5. 30 provides 'मध्यमे पिण्डं पत्न्याश प्राशयेदाधत्त... ' गोभिलगृह्य IV. 3. 27 and also कौशिकसूत्र 83. 6. The तै. ब्रा. III. 7. 13. reads '...प्राशयेदाधत्त पितरो गर्जं कुमारमवप्सुमन्तमन्तः'. The Āśv. śr. says 'एतं मध्यमं' and so in षडशीतिवचन the idea is that the son may be long-lived--यथेह पुरुषः स्यात् ... यथेह ...असत् may be explained as 'येन प्रकारेण पुरुषोऽस्मिन् पुथ्वी इत्यर्थे पुरुषशब्दः प्रसिद्धिरुचिता भूयाद् तथा गर्भमाधत्त।' ब्राह्मणाम्नाय cf. हरदत्त on आप. गृ. VIII. 22. 2. It says आधत्तेति मध्यमपिण्डं पत्नी प्राश्नाति पुत्राकामा.

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780a Compare Vulliamy's 'Immortal man' (pp. 24–25) for fear and affection as the elements of the attitude towards the dead among primitive as well as civilized men.

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780b देवाः सौम्याश्च काव्याश्च अयज्वानो ह्ययोनिजाः। देवास्ते पितरः सर्वे देवास्तान्वादयन्त्युत॥ मनुष्यपितरश्चैव तेभ्योऽन्ये लौकिकाः स्मृताः। पिता पितामहश्चैव तथा यः प्रपितामहः॥ ब्रह्माण्डपुराण II 28.70-71; अङ्गिराश्च क्रतुश्चैव कश्यपश्च महाऋषि । एते कुरुकुलश्रेष्ठ महायोगेश्वराः स्मृताः। एते च पितरो राजन्नेष श्राद्धविधिः परः । प्रेतास्तु पिण्ड-सम्बन्धान्मुच्यन्ते तेन कर्मणा ॥ अनु 92 21-22 This last shows that ancient sages like अंगिरस्, क्रतु and कश्यप are पितृs to whom water is offered (and no पिण्डs), while piṇḍas are offered to one's immediate deceased ancestors.

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In many passages of the Vedic Literature the word *pitaraḥ* is applied to the three immediate deceased male ancestors of a man. 'Therefore up to three generations they specify (the ancestors) by name; for so many are the ones to whom sacrifice is offered' (vide n. 772 above). The Śat. Br. II 4. 2. 19⁷⁸¹ mentions the presentation formulas of the cakes to the father, grand-father and great-grand-father and then states that the performer mutters the words "here, O fathers! regale yourselves, like bulls come here each to his own share' (*Vāj. S* II. 31 first half). Some (such as Tai. S. I. 8. 5. 1) repeated the formula "this here (ball of rice) is for thee and (for those) that come after thee." But the Śat. Br. emphatically says that he should not offer with this formula, but rather with the formula 'this here is for thee.' In Śat. Br. XII. 8. 1. 7 the three immediate paternal ancestors are said to be svadhā-loving. Relying on these Vedic passages and on the fact that Manu (III. 221) and Viṣṇudharmasūtra (21. 3, 75. 4) prescribe the invocation of pitṛs after mentioning their gotra and names that the Śrāddhaprakāśa (p 13) concludes that it is really the father and the other ancestors that are the deities of śrāddha and not Vasu, Rudra and Āditya, since these latter have no gotra and that the description of the father and others as Vasu, Rudra and Āditya is meant only for contemplation (on them as identical with Vasus &c.). On a passage of the Brahmapurāṇa⁷⁸² prescribing that the performer should say to the invited brāhmaṇas that he would call the pitṛs to the rites and that when the brāhmaṇas give permission to call them he should do so, the Śr. P. (p. 204) remarks that the pitṛs here meant are the divine ones viz. Vasus, Rudras and Ādityas and also the human ones viz. the performer's father and the rest. The Vāyupurāṇa (56 65-66) Brahmāṇḍa and Anu. distinguish between pitṛs who are above and pitṛs who are *laukika*, viz father, grand-father and great-grand-father. Vide also Vāyu 70. 34 for pitṛs that are like gods.

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⁷⁸¹ स ददाति। असावेतत्त इत्येव यजमानस्य पित्रे ये च त्वामन्वित्यु हैके आहुस्तदु तथा न ब्रूयात् स्वयं वै तेषा सह येषा सह तस्माद् ब्रूयादसावेतत्त इत्येव यजमानस्य पित्रे असावेतत्त इति पितामहायासावेतत्त इति प्रपितामहाय। तद्यदितः पराग्ददाति सकृदु ह्येव पराञ्च पितरः। शतपथ II 8.4 2. The तै सं. I 8 5 1 is: सोमाय पितृमते पुरोडाशं षट्कपालं निर्वपति पितृभ्यो बर्हिषद्भ्यो धाना. पितृभ्योऽग्निष्वात्तेभ्योऽभिघार्यायै दुग्धे मन्थम्। एतत् ते तत ये च त्वामन्व एतत् ते पितामह प्रपितामह ये च त्वामन्व अत्र पितरो यथाभागं मन्दध्वम्। Again in तै. सं III 2.5 5 occurs the passage 'एतत्ते तत...मन्दध्वम्'. This is carried on to later times as in अनु० 92 15 'सोमायेति च वक्तव्यं तथा पितृमतेति च'. Vide also अथर्व० 18. 4. 71–77 'अग्नये कव्यवाहनाय स्वधा नम । सोमाय पितृमते स्वधा नम । पितृभ्य सोमवद्भ्यः स्वधा नम.। यमाय पितृमते स्वधा नमः। एतत्ते प्रततामह स्वधा ये च त्वामनु। एतत्ते ततामह स्वधा ये च त्वामनु। एतत्ते तत स्वधा। ' In Ṛg IX 11 23 कारुरहं ततो भिषक्, तत means 'father'. नपात् (=पौत्र) and प्रणपात् (प्रपौत्र) occur in Ṛg. VIII. 17.13.

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⁷⁸² ब्रह्मपुराणे। पितॄनावाहयामीति स्वयमुक्त्वा समाहितः। आवाहयस्वेति परैरुक्तस्त्वावाहयेच्छुचिः॥ पितरो दिव्याः वसुरुद्रादित्याः मानुषाः यजमानस्य पित्रादयः। श्रा. प्र. p. 204.

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In the post-Vedic literature, particularly in the Purāṇas, a great deal is said about the origin and classes of pitṛs. For example, the Vāyupurāṇa 56. 18 speaks of three classes of pitṛs viz 'kavyāḥ, barhiṣadaḥ and agniṣvāttāḥ', while the same Purāṇa, chap. 73, Varāha 13. 16 ff, Padma (Sṛṣṭi 9. 2-4) and Brahmāṇḍa III. 10 1 speak of the origin of pitṛs of seven classes that dwell in heaven, four of which have a form (*mūrtimat*) and three of which are without form (*amūrta*). The Śātātapa-smṛti (6. 5-6) speaks of 12 pitṛs viz. piṇḍabhājaḥ, lepabhājaḥ, nāndīmukhāḥ and aśrumukhāḥ. All such descriptions have to be passed over from considerations of space.

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From the sūtra period (about 600 B. C) to the most modern among medieval Dharmaśāstra works the authors wax eloquent over the praises or the importance or benefits of the institution of śrāddhas. One of the earliest works among these, viz. the Āp. Dh. S gives the following interesting information:⁷⁸³ "Formerly men and gods lived together in this world. The gods went to heaven owing to sacrifices (i. e. as a reward of sacrifices that they performed), but men remained behind. Those among men who perform sacrifices in the same way as the gods did, dwell in the other world (i. e. heaven) with the gods and Brahman. Then (seeing that men lagged behind) Manu promulgated the rite which is designated by the word 'śrāddha' and which tends to the salvation (or happiness) of mankind. In this rite the Manes (*pitarah*) are the deities but the brāhmaṇas (that are fed) are in the place of the āhavanīya fire (in which in sacrifices to gods oblations are offered)". On account of this last sūtra Haradatta (com. of Āp. Dh. S.) and others hold that feeding the brāhmaṇas is the principal act at a śrāddha. The Brahmāṇḍapurāṇa (Upodghātapāda 9. 15. and 10. 99) speaks of Manu as the promulgator of śrāddha rites and Viṣṇupurāṇa III. 1 30, Vāyu 44. 38 and Bhāgavata III. 1. 22 designate Manu as Śrāddha-deva. Similarly, in the Śāntiparva 345.⁷⁸⁴ 14–21 and the Viṣṇu-dharmottara I.139 14–16 it is stated that the institution of śrāddha was established in the Boar incarnation by Viṣṇu and that Viṣṇu should be regarded as dwelling in the three piṇḍas offered to the father, grand-father and great-grandfather. From this and from the passage of the Āp. Dh. S cited above we may infer that it was believed even several centuries before Christ that the institution of śrāddhas had a hoary antiquity behind it and that it was as old as Manu, the father of mankind according to the Ṛgveda (VIII. 63. 1, VIII 30. 3.). It is, however, very remarkable that the word 'śrāddha' itself does not occur in any undoubtedly authentic and ancient Vedic passage, though the rite called Piṇḍapitryajña⁷⁸⁵ (performed on the amāvāsyā of each month by an *Ahītāgni*), the Mahāpitṛyajña (performed in the Cāturmāsya called Sākamedha) and the rites called Aṣṭakās were known to the early Vedic literature. The word śrāddha occurs in the Kaṭhopaniṣad (1.3.17) 'whoever proclaims this highly esoteric doctrine in an assembly of brāhmaṇas or at the time of śrāddha tends to secure immortality.'⁷⁸⁶ The other early occurrences of the word śrāddha known to me are confined to the sūtra literature. The most reasonable and probable inference to be drawn from these facts is this that only a few rites (mentioned just above) were known as related to the *pitṛs* and that therefore no need arose for a generic term in very ancient times to comprehend several rites for the *pitṛs*. But when the number of rites in honour of *pitṛs* increased, the generic term 'śrāddha' was hit upon.

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⁷⁸³ सह देवमनुष्या अस्मिँल्लोके पुरा बभूवुः। अथ देवा कर्मभिर्दिवं जग्मुरहीयन्त मनुष्या.। तेषा ये तथा कर्माण्धारभन्ते सह देवैर्ब्रह्मणा चासुष्मिल्लोके भवन्ति। अथैतन्मनु. श्राद्धशब्दं कर्म प्रोवाच । प्रजानां श्रेयसाय च। तत्र पितरो देवता ब्राह्मणास्त्वाहवनीयार्थे । आप ध सू II 7 16. 1-3

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⁷⁸⁴ पिता पितामहश्चैव तथैव प्रपितामहः। अहमेवात्र विज्ञेयस्त्रिषु पिण्डेषु संश्रित । शान्ति 345 21, q by श्रा म p. 11.

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⁷⁸⁵ That पिण्डपितृयज्ञ is a श्राद्ध is stated by गोभिलगृह्य IV 4. 1-2 'अन्वष्टक्यस्थालीपाकेन पिण्डपितृयज्ञो व्याख्यातः। अमावास्यां तच्छ्रराद्धमितरदन्वाहार्यम्।.' Vide श्रा म p, 4 for the same For a description of पिण्डपितृयज्ञ, vide H. of Dh. vol II. pp. 1085-1090, for महापितृयज्ञ *ibid*. pp. 1101-1103.

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⁷⁸⁶ य इमं परमं गुह्यं श्रावयेद् ब्रह्मसंसदि। प्रयतः श्राद्धकाले वा तदानन्त्याय कल्पते॥ कठ० I. 3. 17.

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A few samples of the panegyrics on śrāddha may be set out here. The Baud.⁷⁸⁷ Dh S. states that rites for the Fathers confer long life, heaven, fame and prosperity. The Harivaṃśa⁷⁸⁸ says 'the world derives support from śrāddha and Yoga (i. e. Mokṣa) springs from it.' Sumantu⁷⁸⁹ quoted in the Smṛticandrikā (śrāddha p. 333) states 'nothing else is declared to be more beneficial than śrāddha.' The Viṣṇupurāṇa (III. 14. 1-4) avers that if a man performs śrāddha with faith he thereby propitiates Brahmā, Indra, Rudra and the other gods, sages, birds, men, beasts, creeping animals, hosts of pitṛs and whatever else is styled a being and the whole world. Yāj. I. 270⁷⁹⁰ promising long life and several other benefits arising from gratifying *pitṛs* has already been quoted above (p. 337). Yama has a similar verse. It is said in a passage of the Viṣṇudharmottara⁷⁹¹ quoted by the Śrāddhasāra (p. 6) and Śrāddhaprakāśa (pp 11-12) that the *piṇḍa* offered to the great-grandfather is declared to be god Vāsudeva himself, the one to the grandfather is designated Sankarṣaṇa, that to the father is known as Pradyumna and the offerer of the piṇḍas is himself in the position of Aniruddha. In Śāntiparva 345. 21 it is stated that Viṣṇu should be looked upon as staying in the three piṇḍas. In the Kūrmapurāṇa it is stated 'on the day of *Amāvāsyā* the pitṛs assuming an aerial form come to the door of their former haunt and mark whether śrāddha is being performed by men of their family. This they do till sunset. When the sun sets, being oppressed by hunger and thirst, they become full of despair and feel sorrow, breathe heavily for a long time and go away condemning their descendants. The pitṛs of him who does not offer śrāddha on amāvāsyā, even with water or vegetables, go away after cursing him'.

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⁷⁸⁷ पिण्ड्यमायुष्यं स्वर्ग्यं यशस्यं पुष्टिकर्म च। बौ. ध. सू II. 8 1

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⁷⁸⁸ श्राद्धे प्रतिष्ठितो लोक श्राद्धे योगः प्रवर्तते॥ हरिवंश I. 21. 1.

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⁷⁸⁹ श्राद्धात्परतरं नान्यच्छ्रेयस्करमुदाहृतम् । तस्मात्सर्वप्रयत्नेन श्राद्धं कुर्याद्विचक्षणः॥ सुमन्तु q. by स्मृतिम्च (श्रा ) p. 333.

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⁷⁹⁰ आयु. पुत्रान् यशः स्वर्गं कीर्तिं पुष्टिं बलं श्रिय.। पशून् सौख्यं धनं धान्यं प्राप्नुयात्पितृपूजनात्॥ यम q. by स्मृतिम्च (श्रा. p. 333), श्राद्धसार p. 5. Similar verses are या I. 270 (= Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa 32.38) and शङ्ख 14 33.

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⁷⁹¹ पूजितैस्तैर्भविष्यन्ति चतुरात्मा तथाप्यहम्। पितृपितामहः पिण्डो वासुदेवः प्रकीर्तितः। प्रैतामहश्च निर्दिष्टस्तथा सङ्कर्षणः प्रभुः। पितृपिण्डश्च विज्ञेयः प्रद्युम्नश्चापराजितः। आत्मानिरुद्धो विज्ञेयः पिण्डनिर्वपणे बुधै.॥ विष्णुधर्मोत्तर I. 139.20-22, q. by श्राद्धसार p. 6 and श्राद्धप्र. pp. 11-12.

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It is necessary to say a few words about the derivation of the word 'śrāddha'. That the word is derived from 'śraddhā' is quite clear. In the definition quoted above from the Brahmapurāṇa and the definition⁷⁹² given by Marīci and Bṛhaspati the connection of śrāddha with śraddhā is emphasized. In śrāddha one entertains the firm faith or conviction that what is given up to the brāhmaṇas for the benefit of the departed man or the Fathers will reach him or them in some way. The Skandapurāṇa VI. 218. 3 says that śrāddha is so called because śraddhā is the root (or main spring) of that rite. This means that there is not only the conviction stated above but that there is a firm belief that a person is under an obligation to offer it. Śraddhā is deified and addressed as a deity in Ṛg.⁷⁹³ X. 151. 1-5, the first verse of which is explained in the Nirukta (IX. 31). The word also occurs in Ṛg. II. 26. 3, VII. 32. 14, VIII. 1. 31, IX. 113. 4. In some verses the two components of the word 'śraddhā' (viz. 'śrat' and 'dhā') are separated without any change in the meaning. For example, in Ṛg. II. 12. 5 (= A. V. 20. 34. 5) it is said 'Have faith in him; O people! he is Indra'. In Ṛg. X. 147. 1, addressed to Indra, we have 'I have faith in that high wrath of yours &c.' (śratte dadhāmi prathamāya manyave). In the Tai S VII 4. 1 1 it is⁷⁹⁴ said "Bṛhaspati desired 'may the gods put faith in me, may I reach the position of being their priest'". Vide also Rg. I. 103. 5. *Śrat* and *śraddhā* are both mentioned in the Nighaṇṭu (III. 10) as meaning '*satya*'. In the Vāj. S. 19 77 we are told that Prajāpati put Śraddhā in truth and aśraddhā in falsehood, while in Vāj. S. 19.30, it is said that truth is obtained by śraddhā.

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⁷⁹² प्रेतं पितॄंश्च निर्दिश्य भोज्यं यत्प्रियमात्मनः। श्रद्धया दीयते यत्र तच्छ्राद्धं परिकीर्तितम्॥ मरीचि quoted from the पृथ्वीचन्द्रोदय by निर्णयसिन्धु III. p. 372, श्रा. म p 7, संस्कृतं व्यञ्जनाढ्यं च पयोमधुघृतान्वितम्। श्रद्धया दीयते यस्माच्छ्राद्धं तेन निगद्यते॥ बृहस्पति q. by हेमाद्रि p. 152, अपरार्क p. 501, कल्पतरु (श्रा. p. 176), श्रा. म. p. 3, श्राद्धतत्त्व p. 189 quotes it as पुलस्त्य's.

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⁷⁹³ श्रद्धयाग्निः समिध्यते श्रद्धया हूयते हविः। श्रद्धां भगस्य मूर्धनि वचसो वेदयामसि॥ ऋ X. 151. 1

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⁷⁹⁴ बृहस्पतिरकामयत श्रन्मे देवा दधीरन् गच्छेयं पुरोधामिति। तै. सं VII. 4. 1.1.

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In the post-vedic Literature, Pāṇini explains the forms 'śrāddhin' and 'śrāddhika' in V. 2 85, in the sense of 'one who has eaten a śrāddha dinner' The word 'śrāddha' may be derived from śraddhā according to Pān. V. 1. 109⁷⁹⁵. Śraddhā is variously defined In the *bhāṣya* on Yogasūtra I 20, 'śraddhā' is defined as the composure of the mind⁷⁹⁶ (or mental approval). Devala defines śraddhā: 'confidence (in the efficacy) of religious acts is called śraddhā, one who has no faith has no reason (or motive) for engaging in religious acts'⁷⁹⁷. The Śrāddhasūtra⁷⁹⁸ of Kātyāyana prescribes 'one endowed with śraddhā should offer śrāddha even with vegetables (if nothing else is available)'. Vide Manu III. 275 which emphasizes śraddhā for the gratification of pitṛs The Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa (29. 27) emphasizes⁷⁹⁹ the relation of śrāddha to śraddhā and states that what is offered at śrāddhas becomes transformed into that kind of food for the use of the pitṛs who require food in the new bodies they might have assumed according to the doctrine of *karma* and *punarjanma* and it also remarks that śrāddha offered with wealth acquired in an improper or unjust way is a means of gratification to the pitṛs that are born as cāṇḍālas, pukkasas and similar very low grades of people.

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