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History of Dharmashastra (Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Law in India) v7.c91: Section V

History of Dharmaśāstra (Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Law in India) v7.c91

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Contents

Section V

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Influence of Purāṇas on Dharmaśāstra

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Literary works and society act and re-act on each other. The state of Indian society a few centuries before and after Christ, riven as it was by the growing strength and onslaught of Buddhism, Jainism and other dissenting sects and disturbed by invasions of the Greeks, Śakas, Pahlavas, Hūṇas and other foreign tribes, gave much food for thought to those who were devoted to the Vedic religion and induced them to write works setting forth new ideologies and practices and effecting a re-statement of the ancient Vedic and Smṛti religion. When these works attained a position of authority and eminence, the endeavour of the followers of the Veda was to follow them as far as possible and to adapt their practices and religious rites to the requirements of the Purāṇas. We have to see how the Purāṇas set about their task of re-orientation. We must note that current Hindu religious practices, judging from the *saṅkalpa* made at the beginning of every rite, are meant to confer upon the performer the rewards declared by Śruti (Veda), Smṛti and Purāṇas (Śruti-smṛti-purāṇokta-phalaprāptyartham). The task was two-fold, viz. (1) to undermine the power and prestige of Buddhism and Jainism and the influence of the numerous philosophical¹⁴⁴⁷ schools that had sprung up and (2) to wean away large sections of the masses from the attractive features of Buddhism and to convince them that they could secure in the re-orientated Hindu faith the same benefits, social and spiritual, as Buddhism promised and that the religious principles of the followers of Veda coincided with many of the teachings of Buddhism and were borrowed by Buddhism from Vedic practices. Ultimately Buddhism vanished from the land of its origin. The main causes of this disappearance of Buddhism from Bhārata will be stated at the end of this section, but this much may be said here at once that the Purāṇas played a substantial role in bringing about the decline and disappearance of Buddhism by emphasizing and assimilating some of the principles and doctrines of Buddha¹⁴⁴⁸ such as ahimsā, by accepting Buddha himself as an avatāra of Viṣṇu, by adopting vegetarianism as a high form of austerity, by making use of monasteries and asceticism as stated in such smṛtis as those of Manu and Yāj.

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¹⁴⁴⁷ It is stated in the Mahāvagga (part of Suttanipāta) that there were 63 philosophical schools at the time of Buddha (vide SBE vol. X. part 2 p. 92).

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¹⁴⁴⁸ Pargiter (in 'Purāṇa texts of the Dynasties of the Kali age' p XVIII footnote) thinks that it was largely through the Paurāṇika Literature that Hinduism secured its revival and the downfall of Buddhism.

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The Purāṇas set about their task by saying that for the proper understanding of the Veda, knowledge of Itihāsa and Purāṇa was essential. A famous verse says¹⁴⁴⁹ 'one should strengthen the Veda by (the study and application of) Itihāsa and Purāṇa; the Veda is afraid of the person of little learning (with the thought) that he (the man of small learning) may harm it'. Manu states¹⁴⁵⁰ that those brāhmaṇas that have learnt according to the rules (of Veda study) the Veda together with the works that strengthen it are to be understood as *śiṣṭas* and are instrumental in making (the meaning of) the Veda clearly perceptible. The Vāyu¹⁴⁵¹ emphasizes in this connection that that brāhmaṇa who knows the four Vedas together with (the six) ancillary lores and the Upaniṣads would not be a wise man if he did not know Purāṇas. The Upaniṣads drop brief hints about the creation of *ākāśa* from the one *brahma* (in Tai. Up. II. 1), of *tejas* (Chān. Up. VI. 2 3), of waters (Chān. Up. VI. 2. 4). The Purāṇas explain at great length the creation and dissolution of the elements (in the order reverse of that of creation) e g. Vāyu 4. 17 ff, Brahma 1-3, Agni 17, Brahmāṇḍa II. 3 ff, Kūrma I. 2, 4, 7, 8 &c. The stories of Hariścandra and Naciketas that occur in the Ait. Br. and the Kaṭhopaniṣad are explained at length in Brahmapurāṇa (chap. 104 and 150 about Hariścandra), in Sabhāparva chap. 12 (for Hariścandra) and in Anuśāsana chap. 91 (for Naciketas). The famous dialogue of Yama and Yamī (Ṛg. X. 10) is expanded in the Narasiṁha-purāṇa (chap. 13. 6-36). The Viṣṇupurāṇa¹⁴⁵² (IV. 6. 34 ff) sets out the story of Purūravas and Urvaśī, refers to the hymn in the Ṛg. X 95 for that story and quotes the first verse of the hymn in a somewhat corrupt form.

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¹⁴⁴⁹ इतिहासपुराणाभ्यां वेदं समुपबृंहयेत् । बिभेत्यल्पश्रुताद्वेदो मामयं प्रहरिष्यति ॥ आदिपर्व I 267-268, वायु 1. 201, पद्म V 2. 51-52, ब्रह्माण्ड I. 1 171, वसिष्ठधर्मसूत्र 27. 6, लघुन्यासस्मृति II. 86, वृद्धान्त्रि chap. 3 p. 50 in Jīvānanda's edition (reads प्रतरिष्यति). The स्मृतिच. (I. p. 3) ascribes this verse to बृहस्पति. The प्रायश्चित्ततत्त्व p. 511 quotes it from वसिष्ठ. The कूर्म I. 2 19 reads 'इतिहासपुराणाभ्यां वेदार्थानुपबृंहयेत्' रामानुज in his भाष्य on ब्रह्मसूत्र (p. 72 B. S. S) quotes this verse and reads प्रतरिष्यति

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¹⁴⁵⁰ धर्मेणाधिगतो यैस्तु वेदः सपरिवृंहण । ते शिष्टा ब्राह्मणा ज्ञेयाः श्रुतिप्रत्यक्षहेतवः ॥ मनु XII. 109.

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¹⁴⁵¹ यो विद्याच्चतुरो वेदान्साङ्गोपनिषदो द्विज. । न चेत्पुराणं संविद्यान्नैव स स्याद्विचक्षणः ॥ वायु I 200, स्कन्द, प्रभासखण्ड 2 93, पद्म V. 2 50-51 (reads the second half as 'पुराणं च विजानाति य स तस्माद्विचक्षण. ।' ब्रह्माण्ड I. 1. 170 has the first half.

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¹⁴⁵² विष्णुपुराण IV. 6. 64 in prose runs . ततश्चोन्मत्तरूपो जाये हे तिष्ठ मनसि घोरे तिष्ठ वचसि कपदिके तिष्ठेत्येवमनेकमकारं सूक्तमवोचत् । Compare ऋग्वेद X. 95 1 'हये जाये मनसा तिष्ठ घोरे वचांसि मिश्रा कृणवावहै नु'।

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But the claims of the extant Purāṇas go far beyond the above viz. as strengtheners of the Veda. The Kūrma¹⁴⁵³ states: '(put) on one side all the Purāṇas together with Itihāsa (Mahābhārata) and on another the highest Veda; it is this (Purāṇas) that surpasses (the other viz Veda)'. The Mahābhārata also makes a similar claim. The Purāṇas appear to claim priority (and even equality) with the Veda. In note 1349 passages from the Matsya and other Purāṇas have been cited, stating that Brahmā first thought of the Purāṇas before all other śāstras and then the Vedas sprang forth from his lips. Several Purāṇas are spoken of as equal to the Veda (Vedasammita) as in¹⁴⁵⁴ Vāyu I. 11, 4. 12, Brahma 1. 29, 245. 4 and 21, Viṣṇu I. 1. 13, VI. 8. 12, Padma VI. 282. 116. Further, several Purāṇas claim to have been delivered by some God such as Brahmā (Brahmapurāṇa I. 30) or by the Wind-god (Vāyu I. 196)¹⁴⁵⁵ or by the avatāras of Viṣṇu as in the case of Matsya-purāṇa (I. 26) or Varāha (2. 1-3). The japa of Vedic texts was deemed to destroy all sins as shown in H. of Dh. vol. IV. pp. 45-50. The Purāṇas also say that reading the Purāṇas or listening to a recitation of them would destroy all sins.¹⁴⁵⁶ Vide Vāyu 103. 58, Brahma 175. 89–90, Matsya 290 20, 291. 29 and 31, Viṣṇu VI. 8. 3, 12. Some of the Purāṇas indulge in extravagant praise of themselves, e. g. the Varāha-purāṇa (217. 12–13, 217. 15–16) states that reading ten chapters of that Purāṇa confers the merit secured by the performance of Agniṣṭoma and Atirātra sacrifices. Vide Brahma 254. 34–35, Agni 384. 13–30, Devī-Bhāgavata XII. 13. 11–17 in a similar strain Moreover, the Purāṇas dwell upon the superior value and efficacy, as compared with the Vedic sacrifices, of some of the institutions on which they lay emphasis, such as pilgrimages,¹⁴⁵⁷ *vratas*, *bhakti*. The Padma states (I. 38. 2 and 18) that by merely going to Gayā or by taking a bath in the Phalgu river one secures the reward that the performance of Aśvamedha confers. The Skanda proclaims¹⁴⁵⁸ 'I have no use for sacrificial rites that are declared by the Veda, that have no life in them, that are within the domain of ignorance and that entail injury (to animals). If (a sacrifice) is performed with such inanimate things as fuel-sticks, flowers and kuśa grass, the result must be similar (inanimate), since the effect is like the cause'. Vide Śāntiparva 337 for a story on the discussion between sages and gods about offering in sacrifices merely products of grains or goat-flesh. Offerings of flesh in sacrifices to gods were made in the Ṛgvedic period. But even in the Ṛgveda there are a few verses that indicate that offerings of ghee and fuel-sticks were declared to be able to win the favour of gods as much as animal sacrifices might do. 'Whoever¹⁴⁵⁹ offers to (or worships) Agni with a fuel-stick or with an oblation of ghee or with (the study of) the Veda or who performs a good sacrifice with prostrations, for him alone run fleet horses and his is most brilliant fame, and no evil whether brought about by gods or by men might reach him from any side'. Another mantra¹⁴⁶⁰ says 'O Agni! we bring to you an offering accompanied by a ṛkmantra fashioned (or produced) by our heart. May those mantras be oxen, bulls and cows from you'.

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¹⁴⁵³ एकतस्तु पुराणानि सेतिहासानि रिच्यते ॥ कूर्म II 46.129 (q. in note 1402 above). एकतश्चतुरो वेदा भारतं चैतदेकत । पुरा किल सुरै सर्वैः समेत्य तुलया धृतम् । चतुर्भ्यः सरहस्येभ्यो वेदेभ्यो ह्यधिकं यदा । तदाप्रभृति लोकेस्मिन्महाभारतमुच्यते । आदिपर्व 1 271-273.

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¹⁴⁵⁴ पुराणं संप्रवक्ष्यामि ब्रह्मरोक्तं वेदसंमितम् । वायु 1 11, शुशं प्रणम्य वक्ष्यामि पुराणं वेदसंमितम् । ब्रह्मा 1. 29, पुराणं नारदोपारम्यमेतद्वेदार्थसंमितम् । नारदीय I 1. 36.

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¹⁴⁵⁵ Vāyu (103 58-66) narrates how from Brahmā the purāṇa came to Vāyu and how through a succession of about 30 teachers it came down to Dvaipāyana and lastly to Sūta.

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¹⁴⁵⁶ सर्वपापहरं पुण्यं पवित्रं च यशस्वि च । ब्रह्मा ददौ शास्त्रमिदं पुराणं मातरिश्वने ॥ वायु 103. 58. पुराणसंहिता चेयं तत्र भूप मयोदिता । सर्वपापहरा नित्यमारोग्यश्रीफलप्रदा ॥ मत्स्य 290. 20. पुराणं वैष्णवं चेतत्सर्वकिल्विषनाशनम् । विशिष्टं सर्वशास्त्रेभ्यः पुरुषार्थोपपादकम् ॥ तत्तन्मयाख्यात पुराणं वेदसंमतम् (समितम् ?)। श्रुतेऽस्मिन् सर्वदोषोत्थ पापराशिं प्रणश्यति ॥ विष्णु. VI 8. 3 and 12.

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¹⁴⁵⁷ Vide H. of Dh. vol. IV pp 561–564 for superiority of tīrthas to solemn Vedic sacrifices and pp. 43–45 above for the eulogy of *vratas* The efficacy of *bhakti* (loving faith in God) will be dealt with later on in this section

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¹⁴⁵⁸ अविद्यान्तर्गतैर्यज्ञकर्मभिर्न प्रयोजनम् । मम हिंसात्मकैरास्तै निगमोक्तैरचेतनै ॥ समिद्पुष्पकुशप्राद्यैः साधनैर्यद्यचेतनैः । क्रियते तत्तथा भावि कार्य कारणवन्नृणाम् ॥ स्कन्द I. 2. 13. 59-60.

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¹⁴⁵⁹ यः समिधा य आहुती यो वेदेन ददाश मर्तो अग्नये । यो नमसा स्वध्वरः ॥ तस्ये-दर्वन्तो रंहयन्त आशवस्तस्य द्युम्नितमं यशः । न तमंहो देवकृतं कुतश्चन न मर्त्यकृतं नशत् ॥ ऋ. VIII. 19. 5-6.

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¹⁴⁶⁰ आ ते अग्न ऋचा हविर्हृदा तष्टं भरामसि । ते ते भवन्तूक्षण ऋषभासो वशा उत ॥ ऋ. VI 16 47.

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The Purāṇas only pursue an attitude to Veda and sacrifices that is found in some of the Upaniṣads. The Muṇḍakopaniṣad¹⁴⁶¹ says: 'one should know two vidyās (lores), *parā* (the higher) and *aparā* (the lower); the latter comprehends the four Vedas and Phonetics, aphorisms about solemn sacrifices, grammar, Nirukta (derivation of words), metres, astronomy; while the highest lore is that whereby the Imperishable (Reality) is known'. The same Upaniṣad condemns aparā-vidyā when it says 'Those sacrifices are infirm (leaky) boats constituted by eighteen (persons) depending on which are declared actions that are inferior, those foolish people who welcome these actions as the highest good become subject again to old age and death'. The Kaṭhopaniṣad¹⁴⁶² states that what are known as *avidyā* and *vidyā* are far apart from each other, are contradictory and lead to different results. When Nārada approached Sanatkumāra and requested the latter to teach him, the latter said to him 'tell me what you know and then I shall tell you what is beyond that.' Then Nārada stated that he knew all the four Vedas, Itihāsa-purāṇa the fifth Veda and several other lores, whereupon Sanat-kumāra told him that the four Vedas and the other lores he had learned were merely a name and then he led Nārada gradually to the understanding of the Highest Self. The Bṛ. Up. I. 4. 10 condemns him, who worships a deity thinking he is different from the *devatā*, that he does not know the truth, that he is like a (sacrificial) animal to the gods. Similarly, in several passages of the Upanisads austerities, liberality, straightforwardness, ahiṁsā and truthfulness are put forward as equal to or superior to the actual performance of the ceremonial of sacrifice (*yajña*), vide Chāndogya III. 17. 4, Praśna I. 15, Mundaka I. 2. 11.

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¹⁴⁶¹ द्वे विद्ये वेदितव्ये इति ह स्म यद् ब्रह्मविदो वदन्ति परा चैवापरा च । तत्रापरा ऋग्वेदो यजुर्वेदः सामवेदोऽथर्ववेद. शिक्षा कल्पो व्याकरणं निरुक्तं छन्दो ज्योतिषमिति । अथ परा यया तदक्षरमधिगम्यते ॥ मुण्डकोप० I 1 4-5, प्लवा ह्येते अदृढा यज्ञरूपा अष्टादशोक्तमवरं येषु कर्म । एतच्छ्रेयो येऽभिनन्दन्ति मूढा जरामृत्युं ते पुनरेवापियन्ति ॥ मुण्डकोप० I. 2 7. The 18 are the 16 priests, the sacrificer and his wife. In his भाष्य on Vedāntasūtra I 2 21 Śaṅkarācārya holds that this verse is part of the condemnation of *aparā vidyā*.

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¹⁴⁶² दूरमेते विपरीते विषूची अविद्या या च विद्येति ज्ञाता । कठोप. I. 2. 4,

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Though in a few passages of the Upanisads the knowledge of the Highest Self is put higher than the four Vedas, the Upanisads generally treat the Vedas as authoritative and quote Vedic verses in support of their statements. For example, the Ait. Up. II. 5 quotes Ṛgveda IV. 27. 1 (taduktam-ṛṣiṇā-Garbhe nu &c.), Praśnop. I. 11 quotes Ṛg. I. 164. 12 (pañcapādam pitaram), Bṛ. Up. II. 5. 15, 17 and 19 quote respectively Ṛg. I. 116. 12, I. 117. 22, VI. 47 18 (rūpaṁ rūpaṁ pratirūpo). The Upanisads further emphasize¹⁴⁶³ that brahmavidyā is to be imparted only to those who are *śrotriya* (who have studied the Veda), who engage in their duties and who have properly performed Śirovrata. The Bṛ.¹⁴⁶⁴ Up. shows that Veda study, sacrifices, charity &c. are preparations for the knowledge of *brahma*: 'Brāhmaṇas (and others) desire to know this (great Self) by study of the Veda, by sacrifices, gifts, *tapas*, fasting'. These passages make it clear that study of the Veda and performance of sacrifices enjoined by it are accepted by the Upanisads as preparatory and as cleansing the mind of its lower passions and as making a person worthy of receiving the knowledge of the highest truth about the One Supreme Spirit and that the Upanisads do not altogether condemn and give up the Vedas and sacrifices.

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¹⁴⁶³ तदेतदृचाभ्युक्तम् । क्रियावन्तः श्रोत्रिया ब्रह्मनिष्ठाः स्वयं जुह्वत एकर्षिं श्रद्धयन्तः । तेषामेवैतां ब्रह्मविद्यां वदेत शिरोव्रतं विधिवद्यैस्तु चीर्णम् ॥ मुण्डकोप० III 2 10 शिरोव्रत is carrying fire on the head (according to Ātharvaṇa rules) The देवीभागवत (XI 9. 12-13) remarks 'अग्निरित्यादिभिर्मन्त्रैः षड्भिः शुद्धेन भस्मना । सर्वाङ्गोद्धूलनं कुर्यात् शिरोव्रतसमाद्वयम् ॥ * यावद्विद्योदयस्तावत्तस्य विद्या खलूत्तमा ॥' The six अथर्वशिरस् mantras are. अग्निरिति भस्म, वायुरिति भस्म, जलमिति भस्म, स्थलमिवि भस्म, व्योमेति भस्म, सर्वं ह वा इदं भस्म'

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¹⁴⁶⁴ तमेतं वेदानुवचनेन ब्राह्मणा विविदिषन्ति यज्ञेन दानेन तपसाऽनाशकेन । बृह. उप. IV 4. 22, vide गीता 18. 5 यज्ञदानतप.कर्म न त्याज्य कार्यमेव तत् । यज्ञो दानं तपश्चैव पावनानि मनीषिणाम् ॥.

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The Purāṇas adopt, in spite of the claims made by them here and there about their priority to the Vedas, about their own value and efficacy, the same attitude towards the Veda as the Upanisads do. They treat the Vedas as authoritative and enjoin the employment of Vedic mantras in many rites. The author contributed a paper to the Dr. Kunhan Raja Presentation volume pp. 5–8 on the ‘Vedic mantras and legends employed in Purāṇas’ citing illustrations from the Brahmapurāṇa. A few illustrations from other Purāṇas may be set out here. The Matsyapurāṇa (chap. 93) when describing the procedure of the *homa* to the nine planets prescribes nine Vedic mantras, five of which are different from those provided by Yāj. (I. 300–301). Vide p. 750 above for a comparative table of the two sets of mantras. In the Udvāhatattva¹⁴⁶⁵ Raghunandana remarks that the mantras ‘ā kṛṣṇena’ and others are common to persons following the four Vedas and that Bhavadevabhaṭṭa held the same view. Matsya prescribes that when inauspicious birds (like an owl) or animals cry near a house or enter it, a homa should be performed, or five brāhmaṇas should engage in a japa¹⁴⁶⁶ of the hymn beginning with ‘Devāḥ kapota’ (Ṛg. X. 165. 1–5). In describing the whole procedure of the establishment of images of gods or the *liṅga* (of Śiva), the Matsya (chapter 265) prescribes numerous Vedic verses and hymns for the different parts of the ceremony. For example, for bringing about the purification of the image four mantras are prescribed viz. Ṛg. VII. 49. 1–3 and X. 9. 1; in providing for the placing of a jar full of water near the head of the bed on which the image is to be placed, two mantras ‘Āpo devī’ (Vāj S. 12. 35, Tai. S. IV. 2 32) and ‘āpo asmān mātaraḥ’ (Ṛg. X. 17. 10) are to be recited. Matsya (265. 24–29) prescribes for the japa of several *sūktas* (hymns) by four door-keepers learned in the Vedas that are to stand in the four main directions. The Agnipurāṇa (41. 6–8) providing for the laying down of baked bricks or stones in building a temple prescribes the recital of many Vedic mantras, viz. Ṛg. X. 9. 1–3, Ṛg. X. 9. 4, Ṛg. IX. 58. 1–4, Pāvamānī verses (either Ṛg. IX. 1. 1–10 or verses from Ṛg. IX), Ṛg. I. 24. 15, Ṛg. IV. 31. 1, Vāj S. IV. 36 (Varuṇasya), Ṛg. IV. 40. 5 and the Śrīsūkta (of 29 verses beginning with 'Hiraṇyavarṇām hariṇīm'). The Nāradīya-purāṇa (II. 73. 83-90) contains at end of each of the verses parts of vedic prayer, which occur in Ṛg. VII. 66. 16, Tai. Ār. IV. 4. 2-5 and Vāj. S. 36. 24; Bhāgavata I. 2. 21 (*bhidyate &c.*) is taken from Muṇḍaka Up. II. 2. 8.

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¹⁴⁶⁵ गृहहोमे तु आ कृष्णेनेत्यादिमन्त्राः सर्ववेदसाधारणाः पुराणोक्तत्वात् । तथा च मत्स्यपुराणम् । आ कृष्णेनेति सूर्याय होमः कार्यो द्विजन्मना । '' केतुं कृण्वन्निति कुर्यात् केतूनामुपशान्तये ॥ अत एव भवदेवभट्टेनापि तथा लिखितम् ॥ उद्वाहतत्त्व (Jiv II p 126). The मत्स्यपुराण verses quoted are 93. 33–37. The mantras are taken from the Ṛgveda, Tai S., Vāj S. What रघुनन्दन emphasizes is that whatever Veda may be studied by a man and his family, he has to employ the mantras specified by Matsya when he performs a *grahahoma*.

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¹⁴⁶⁶ मृगपक्षिविकारेषु कुर्याद्धोमं सदक्षिणम् । देवाः कपोत इति वा जप्तव्याः पञ्चभिर्द्विजैः ॥ मत्स्य 237. 13

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The Purāṇas not only prescribe Vedic mantras for various purposes, but suggest the employment of numerous Paurāṇika mantras. It appears that Paurāṇika mantras came to be employed along with Vedic mantras in religious rites even of Brāhmaṇas at the beginning of the Christian era or within a few centuries after Christ Yāj. I. 229 prescribes that the Viśve Devas should be invited to come to a śrāddha with the ṛk, 'O Viśve-Devas! Come, listen to this my call, sit down on these *kuśas*' (Ṛg. II. 41. 13). On this the Mitākṣarā (about 1100 A. D.) remarks that along with the Vedic *mantra* mentioned by Yāj. a smārta mantra should also be employed viz. the mantra¹⁴⁶⁷ 'āgacchantu mahābhāgā,' which occurs in Skanda and Garuḍa-purāṇa. Vide H. of Dh. vol. IV. p. 440 note 984 for the ascription of this verse to various authorities. The Vāyupurāṇa¹⁴⁶⁸ prescribes that the mantra 'adoration to the *devatās*, to *pitṛs*, to the great Yogins, to *svadhā* and *svāhā*; they are always present' should be recited thrice at the beginning and at the end of śrāddha and at the time of offering *piṇḍas*; the pitṛs quickly come when the mantra is repeated and goblins run away; this mantra protects the pitṛs in all three worlds'. This mantra is styled 'Saptārcis' (having seven flames) in Vāyu 74. 20, Brahmāṇḍa III. 11. 30 and in Viṣṇudharmottara I. 140. 68 and by Hemādri on śrāddha pp. 1079 and 1208, who notes that it occurs in seven Purāṇas. In chap. 206 of the Agni in the procedure of offering *arghya* to the star Agastya (Canopus) Ṛg. I. 179. 6 has been adopted as verse 13.

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¹⁴⁶⁷ The मन्त्र is: आगच्छन्तु महाभागा विश्वेदेवा महाबलाः। ये यत्र विहिता. श्राद्धे सावधाना भवन्तु ते॥. This is गरुडपुराण I. 218. 7, but q. by अपरार्क on p 478 from बृहस्पति and on p. 481 from ब्रह्मपुराण.

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¹⁴⁶⁸ The mantra is. देवताभ्यः पितृभ्यश्च महायोगिभ्य एव च। नमः स्वधायै स्वाहायै नित्यमेव भवन्त्युत॥ वायु 74 15-16. Vide H. of Dh. vol. IV. pp. 458-459 note 1020 for all the verses in relation to this mantra and the purāṇas where they occur. In the printed ब्रह्माण्ड III 11. 17-18 the मन्त्र is देवताभ्यः···एव च। नम. स्वाहायै स्वधायै नित्यमेव भवन्तुत. Some read नित्यमेव नमो नमः. The मिता on या I. 121 says that this mantra should be employed by śūdras in all the five daily sacrifices according to some, while others said that the śūdra was only to utter the word नमः.

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Not only are mantras from Vedic Samhitās prescribed by the Purānas for certain rites, but Upanisad passages also sometimes with slight variance are bodily transferred into some of the Purānas. For example, Kūrma II. 9. 12, 13 and 18 embody Tai. Up. II. 4 (yato vāco nivartante), Śvetāśvataropa. III. 8 (vedāham-etam purusam) and VI. 11 'eko devah'. The Visnupurāna VI. 5. 65 is 'dve vidye veditavye iti cātharvanī śrutih' and contains a passage of the Mundaka Up. I.1.4 (vide note 1461 above). The Vāyu 20. 5 (pranavo dhanuh) and 20. 28 (Ajām-ekām) are respectively Mundakopa. II. 2. 4 and Śvetāśvatara-up. IV. 5. Vāyu 14. 13 (sarvatah pānipādāntam) is almost the same as Śvetāśvatara Up. III. 16 and Vāmana 47. 64-65 has the same verse. Vāmana 47. 67 is almost the same as Rg. I. 10. 1.

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This gives rise to interesting questions. The śūdras had no right to study the Veda. But as a matter of fact the Purānas contain as exemplified above a good many Vedic mantras. It is stated in the Bhāgavata1468a 'women, śūdras and brāhmanas in name only are beyond the pale of the three Vedas; therefore the sage (Vyāsa) composed through compassion for them the Bhārata tale'. The Devībhāgavata states 'study of the Veda is not accepted for women, śūdras and brāhmaṇas in name only and Purāṇas are compiled for the purpose of benefitting them'. From this it follows that in the case of śūdras the listening to the Bhārata was deemed to bring about the same results that the Veda does for *dvijas* and that even the śūdra may acquire the knowledge of the Self (and *mokṣa*) from the Bhārata.

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1468a स्त्रीशूद्रद्विजबन्धूनां त्रयी न श्रुतिगोचरा । ० ० ०तस्माद्भारतमाख्यानं कृपया मुनिना कृतम् ॥ भागवत I. 4. 25 q. by परिभाषाप्रकाश p. 37, which remarks वेदकार्यकारित्वाच्चेन्माद्भारतस्य वेदकार्यात्मज्ञानकारित्वसिद्धिः स्त्रीशूद्रद्विजवन्धूना न वेदश्रवणं मतम् । तेषामेव हितार्थाय पुराणानि कृतानि च । देवीभागवत I. 3. 21. शङ्कराचार्य is careful to point out on Vedāntasūtra I. 3. 38 that śūdras have no *adhikāra* for brahmavidyā based on the study of the Veda. But he does not deny to the śūdras the knowledge of the Self altogether He refers to the instances of Vidura and Dharmavyādha that were possessed of the knowledge of *brahma* due to the effects of their former lives, states that they would secure the result of brahmajñāna (viz moksa, final liberation from *samsāra*), that śūdras have the right to learn from the Mahābhārata and Purānas as stated in 'he should read to the four varnas' and that in that way they might secure knowledge of brahma and moksa. "येषां पुनः पूर्वकृतसंस्कारवशाद्विदुरधर्मव्याधप्रभृतीनां ज्ञानोत्पत्तिस्तेषां न शक्यते फलप्राप्तिः प्रतिषेद्धं ज्ञानस्यैकान्तिकफलत्वात् । 'श्रावयेच्चतुरो वर्णान्' इति चेतिहासपुराणाधिगमे चातुर्वर्ण्यस्याधिकारस्मरणात् । वेदपूर्वकस्तु नास्त्यधिकारः शूद्राणामिति स्थितम् ॥ भाष्य on वे. सू I. 3. 38. On वे सू. III. 4 36 शङ्कराचार्य refers to the woman वाचक्नवी as one who had the knowledge of brahma 'रैक्क-वाचक्नवीप्रभृतीनामेवंभूतानामपि ब्रह्मवित्त्वश्रुत्युपलब्धेः ।. गार्गी वाचक्नवी figures as a great seeker after *brahma* in the Br. Up. III. 6. 1, III. 8. 1 and 12. The महाभारत says that what it dilates upon as to the पुरुषार्थs, धर्म, अर्थ, काम and मोक्ष, is found elsewhere and that what it does not contain on those subjects can be found nowhere else and that the Mahābhārata should be listened to by him who desires moksa, by brāhmanas, kings and pregnant women (Svargārohanaparva 5. 50-51).

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Though the brāhmaṇas in the 5th and following centuries A. D wanted to placate the śūdras who were probably a majority of the whole people and to wean them away from Buddhism, they still kept a distinction between *dvijas* and *śūdras* and the only concessions made were that the śūdras could worship in the same way as *dvijas* did and that they could have mantras (Paurāṇika) in their rites and ceremonies. For example, in allowing *bhasma-snāna* (smearing ashes on the body) the Padma (IV. 110. 286-289) provides Vedic mantras for men of the three varṇas but Paurāṇika mantras only (Padma IV. 110. 290-293) for śūdras. The Padma¹⁴⁶⁹ further provides that śūdras could not perform prāṇāyāma or utter the sacred syllable 'om' but that they should substitute *dhyāna* in place of prāṇāyāma and '*Śiva*' in place of 'om'.

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¹⁴⁶⁹ प्राणायामश्च प्रणवः शूद्रेषु न विधीयते। प्राणायामपदे ध्यानं शिवेत्योच्चारवर्णनम्॥ पद्म IV 110. 316.

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Gradually in some matters the procedure provided in the Purāṇas came to supersede the ancient Vedic procedure prescribed for them Aparārka states (on p 14) that in Devapūjā one should follow the procedure prescribed in the Narasimhapurāṇa¹⁴⁷⁰ and the like and not the procedure of the Pāśupatas or Pāñcarātras and (on p 15) he says the same about the consecration of temples,¹⁴⁷¹ images and the like

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¹⁴⁷⁰ नरसिंहपु० chap. 62 deals with the procedure of विष्णुपूजा

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¹⁴⁷¹ एव प्रतिष्ठायामपि पुराणोक्तैवेतिकर्तव्यता ग्राह्या नान्या। तेषामेव व्यामिश्रधर्मप्रमाणत्वेन भविष्यपुराणे परिज्ञातत्वात्। अपरार्क p. 15.

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The Narasimhapurāṇa (chap. 63 5-6) says that the mantra 'om namo Nārāyaṇāya' enables one to secure all objects and *japa* of it frees a man from all sins and leads him to absorption into Viṣṇu¹⁴⁷²

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¹⁴⁷² किं तस्य बहुभिर्मन्त्रैः किं तस्य बहुभिर्व्रतैः। ओं नमो नारायणोति मन्त्रः सर्वार्थसाधकः ॥ इमं मन्त्र जपेद्यस्तु शुचिर्भूत्वा समाहितः। सर्वपापविनिर्मुक्तो विष्णुसायुज्यमाप्नुयात् ॥ नरसिंहपु० 63 6-7. किं तस्य बहुभिर्मन्त्रैर्भक्तिर्यस्य जनार्दने। नमो नारायणायेति मन्त्रः सर्वार्थसाधकः । विष्णुर्येषा जयस्तेषा कुतस्तेषा पराजयः । येषामिन्दीवरश्यामो हृदयस्थो जनार्दनः ॥ वामनपु० 94. 58-59. the मत्स्य says ' ओं नमो नारायणेति मूलमन्त्र उदाहृतः ।'.

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The Agnipurāṇa (chap. 218) describes the procedure of the king's coronation and (chapter 219) sets out the Paurāṇika mantras (about 70) employed at the coronation. Similarly, the Viṣṇudharmottara (II. 21) describes the procedure of coronation with Vedic mantras and (in II. 22) with 184 Paurāṇika verses invoking various gods, minor deities, sages, rivers &c. Medieval digests like the Rājanītiprakāśa (pp 49-83), Nītimayūkha (pp. 1-4), Rājadharmakaustubha (pp 318-363) describe the combined coronation procedure of Vedic and Paurāṇika mantras from the Viṣṇu-dharmottara (vide pp. 78-79 of the H. of Dh. vol. III. for details). The Rājanītiprakāśa (pp. 430-433) prescribes numerous mantras derived from the Viṣṇudharmottara as prayers and as blessings.

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The Padmapurāṇa¹⁴⁷³ narrates the interesting story of a person called Dhanaśarmā whose father followed only the Vedic path (śrauta-mārga), who did not engage in such Paurāṇika prescriptions as Vaiśākhasnāna and who therefore became a horrible and distressed preta. Some of the verses are very interesting. 'I performed in my ignorance only Vedic rites and I never observed Vaiśākhasnāna in honour of God Mādhava (Viṣṇu), nor observed a single Vaiśākha *Full Moon* vrata which is like an axe for cutting the tree of sins that afflicts one like a conflagration fed by the fuel of sinful deeds &c.; to one who studies many śāstras and several Vedas with their extensive ancillary literature, learning does not come, if he has not studied Purāṇas'. This shows what importance came to be attached to Purāṇas not only for śūdras but even for brāhmaṇas who performed the Vedic rites prescribed for them.

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¹⁴⁷³ मया केवलमेवैकश्रौतमार्गानुसारिणा । उद्दिश्य माधवं देवं न स्नातं मासि माधवे ॥ वैदिकं केवलं कर्म कृतमज्ञानतो मया । पापेन्धनदवज्वालापापद्रुमकुठारिका ॥ कृता नैकापि वैशाखी विधिना वत्स पूर्णिमा । अश्रुता यस्य वैशाखी सोऽवैशाखो भवेन्नरः । दश जन्मानि च स ततस्तिर्यग्योनिषु जायते ॥ पद्म IV. 94. 68. 88-90, बहुशास्त्रं समभ्यस्य बहूंश्चेदान् सविस्तरान् । पुंसोऽश्रुतपुराणस्य न सम्यग्याति दर्शनम् ॥ पद्म IV. 105. 13.

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The influence of the Purāṇas went on increasing gradually. At first it was said¹⁴⁷⁴ that the dharma understood from the Veda was the highest, while the dharma declared in the Purāṇas and the like was inferior. This gradually changed and dharma was said to be of three kinds, Vaidika, Tāntrika and Miśra and it was said in the Bhāgavata¹⁴⁷⁵ and the Padma that one may worship god Viṣṇu in any one of the three ways that one desired. The Padma adds that the Vaidika and Miśraka methods are declared to be proper for brāhmaṇas and the like, while the Tāntrika method of worship is meant for a devotee of Viṣṇu and also for śūdras. The Devībhāgavata (XI. 1. 21-23) states that Śruti (Veda) and Smṛti are the eyes of dharma and Purāṇa its heart, and that that is dharma which is declared by these three and that *dharma* can be found nowhere else than in these, that in Purāṇas sometimes what is found in Tantras is put forward as dharma, but one should not accept that.

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¹⁴⁷⁴ अतः स परमो धर्मो यो वेदादधिगम्यते । अवर स तु विज्ञेयो यः पुराणादिषु स्मृतः ॥ व्यास q. by अपरार्क p. 9, हे on व्रत I p 22, परिभाषाप्रकाश p 29. The कृ र. p. 39 reads 'अपरः स तु विज्ञेयो'. It may be noted that while अपरार्क read अवरः (inferior), the कृ र. (about two centuries later than अपरार्क) reads अपर. (another).

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¹⁴⁷⁵ वैदिकस्तान्त्रिको मिश्र इति मे त्रिविधो मखः । त्रयाणामीप्सितेनैव विधिना मां समर्चयेत् ॥ भागवत XI 27. 7, q by नित्याचारपद्धति p 510, पद्म (IV. 90. 3-4) reads वैदिक० श्रीविष्णोस्त्रिविधो मख । त्रयाणामुदितेनैव विधिना हरिमर्चयेत् ॥ वैदिको मिश्रको वापि विप्रादीनामुदाहृत । तान्त्रिको विष्णुभक्तस्य शूद्रस्यापि प्रकीर्तित. ॥ Vide अग्निपु० 372. 34 for almost the same words as in भागवत. Compare वृद्धहारीतस्मृति 11 77 'श्रौतस्मार्तागमैर्विष्णोस्त्रिविध पूजनं स्मृतम् । एतच्छ्रौतं तत. स्मार्तं पौरुषेण च यत्स्मृतम् ॥'.

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The Bhaviṣya (Brāhmaparva I. 43-47) in a dialogue between Śatānīka and Sumantu) first enumerates the 18 dharma-śāstras from Manu to Atri, states that the Vedas, the śāstras of Manu and others and the aṅgas are promulgated for the three varṇas and not for the benefit of śūdras, that śūdras appear to be very much helpless; how can they be able to secure the four *puruṣārthas*? They are devoid of āgama (traditional lore); what traditional lore was declared for them by the wise among the brāhmaṇas for enabling them to secure the three viz. dharma, artha and kāma? Sumantu replies:¹⁴⁷⁶ listen to the Dharmaśāstras that were declared by wise men for the benefit of all four varṇas and specially for śūdras viz. the 18 Purāṇas, the life of Rāma of the Raghu race (i. e. the Rāmāyaṇa) and the Bhārata declared by Parāśara's son (Vyāsa), the compassionate Vyāsa composed a śāstra for the benefit of all four varṇas in which he comprehended the entire meaning of the Veda and the Dharmaśāstras; it is an unparalleled boat for all that are engulfed in *saṁsāra*. This makes it clear that the Purāṇas, the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa embody pristine traditions and thoughts and were deemed to have been composed as the instruments of the education and enlightenment of the common people.

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As a matter of fact we find that some Purāṇas like Agni, Matsya, Viṣṇudharmottara are encyclopaedic and include treatises on politics and government, on law, medicine, astronomy, astrology, poetry, music, sculpture &c. They illustrate India's life and character as a country and exemplify Bhārata's achievements, weaknesses and shortcomings. Two questions that arise are: (1) could the Purāṇas including the Vedic mantras quoted therein be read by the śūdras themselves; (2) supposing that Vedic mantras could not be read by the śūdras, could they, if they were able to do so, by themselves read the purāṇas without a brāhmaṇa's help. All writers of digests and commentaries were agreed that śūdras could not read or listen to the Vedic mantras contained in the Purāṇas (which being meant for the benefit of all varṇas contained Vedic mantras also), but only those that belonged to the three upper classes. Some writers, however, were agreeable to śūdras reciting Paurāṇika mantras in religious rites, relying on a passage of the Padmapurāṇa. But others like Kamalākarabhaṭṭa, author of the Nirṇayasindhu and Śūdrakamalākara, held relying on verses of the Bhaviṣya that Paurāṇika mantras alone were to be used by a brāhmaṇa in a religious rite for a śūdra, that the śūdra was only to listen to the reading of a purāṇa by a brāhmaṇa reader.

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There was a third view held by Śrīdatta and others that a śūdra could recite a paurāṇika mantra, but he should not himself read the Purāṇas and should only listen to the reading of Purāṇas by a brāhmaṇa. In the times of the Dharmasūtras the only mantras employed were mostly Vedic and therefore in the case of śūdras Gautama¹⁴⁷⁷ provided that the śūdras were allowed the alternative of saying ‘namah’ in place of a Vedic mantra. In the centuries preceding Christ the śūdras would naturally have been attracted to Buddha's teaching as it was addressed to all including śūdras. Comparatively early orthodox writers like Kumārila knew that the śūdras formed the largest number of professed Buddhists when he says¹⁴⁷⁸ 'the dicta of Śākya and others were all opposed, except a few relating to self-restraint, charity and the like, to all the fourteen sources of learning, were promulgated by Buddha and others that had strayed from the path of the three Vedas and did acts contrary (to the Veda) and that those dicta were presented by them to those who were deluded, who were outside the pale of the three Vedas, who mostly comprised the 4th varṇa (i. e. śūdra) and those that had lost caste'. Therefore, the learned brāhmaṇas who wanted to wean sections of the masses (including śūdras) away from Buddhist teachings composed new Paurāṇika mantras by the thousand and employed them in all religious rites like śrāddhas, vratas &c.

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It was, therefore, that earlier *nibandha* writers like Śrīdatta were prepared to allow śūdras to recite Paurāṇika¹⁴⁷⁹ mantras. But when centuries had elapsed after Buddhism had disappeared from India, orthodox brāhmaṇa writers like Kamalākara¹⁴⁸⁰ (who wrote his N. S. in 1612 A. D.) showed a stiffer attitude by confining śūdras merely to the listening to Purāṇas read by a brāhmaṇa and by not allowing them even to recite a Paurāṇika mantra. It may be noted that the Narasimhapurāṇa in laying down the duties of śūdras provides that they should listen to the reading of purāṇas by a brāhmaṇa (reader) and should worship Narasimha (*avatāra* of Viṣṇu). The relation of Śruti, Smṛti and Purāṇas and their spheres of application are summed up in the Nāradīyapurāṇa as follows:— "The Veda exists in different forms; there is the Veda which has the performance of sacrificial rites (as its sphere); smṛtis are the Veda for the householder's stage; both those are centered in (or supported by) the Purāṇas. Just as this wonderful world sprang from the ancient Being (God), there is no doubt that all this literature arose from the Purāṇas. I hold that the meaning (or purpose) of the Purāṇas is more extensive (or superior to) than the meaning (or purpose) of the Veda. All the Vedas always rest on the Purāṇas; the Veda is afraid of the man of little learning (with the thought that) that man may harm it.

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The Veda does not deal with the movements of the planets, nor does it contain correct calculations about the proper times (for religious acts), nor does it deal with the *tithivṛddhi* or *tithikṣaya*, nor with the determination of the *parvans* (amāvāsyā, pūrṇimā &c.) or eclipses. Determinations about these were formerly made in Itihāsa and Purāṇas. What is not seen in the Vedas is all noticed in the Smṛtis; what is not seen in both is declared in the Purāṇas. What is declared by the Vedas and what is declared by the auxiliary lores—it is Veda that is declared by Smṛtis and Purāṇas. The person who looks upon Purāṇas in any other light would be born as a lower animal'.¹⁴⁸¹ The Nāradīyapurāṇa¹⁴⁸² further states 'the merit acquired by those wicked men who speak about Purāṇas as *arthavādas* (mere laudatory¹⁴⁸³ or condemnatory statements) are destroyed and the wicked man who regards as *arthavādas* the Purāṇas that are the means of uprooting (the evil effects of) all acts, reaches Hell'.

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¹⁴⁷⁶ चतुर्णामपि वर्णाना यानि प्रोक्तानि श्रेयसे । धर्मशास्त्राणि राजेन्द्र शृणु तानि नृपोत्तम ॥ विशेषतश्च शूद्राणा पावनानि मनीषिभि ॥ अष्टादश पुरागानि चरितं राघवस्य च । रामस्य कुरुशार्दूल धर्मकामार्थसिद्धये । तथोक्त भारत वीर पाराशर्येण धीमता । वेदार्थ सकल योज्य धर्मशास्त्राणि च प्रभो । कृपाळुना कृत शास्त्रं चतुर्णामिह श्रेयसे । वर्णाना भवमग्नाना कृत पोतो ह्यनुत्तमम् । भविष्य, ब्राह्मपर्व 1 53-57, आ क्रि कौ p. 66 quotes the verses अष्टादश धीमता The भागवत also says that the whole meaning of the Veda was put forward under the name Bhārata, in which even women and sūdras find what dharma is. 'भारतव्यपदेशेन ह्याम्नायार्थश्च दर्शितः । दृश्यते यत्र धर्मादि स्त्रीशूद्रादिभिरप्युत ॥ भागवत I 4 29. Vide, above p 870 and note 1408 about the lack of antiquity in the case of this passage from Bhaviṣya (Brāhmaparva).

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¹⁴⁷⁷ अनुज्ञातोऽस्य नमस्कारो मन्त्रः । गौ. X. 66; compare the quotation from the Padma in note 1469 p. 922.

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¹⁴⁷⁸ शाक्यादिवचनानि तु कतिपयदमदानादिवचनवर्जं सर्वाण्येव समस्तचतुर्दशविद्यास्थानविरुद्धानि त्रयीमार्गव्युत्थितैस्तद्विपरीताचरणैश्च बुद्धादिभिः प्रणीतानि । त्रयीबाह्येभ्यश्चतुर्थवर्णनिरवसितप्रायेभ्यो व्यामूढेभ्य समर्पितानीति न वेदमूलत्वेन सम्भाव्यन्ते। तन्त्रवार्तिक on जै. I. 3. 4 p. 195 (Ānan). The 14 विद्यास्थानs are numerated in या I 3 quoted above and in भविष्य (ब्राह्मपर्व 2 6) Four more विद्यास्थानs are sometimes added, viz आयुर्वेदो धनुर्वेदो गान्धर्वश्चेव ते त्रयः । अर्थशास्त्रं चतुर्थं तु विद्या ह्यष्टादशैव ताः ॥ भविष्य (ब्राह्म) 2 7 and विष्णुपू० III. 6 28 This verse and अङ्गानि वेदाश्चत्वार (विष्णु III. 6. 27) are quoted by कल्पतरु (ब्रह्मचारि० p 2) and by हे on व्रत vol. I. p. 18 and कु र p. 27 For निरवसित meaning बहिष्कृत, vide पाणिनि 'शूद्राणामनिरवसितानाम्' II. 4 10 and the महाभाष्य thereon

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¹⁴⁷⁹ अत्र केचित् । वैदिकमन्त्रो विप्रस्य पौराणस्तु शूद्रैः पठनीयः- न हि वेदेष्वधिकारः कचिच्छूद्रस्य दृश्यते। पुराणेष्वाधिकारो मे दर्शितो ब्राह्मणीरिति-इति तत्रैव पाद्मोक्तेरित्याहुः । गौडा अप्येवम् । नि. सि p. 392.

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¹⁴⁸⁰ अध्येतव्य ब्राह्मणेन वैश्येन क्षत्रियेण च। श्रोतव्यमेव शूद्रेण नाध्येतव्यं कदाचन। श्रौतं स्मार्तं च वै धर्मं प्रोक्तमस्मिन्नृपोत्तम । तस्माच्छूद्रेर्विना विप्र न श्रोतव्य कदाचनेति तत्रैव पुराणाधिकारे भविष्योक्तेश्च । 'तेन पौराणमन्त्राणामेव विप्रेण पाठो न वैदिकानामिति सिद्धम्। नि सि p 392 The printed भविष्य (ब्राह्म) 1. 72-74 are अध्येतव्यं न चान्येन ब्राह्मणं क्षत्रियं विना । श्रोतव्यमेव शूद्रेण नाध्येतव्यं कदाचन । "श्रोत स्मार्तं "कदाचन ॥ These are q by श्रा. क्रि कौ. p. 76. पुराणश्रवणं विप्रान्नरसिंहस्य पूजनम् । नरसिंहपुराण 58. 13

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¹⁴⁸¹ शृणु मोहिनि मद्वारुयं वेदोयं बहुधा स्थितः । यज्ञकर्मक्रिया वेदः स्मृतिर्वेदो गृहाश्रमे ॥ स्मृतिर्वेदः क्रियावेदः पुराणेषु प्रतिष्ठितः । पुराणपुरुषज्जातं यथेदं जगदद्भुतम् ॥ तथेद्ं वाङ्मयं जातं पुराणेभ्यो न संशयः । वेदार्थादधिकं मन्ये पुराणार्थं वरानने ॥ वेदाः प्रतिष्ठिताः सर्वे पुराणेष्वेव सर्वदा । बिभेत्यल्पश्रुताद्वेदो मामयं प्रहरिष्यति ॥ न वेदे ग्रहसञ्चारो न शुद्धिश्च कालबोधिनी । तिथिवृद्धि क्षयो वापि पर्वग्रहविनिर्णयः ॥ इतिहासपुराणैस्तु निश्चयोयं कृतः पुरा । यन्न दृष्टं हि वेदेषु तत्सर्वं लक्ष्यते स्मृतौ ॥ उभयोर्यन्न दृष्टं हि तत्पुराणैः प्रणीयते । ॰॰॰यद्वेदैर्गीयते सुभ्रु उपाङ्गैर्यच्चगीयते ॥ पुराणे स्मृतिभिश्चैव वेद एव निगद्यते । पुराणमन्यथा मत्वा तिर्यग्योनिमवाप्नुयात् ॥ नारदीयपुराण II 24. 15-24 Some of these verses (such as वेदाः प्रतिष्ठिताः ॰॰॰मामयं चालयिष्यति and यन्न दृष्टं ॰॰गीयते) occur in स्कन्द, प्रभासखण्ड, 2 90-92

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¹⁴⁸² पुराणेष्वर्थवादत्वं ये वदन्ति नराधमाः । तैरर्जितानि पुण्यानि क्षयं यान्ति द्विजोत्तमाः । समस्तकर्मनिर्मूलसाधनानि नराधमाः । पुराणाम्प्यर्थवादेन (पुराणान्यर्थवादेन ?) ब्रुवन् नरकमश्रुते ॥ नारदीय I 1 57-59.

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¹⁴⁸³ The great अर्थवादाधिकरण is जै I. 2. 1-18. There are Vedic passages like 'सोऽरोदीद्यदरोदीत्तद्रुद्रस्य रुद्रत्वम्' (तै सं I. 5 1 1), 'स आत्मनो वपामुदक्खिदत्' (तै. सं. II, 1 1), 'देवा वै देवयजनमध्यवसाय दिशो न प्राजानन्' (तै. सं. *(Continued from last page)* VI 1 5 1), 'तरति ब्रह्महत्यां योऽश्वमेधेन यजते' (तै सं V. 3 12 2), 'न पृथिव्या-मग्निश्चेतव्यो नान्तरिक्षे न दिवि । तै सं V. 2 7. The question is are these passages to be taken literally or do they convey any meaning? The reply is. 'विधिना त्वेकवाक्यत्वात् स्तुत्यर्थेन विधीना स्यु ' (जै I 2 7) i. e. they are laudatory and are meant to praise vidhis.

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The Purāṇas introduced several striking changes in the religious rites, practices and ideals of the people. The most characteristic thought and the keynote of the Purāṇas is to declare how great rewards and results could be secured with little effort The Viṣṇupurāṇa (VI. 2) narrates how sages approached Vyāsa with the question 'in what age does a little *dharma* yield very great rewards'? Vyāsa was bathing in the Ganges; he came out, uttered 'śūdra is good and Kali is good' and then again plunged into the river; then he again came out and said 'well done, O śūdra! you are blessed'; he again plunged into the river, came out and said 'women are good and blessed; who is more blessed than they'. When he finished his bath and performed his morning rites, the sages asked him to explain what he meant by calling Kali, śūdras and women good and blessed. He replied: 'a man secures in a single day and night in Kali age as much reward of *tapas*, celibacy and *japa* as is obtained in ten years in Kṛta age, in one year in Tretā and in a month in Dvāpara; therefore, I spoke of Kali as good; in Kali age a man secures merely by the glorification or incessant repetition of the name of Keśava what he would secure by deep meditation in Kṛta, by sacrifices in Tretā, and by worship in Dvāpara;

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I am pleased with Kali because a man secures great eminence of *dharma* with a little effort Persons of the three higher varṇas have to study the Vedas after observing many strict rules, then they have to perform sacrifices which require wealth, they incur sin if they do not perform their duties properly; they cannot eat and drink as they please, but are dependent on the observance of many rules as to food &c.; dvijas secure higher worlds after great trouble; the śūdra secures his worlds by serving the three varṇas, he has the right to offer the *pākayajñas* (without mantras) and therefore he is more blessed than a dvija He has not to observe strict rules about proper and disallowed food or drink and therefore he was declared 'good' by me. A woman by serving her husband in thought, word, and deed secures with less trouble the same worlds that her husband secures with great effort and trouble and therefore I said a third time about women that they were blessed. The acquistion of dharma is secured with small trouble in Kali age by men who wash off all their sins by the water in the form of the qualities of their soul; śūdras do the same by being intent on service to dvijas and women also secure the same without trouble by service to their husbands. Therefore all these three are regarded by me as most blessed.'¹⁴⁸⁴ The Brahmapurāṇa chapter 229 verses 62–80 are identical with Visṇupurāṇa VI. 2. 15–30 and 34–36.

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The Visṇupurāṇa emphasizes that each one must do one's duty in the society in which one is born or one's duty which one has undertaken, that, if a person does this, he reaches the same higher worlds, whether he be a brāhmaṇa or a śūdra. This doctrine is the same as taught in the Bhagavadgītā¹⁴⁸⁵ 18. 45 and 46 'a person secures the highest perfection (final emancipation) by being intent on carrying out the duties appropriate to him; man secures perfection (or bliss) by worshipping with the performance of his peculiar duties (not with flowers and the like or by words) Him from whom all beings proceed and by whom all this (world) is enveloped'. Ancient works like the Vedas, Jaimini's sūtras on Mīmāṁsā and the Vedāntasūtras did not consider or discuss how women or śūdras were to secure higher spiritual life and final Beatitude. The Vedāntasūtra (I. 3. 34–38) denies to the śūdra the right to study the Veda and the Upaniṣads. Buddha's teaching held out the same promise of liberation from suffering to all men irrespective of class or caste and was therefore most attractive to śūdras. The Bhagavadgītā and the Purāṇas changed the whole outlook of Indian society, high or low, and promised the same higher spiritual life or worlds to all who did their work under a sense of social duty, did not hanker after mundane rewards and brought all their actions, in whatever avocation they might be engaged, as an offering to God.

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In the Padmapurāṇa¹⁴⁸⁶ Vyāsa is made to say to Yudhiṣṭhira: "It is not possible to observe in the Kali age the rules of Dharma laid down by Manu and by the Vedas; the one thing which one should do is to observe a fast on Ekādaśī in both fortnights (of a month), which is an easy means (that) requires little wealth, that entails little trouble, but yields great rewards, that is the very essence (of the teachings) of all Purāṇas; he should be pure and on Dvādaśī after worshipping Keśava with flowers he should first feed brāhmaṇas and then himself take his meal; those who desire to secure heaven should perform this vrata throughout their lives; even persons of evil conduct, the greatest sinners devoid of dharma, do not go to Yama (do not fall into hell) if they fast on Ekādaśī." The Sūtasaṃhitā states 'effort for acquiring true knowledge (of the Self) is meant for all (for persons even lower than śūdras), that effort made by explaining in a different language (than Sanskrit) and by the lapse of enough time will tend to the good (of the lowest)'. This clearly shows how the Purāṇas put before all people easy ways whereby they could attain bliss in the Hereafter.

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¹⁴⁸⁴ Some of the verses are striking and they are therefore quoted here: ध्यायन्कृते यजन्यज्ञैस्त्रेतायां द्वापरेऽर्चयन् । यदाप्नोति तदाप्नोति कलौ संकीर्त्य केशवम् ॥ धर्मैक्रिषेर्मतीवान् प्राप्नोति पुरुषः कलौ । अल्पायासेन धर्मेज्ञास्तेन तुष्टोस्म्यहं कलेः ॥ ⁕⁕⁕जयन्ति ते निजाँल्लोकान् क्लेशेन महता द्विजाः ॥ द्विजशुश्रूषयैवैष पाकयज्ञाधिकारवान् । निजाञ्जयति वै लोकान् शूद्रो धन्यतरस्ततः ॥ भक्ष्याभक्ष्येपु नास्त्यास्ति पेयापेयेषु वै यतः । नियमो मुनिशार्दूलास्तेनासौ साध्वितीरितः । ⁕⁕⁕योपिच्छुश्रूषणान्भर्तुः कर्मणा मनसा गिरा । तद्धिता शुभमाप्नोति तत्सालोक्यं यतो द्विजाः ॥ नातिक्लैंशेन महता तानेव पुरुषो यथा । तृतीयं व्याहृतं तेन मया साध्विति योषितः ॥ ⁕⁕⁕स्वल्पेन हि प्रयत्नेन धर्मः सिध्यति वै कलौ । नरैरात्मगुणाम्भोभिः क्षालिताखिलकिल्विषैः ॥ शूद्रैश्च द्विजशुश्रूषा तत्परैर्द्विजसत्तमा । तथा स्त्रीभिरनायासात् पतिशुश्रूषयैव हि । ततस्त्रितयमध्येतन्मम धन्यतरं मतम् । धर्मसम्पादने क्लेशो द्विजातीना कृतादिपु ॥ विष्णुपु० VI 2. 17-18, 22-24, 28-28, 34-36. The कल्पतरु (गृहस्थकाण्ड pp 272-273) quotes from विष्णु VI 3. 22-24 पारतन्त्र्य ⁕⁕⁕रितः (तम् v. l.). The editor of कल्पतरु was unable to trace these

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¹⁴⁸⁵ स्वे स्वे कर्मण्यभिरतः संसिद्धिं लभते नरः । ⁕⁕⁕यतः प्रवृत्तिर्भूतानां येन सर्वमिदं ततम् । स्वकर्मणा तमभ्यर्च्य सिद्धिं विन्दति मानवः ॥ भगवद्गीता 18. 45-46.

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¹⁴⁸⁶ वेदव्यास उवाच। श्रुता ये मानवा धर्मा वैदिकाश्च श्रुतास्तथा। कलौ युगे न शक्यन्ते ते वै कर्तुं नराधिप॥ सुखोपायमल्पधनमल्पक्लेशं महाफलम्। पुराणानां च सर्वेषां सारभूतं महामते॥ एकादश्यां न भुञ्जीत पक्षयोरुभयोरपि। द्वादश्यां तु शुचिर्भूत्वा पुष्पैः संपूज्य केशवम्॥ भुञ्जीत कृतकृत्यस्तु पश्चाद्विप्रपुरःसरम्। ⁕⁕⁕यावज्जीवं व्रतमिदं कर्तव्यं पुरुषर्षभ। स्वर्गर्ति प्राप्तुमिच्छद्भिरत्र मे नास्ति संशयः॥ अपि पापदुराचाराः पापिष्ठा धर्मवर्जिताः। एकादश्यां न भुञ्जन्ति न ते यान्ति यमान्तिकम्॥ पद्म VI 53 4-9. These verses are quoted as from महाभारत by हे. on व्रत vol. I p 1089. Vide p 44 note 108 above for some of these verses. अन्येषामपि सर्वेषा ज्ञानाभ्यासो विधीयते। भाषान्तरेण कालेन तेषां सोऽप्युपकारकः॥ सूतसंहिता I 7. 22.

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The Baud¹⁴⁸⁷ Dh. S., Manu and Vasiṣṭha emphasize that one should not invite a large company of brāhmaṇas at a śrāddha, because a large company destroys these five (advantages) viz. showing proper respect to invitees, propriety of place and time, cleanliness and the securing of worthy brāhmaṇas and it was further provided by the Anuśāsana-parva¹⁴⁸⁸ and others that one should not go deep into examining the learning, family and character of brāhmaṇas in a rite for the gods, but in rites for the Manes close examination as to these matters is proper (or justified). The Purāṇas went against both these prescriptions. They are not tired of recommending again and again profuse expense in śrāddhas and condemning stinginess (lit. roguishness in spending money) in śrāddhas and also in such other matters as the observances of Ekādaśī. For example, the Viṣṇupurāṇa¹⁴⁸⁹ quotes nine verses (III. 14 22-30) as uttered by the pitṛs, two of which may be translated here 'Would that a wise and blessed person be born in our family who not indulging in stinginess in spending wealth will offer piṇḍas to us and who would donate to brāhmaṇas for our sake jewels, clothes, a large conveyance, wealth and all enjoyments if he has riches'! Padma¹⁴⁹⁰ recommends that avoiding stinginess brings pleasure to the pitṛs. The Matsya (56. 11) prescribes that one should not show stinginess in the Kṛṣṇāṣṭamīvrata. The Padma says that that bad man who being possessed of wealth celebrates the *jāgara* on Ekādaśī in a close-fisted way loses his soul. The Brahmapurāṇa¹⁴⁹¹ says in a general way that whoever does a religious act with stinginess is a sinner.

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¹⁴⁸⁷ सत्क्रियां देशकालौ च शौचं ब्राह्मणसम्पदः। पञ्चैतान् विस्तरो हन्ति तस्मान्नेहेत विस्तरम्॥ मनु III 26, कूर्मपुराण II 22. 27, बौ ध सू II 4 30, वसिष्ठ XI. 28 (the last two read the 4th pāda as 'तस्मान्न परिवर्जयेत्' )

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¹⁴⁸⁸ ब्राह्मणान्न परीक्षेत क्षत्रियो दानधर्मवित् । दैवे कर्मणि पित्र्ये तु न्याय्यमाहुः परीक्षणम्॥ अनुशासन 90 2, q. by हे on श्राद्ध p 511. दैवे कर्मणि ब्राह्मणं न परीक्षेत । प्रयत्नात्पित्र्ये परीक्षेत । विष्णुधर्मसू 82 1-2, न ब्राह्मणान् परीक्षेत सदा दैवे तु मानवः । दैवे कर्मणि पित्र्ये च श्रूयते वै परीक्षणम् । वायु 83. 51.

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