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An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c20.s1: 15.1 Animal

An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c20.s1

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English

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15.1 Animal

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The Quaternary [9.8] deposits of India have yielded a diverse variety of animal remains indicating that a large number of animals inhabited the Indian jungles in the past. The bones of some of them are fossilized and are represented in the geological formations while others died comparatively recently and have been unearthed as a result of excavations of archaeological sites. As it is difficult to touch upon all the animal types a reference is here made to those which have a direct bearing on chronology and environment.

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The Pleistocene [9.8.2] fossil localities in India have been brought to light as a result of researches carried out by palaeontologists for over a century. Large collections of fossils have been made from the *karewas* of Kashmir, the Siwalik formations of Punjab and Himachal Pradesh, the alluvial deposits of the Narmada basin, the Deccan river valleys and the Kurnool caves. A few localities in Assam, Bengal, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu have also yielded some faunal material. However it is only during the last 40 years or so that the archaeologists and anthropologists have developed interest in these deposits and started search for the remains of the early man and his tools and the contemporary fauna.

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In the Indian subcontinent the various subdivisions of the Pleistocene, viz. Lower, Middle and Upper, are based mainly on vertebrate palaeontology and palaeolithic archaeology. The Lower Pleistocene of n.-w. India is generally characterized by the presence of *Equus*, *Rhinoceros*, *Elephas* and *Bos*. The late Upper Pleistocene is well dated by a score of ¹⁴C dates in w. India. But the Middle and early Upper Pleistocene are not precisely dated due to the lack of any proper index fossil assemblage and non-availability of radiometric dates.

15.1.1 Lower Pleistocene

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The Lower Pleistocene faunal evidence is as follows:

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(a) Karewas of Kashmir: Though a great deal of work has been done on the palynology, palaeobotany and palaeoclimatology of the *karewas*, wide areas of these beds remained devoid of significant palaeontological information for a long time. Hora, 1937, reported fish remains, *Orienus* and *Schizothorax*, while de Terra and Paterson, 1939, referred to the occurrence of mammals, *Bos*, *Elephas*, *Equus*, *Cervus*, *Felis*, *Sus*, *Sivatherium* and *Rhinoceros* from various localities in the Karewas Subsequently the author in 1968, 1972, reported *Rhinoceros palaeindicus*, *Sivatherium giganteum*, *Equus sivalensis*, *Elephas hysudricus*, *Cervus* sp., *Bos* sp., *Sus* sp. and *Giraffa* sp. from some previously unknown localities. All the fossils collected so far leave no doubt that the base of the *karewas* starts with the Lower Pleistocene.

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(b) Siwaliks of Punjab and Himachal Pradesh (Pinjor Formation): Siwalik beds, one of the best known mammalian fossiliferous horizons in the world, have been a subject of research for a century and a half. Their studies have thrown considerable light on our knowledge of vertebrate fossils in general and the evolution of various animals in particular. The fauna of the Pinjor—*Equus sivalensis*, *Rhinoceros sivalensis*, *Rhinoceros palaeindicus*, *Chilotherium intermedium*, *Bubalus*, *Bos*, *Hemibos*, *Leptobos*, *Bison*, *Cervus*, *Camelus*, *Archidiskodon planifrons*, *Stegodon insignis-ganesa*, *Geoclemys sivalensis*, *Crocodylus biporcatus*, *Crocodylus palaeindicus*, *Gavialis browni*, etc.—are significant in that they show a mixture of the Old and New World elements and also indicate the probable routes of migration to and from the Indian subcontinent.

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Furthermore, in the Upper Siwalik Subgroup straddles the Plio-Pleistocene boundary [9.8.1]. The broad feature of the Lower Pleistocene fauna is the absence of certain groups which had become conspicuous in the Upper Pliocene times. Along with the disappearance of the archaic groups, the Plio-Pleistocene transition was contemporaneous with the emergence of progressive forms that have persisted to the present day or at least had a long history in the Pleistocene.

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For bibliography see below 15.1.4.

15.1.2 Middle Pleistocene

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The Middle Pleistocene faunal evidence comes mostly from the NARMADA VALLEY. Next only to the Siwaliks this valley has yielded the richest mammalian fossils found in India, this time of the Middle Pleistocene, many of them found in association with Stone Age tools which makes the valley very significant to the origins of man. The region constitutes one of the great hunting grounds of India. Even today large cats, bears, gaurs, deer and black-bucks are found in forests. Many of the ancestors of these animals lie buried in the Pleistocene deposits along with other mammals such as the elephant, hippopotamus, horse and rhinoceros. The first authentic list of the vertebrate fossils from the valley was given by Pilgrim, 1905, who treated the NARMADA and the GODAVARI VALLEYS as of contemporary age. The fauna listed by him is as follows: *Ursus namadicus*; *Bubalus palaeindicus*; *Leptobos frazeri*; *Bos namadicus*; *Cervus duvauceli*; *Sus* sp.; *Hippopotamus namadicus*; *Equus namadicus*; *Rhinoceros unicornis*; *Stegodon insignis*; *Stegodonganesa*; *Hippopotamus palaeindicus*; and *Pangsura tectum*.

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Most of the above genera do exist down the present day. *Bubalus palaeindicus* and *Cervus duvauceli* seem to be related to the modern Indian buffalo and the *barasinga* (the swamp deer) respectively. Reptiles like *Pangsura tectum* are also identical with the reptiles living in the Indian rivers today. *Stegodon insignis*, *Stegodonganesa*, *Equus namadicus* and possibly *Hippopotamus namadicus* are survivals from the Siwaliks of n. India. *Elephas namadicus* is identical with *Elephas antiquus* of Europe. *Bos namadicus* is profusely represented in the Pleistocene deposits of peninsular India. In fact *Bos namadicus* survives well into the Holocene, its bones having been found in excavations at Mohenjo-daro (Sewell and Guha, 1931) and Langhnaj (Clutton-Brock, 1965). Pilgrim, 1939, considers *Bos acutifrons* of the Siwaliks as a possible ancestor of *Bos namadicus* which in turn is supposed to have given rise to the present-day Indian cattle *Bos indicus* (Badam, 1978).

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De Terra and Paterson, 1939, added two turtles, *Trionyx* sp. and *Emys* sp., to the above list and opined that the fauna of the Upper Narmada Group is similar to that of the Lower Narmada Group and that both carry Middle Pleistocene elements. Colbert, 1942, brought to notice two more species from the Narmada, viz., *Holarctos namadicus* and *Palaeoloxodon namadicus*. Subsequently *Elephas maximus*, *Elephas hysudricus*, *Bubalus bubalis*, *Equus caballus*, *Crocodylus palaeindicus* and *Gavialis* sp. were reported by Supekar, 1968, and the author, 1976.

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Some fossils found in the Narmada valley definitely represent the forerunners of the present-day animals as indicated by the well-preserved features of the dentition and other osteological parts. The total complex of the faunal remains indicates that the valley was a vast savannah land punctuated by flood-plain lakes and swamps in which flourished a rich assemblage of hoofed mammals and reptiles. However it may be emphasized that the existing tropical climate in the area does not show any significant departure from the past one, so that the valley provided a favourable ecosystem where some of the animals which migrated from the n.-w. because of climatic rigour in the glacial periods of the Early Pleistocene could survive almost up to 20000 years ago.

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On the basis of fauna, the author, 1976 has suggested the following litho-, bio- and chrono-stratigraphy for the Narmada Stone Age cultures. Gravel II of the Upper Narmada Group has yielded typical Upper Pleistocene fauna. A single ¹⁴C date from around Devakachar and nitrogen tests carried on bones from Sagunaghat and Devakachar by K.P. Oakley confirm this dating. Similarly the comparative study of faunal material of the Upper Narmada Group with the fauna from the Older Alluvium of the GODAVARI and Bhima in peninsular India also supports the dating of the Upper Group of Narmada to the late Pleistocene (40000 to 10000 B.P.).

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In view of the post-diagenetic changes of flood-plain silts capping the Boulder Conglomerate (Gravel I) of the Lower Narmada Group and the occurrence of a few mammalian species in the Boulder Conglomerate like *Hexaprotodon sivalensis* (Dassarma and Biswas, 1978) which are totally absent in the Upper Group, it appears that the Boulder Conglomerate/Red Clay has a far greater antiquity than the Upper Group. Thus the Lower Group could be tentatively dated as late Middle Pleistocene to early Upper Pleistocene (150000 to 40000 B.P.). The Stone Age tools found in the Boulder Gonglomerate belong to this period and therefore represent one of the earliest remains of Stone Age Man in peninsular India.

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For bibliography see below 15.1.4

15.1.3 Upper Pleistocene

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The Upper Pleistocene faunal remains come mainly from the Indo-Ganga localities, the river valleys of the Deccan and the Kurnool caves.

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(a) Indo-Ganga localities: A few palaeontological reports occur in the Indo-Ganga alluvium which comprises sands and lenticules of gravels, silts and clays with scattered organic matter. The vertebrate fossils found in the Older Alluvium have affinity with those found in Narmada (Falconer, 1865), whereas those from the younger layers resemble the recent ones. Some earlier works are those of Chakravarty (1931, 1935, 1938) who reported the occurrence of *Stegodon insignis*, *Palaeoloxodon namadicus* and some other prehistoric elephants from the Upper Pleistocene of the Ganga alluvium around Varanasi and Allahabad. In 1964 a complete skull of *Elephas antiquus* was excavated from the Older Alluvium near Gurgaon in Haryana (Khan, 1968). [If this refers to the find from AUTHA, it has been shown that it belongs to the early historical period.]

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The BELAN and the Seoti are the two main rivers in Dt Allahabad which have preserved good faunal remains of the Quaternary period. The fauna collected include *Equus* sp., *Equus onager khur*, *Bos* sp., *Bubalus* *sp.*, *Gazella* sp., *Antilope* sp. *Cervus* sp., *Elephas* sp., *Gavialis* sp. and *Trionyx* sp. The fossils are concentrated in the two lower units, viz., boulder clays and gravel sands, without any apparent difference in the faunal assemblages in the two units.

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Satsangi and Dutta, 1968, opine that the faunal assemblage is comparable with those of the Yamuna and the Ganga which was assigned by Falconer, 1865, and Pilgrim, 1905, respectively to some horizon of the Pleistocene, slightly younger than the Narmada alluvial deposits. Chakravarty, 1931, assigned a Middle Pleistocene age to the Narmada beds and an Upper Pleistocene age to the Ganga alluvium, thus agreeing with the views of Pilgrim, 1925. Dassarma (in press) also suggests that the faunal assemblages of the older alluvial deposits of the Ganga, Yamuna and the Son valleys are comparable to the Upper Narmada Group, characterized by the occurrence of *Bos namadicus*, *Palaeoloxodon* and *Tetraprotodon*. This assemblage favours an Upper Pleistocene dating.

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An Upper Pleistocene palaeontological site discovered in the Paimer valley near Gaya in Bihar yielded fossils of *Cervus* sp., *Axis* sp., *Bos* sp., *Bubalus* sp. and *Emys* sp. (Badam, 1976). More and better preserved material is in fact needed for a specified identification of the fossils collected. Tools of Acheulian [4.2] characters—ovates, handaxes, cleavers, scrapers and flakes—were also collected from the fossil-yielding deposits.

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(b) Mahanadi valley: A number of vertebrate fossils—*Bos* sp., *Bos namadicus*, *Cervus* sp., *Equus namadicus*—have for the first time been discovered in the upper Mahanadi valley (Joshi *et al.*, 1978), generally associated with Middle Palaeolithic tools. Though the faunal material is scanty, it helps in fixing the chronology of the Middle Palaeolithic [4.3] cultures. The presence of the fossils indicates that the valley was probably a vast savannah land with abundant vegetation and water which supported a variety of these ungulates. During the Upper Pleistocene the neighbouring forests must have provided a varied assemblage of wild animals. Even today the jackal, wolf, hare, *nilgai*, *chital*, antelope, deer, buffalo, bear, lion and leopard abound in the hilly and forested areas.

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(c) Godavari valley: One of the earliest discoveries of fossil vertebrates from the GODAVARI VALLEY is by Pilgrim, 1905, who reported the presence of *Elephas antiquus*, *Hippopotamus palaeindicus*, *Equus namadicus* and *Crocodylus*. Tripathy, 1967, collected *Bos namadicus*, *Bubalus palaeindicus*, *Equus namadicus*, *Hexaprotodon namadicus*, *Cervus* sp., *Palaeoloxodon namadicus*, *Stegodon insignis* and *Crocodylus* from the Godavari and its tributaries, the PRAVARA and Mula. Subsequently Sankalia, 1964, Joshi *et al.*, 1966, Rajaguru, 1968-9, and the author, 1973, discovered more fossils from various localities in association with Lower and Middle Palaeolithic [4.2, 3] tools. These studies made some significant additions to the faunal list, those of *Elephas hysudricus*, *Bubalus bubalis*, *Elephas maximus* and *Cervus duvauceli*.

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The alluvial deposits of the GODAVARI VALLEY were earlier believed to be equivalent to the Narmada deposits (Pilgrim, 1905). However recent biostratigraphical studies support the general observations that though the Upper Pleistocene alluvia are well-preserved in the shallow valley of the Deccan, there is no convincing evidence for the presence of Middle Pleistocene formations in the Godavari valley. It is therefore necessary to revise the earlier views on the so-called Middle Pleistocene fauna discovered in the Deccan in general and in the GODAVARI VALLEY in particular. As far as the Godavari valley proper is concerned there is only a single ¹⁴C date of about 19000B.C. for the upper part of the calcareous alluvium exposed around PAITHAN (Corvinus *et al.*, 1972-3). A few semirolled Middle Palaeolithic tools along with the limb bones of *Bos* sp. were collected from the sands and gravels occurring slightly below this well-dated formation (Rajaguru, 1968-9). The author who has made a morphological study of fossils collected from the Older Alluvium of the upper Godavari valley assigns the alluvium to the Upper Palaeolithic tools along with the limb bones of *Bos* sp. found along with Lower Palaeolithic tools of Late Acheulian characters at GANGAPUR, *Elephas namadicus*, *Equus namadicus* and *Bos namadicus* found in association with Lower and Middle Palaeolithic tools in the Older Alluvium around NEVASA in the PRAVARA valley and in the upper GODAVARI are in fact the Middle Pleistocene holdovers in the Upper Pleistocene period. This hypothesis is supported by a well-dated jaw of *Bos namadicus* (32000 B.P.) recovered from the buried channel, about 30 m below the surface of the Mula, one of the s. tributaries of the upper Godavari (Rajaguru, 1970). Further, a few ¹⁴C assays on fresh-water shells and driftwood found in the older alluvial fills from the source region of the GODAVARI (Rajaguru and Badam, 1976) confirm the general dating of the exposed alluvial fills to the Upper Pleistocene only.

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A number of rich fossiliferous sites were discovered recently on the Manjra river, a major s. tributary of the GODAVARI. A large number of fossils of *Elephas maximus*, *Bubalus bubalis*, *Cervus unicolor*, *Cervus duvauceli*, *Bos namadicus* and *Equus namadicus* were discovered in the low-energy overbank flood deposits of the upper Manjra at Dhanegaon (18°36'; 76°10'), Wangdari (18°35'; 76°23'), Tadula (18°35'; 76°25'), and Ganjur (18°35'; 76°24') (Badam, 1976). The predominance of elephant fossils at Dhanegaon found in abandoned ox-bow lake formations and cattle fossils at Wangdari found in old channel deposits shows that the distribution of these animals was well controlled by local ecology. The dominance of the elephant suggests a heavily vegetated environment while that of the cattle indicates a savannah landscape. It is clear from the fauna that some of the fossils from the Manjra may well be the representatives of their living counterparts.

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Similar types of fossils have been discovered from the yellowish sandy bed (Upper Group) of the central NARMADA VALLEY dated to about 31750 B.P and the GODAVARI and Bhima river valleys from where we have a large number of ¹⁴C dates (40000 B.P. onwards). The Manjra valley fossils are assigned an Upper Pleistocene age on morphological grounds.

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(d) Krishna valley: The Krishna valley has yielded scantier faunal material than other peninsular deposits despite similar ecological and geological conditions. Perhaps the earliest record of fossils from the valley and its tributaries is by Foote, 1876. He discovered fossils of *Bos namadicus* (?) and an upper jaw of rhinoceros, which he described as a new species Rhinoceros *decanensis*, from the ossiferous deposits near Gokak in Dt Belgaum on the GHATAPRABHA river. Paddayya, 1969, discovered a fossiliferous Middle Palaeolithic site near HAGARGUNDI on the left bank of the river Bhima. The fossils discovered by him include *Bos namadicus*, *Cervus* sp. and *Elephas* sp. On stratigraphical, palaeontological and cultural grounds the deposits have been placed in the latter part of the Pleistocene.

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(e) Ghod valley: The GHOD is a tributary of the Bhima and detailed surveys both on the lower and upper reaches of the river have resulted in the find of abundant palaeontological material. The species identified are *Elephas maximus*, *Elephas* sp., *Bos namadicus*, *Bos*/*Bubalus*, *Hexaproton palaeindicus*, *Cervus unicolor*, *Equus namadicus*, *Equus asinus*, *Equus* sp. and *Canis* sp., (Kajale *et al*., 1976). The fossils have been collected from the gravel bed dated to about 20000 B.P. by ¹⁴C method on the basis of fresh-water molluscan shells. The discovery of *Hexaproton* is the first of its kind from the terrain s. of the Godavari valley and has a profound bearing on the palaeoenvironmental conditions of the GHOD VALLEY in the Upper Pleistocene. The sedimentary characters of the formations indicate that they were deposited either as a braid bar or point bar with a series of water pools in them. This is evidenced by the occurrence of lenticular bands of silt and clay in the pebble gravel. Such pools probably with tall grass cover might have provided a suitable habitat for water-loving animals such as *Hexaproton*. Though the animal inhabited swampy plain areas where sluggish water predominates, the presence of the remains of the elephant, horse, buffalo, cattle, deer, etc., in the valley indicates a tropical semi-arid savannah type of environment. The region experienced warm monsoonic climate with plateaux and low lands covered by dense tall grass and shrubs. The high-crowned nature of the teeth of almost all the animals which wear to a rasp-like chewing surface indicates a herbivorous diet.

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The presence of Upper Palaeolithic [4.4] tools—scrapers, flakes and blades—in the same geological formation which yielded the fauna suggests that the biotic factors might have played an important part in attracting the Palaeolithic man to this area. Further studies and systematic excavations in the Ghod, if primary Palaeolithic sites are discovered, may reveal more precise information on the role of man in exploiting the available faunal resources of the valley during the Upper Pleistocene.

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(f) Kurnool caves: There are several caves in the limestone formations of Dt Kurnool [cf. BILLA SURGAM] which have been known to palaeontologists and archaeologists since the second quarter of the last century. Unlike open-air sites, the Kurnool caves have disclosed a rich faunal assemblage which is significant for the reconstruction of Upper Pleistocene ecology and climate in the area. Some of the caves have yielded faunal material in association with lithic and bone artefacts ascribed to a phase of the Indian Upper Palaeolithic [4.4]. The dating of the cultural material on palaeontological grounds is not as difficult as in some of the river valleys like the NARMADA and of the Deccan where some fossils are found in association with both Lower and Middle Palaeolithic [4.2, 3] materials.

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The Kurnool fauna helps in understanding the evolutionary processes and migration patterns of some animals. As Lydekker, 1886, pointed out the genera *Cynocephalus* and *Manis* are identical with the living African species while *Rhinoceros*, *Hystrix* and *Viverra* are distinct from the species now living in India. The occurrence of *Cynocephalus*, *Hyaena*, *Equus* and *Manis* indicates that many of the existing Ethiopian mammals were derived from India. Interestingly some of the forms have gradually died out in India to become dominant in Africa. Those which have not totally disappeared are either poorly represented or smaller in size. In India species of *Cynocephalus* and *Hyaena* disappeared after the Pleistocene. *Macrotherium sindiense*, the gigantic Siwalik edentate, presents features connecting it with *Manis* and is succeeded by the smaller *Manis gigantea* of Kurnool which has now migrated to Africa. However all the species of *Manis* now inhabiting peninsular India are of smaller size.

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*Atheruva*, now totally unrepresented in India, occurs in Africa. *Equus* which has also died out as a wild genus in the greater part of India has attained great development in Africa. The lion is a comparatively rare animal in India now but is very abundant in Africa. *Felis chaus* is an example of a species which probably originated in India and is still common here. However it has also extended its range into Africa. The total disappearance from India of *Hippopotamus*, *Giraffa* and antelopes of modern African genera is striking and difficult to explain.

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The *Viverra* and *Hystrix* of Kurnool probably provide an evolutionary stage between the Siwalik representatives and existing forms of those genera. Possibly the existing *Sus cristatus* was derived from the Siwalik *Sus falconeri* which may have given rise to the extinct *Sus karnuliensis*. This group of pigs has also extended into Africa.

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*Rhinoceros karnuliensis* or even *Rhinoceros deccanensis* has no representatives at present in India. According to Lydekker, 1886, the Kurnool species appear to show characters connecting it on the one hand with *R. etruscus* (European) and *R. deccanensis* and on the other with *R. bicornis* (African).

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The above account supplements the evidence also afforded by the Siwalik fauna that there was a faunal link between Asia and Africa.

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As mentioned earlier, the distribution of the Kurnool fauna throws interesting light on the palaeoecology of the area as a whole during the late Pleistocene. Flocking animals like *Antilope cervicapra*, *Gazella gazella*, *Cervus unicolor* and *Boselaphus tragocamelus* indicate a scrub-to-tree jungle in the hilly and plateau country and a tall grass cover in the plains. *Bos*/*Bubalus*, which usually inhabits less densely forested regions broken up by streams/streamlets with open expanses of grass, suggests that the plateaux and streamsides might have provided a plentiful supply of grass while the hilly slopes had a tree cover. The occurrence of *Presbytis entellus*, the arboreal langur, which moves in packs that can live on rocks and cliffs, provided there are shady groves and accessible water, also points to a small forest-type vegetation (Murty, 1975).

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Rhinoceroses which have totally disappeared in s. India must have inhabited this area when the low hills were forested with swamps in the short canyons surrounded by grass. The presence of *Tragulus meminna*, *Tetracerus quadricornis*, *Sus cristatus*, *Hystrix crassidens*, *Lepus nigricollis*, *Felis chaus* and *Viverra karnuliensis* also suggests a scanty bush jungle around in this rocky and hilly country. The faunal evidence on the whole therefore suggests a thicker vegetation cover in this region during late Pleistocene times. This also suggests that the climate was more humid than at present.

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Most of the ungulates excepting the domesticated forms (ox, sheep, goat, pig, etc.) have disappeared from this region. However some antelopes and cervids even now inhabit the forested regions of the Nallamalai and other neighbouring ranges. This may be attributed to the and cave, represent Upper Palaeolithic way stations or changed floral pattern during the present times when the plateaux except in monsoons are devoid of grasses and only the hilly slopes, the canyons, and surroundings of streams have a scrub jungle vegetation. The deterioration of the forest vegetation may be due to human interference by clearing off the land for cultivation and also the drying up of the subsurface drainage system. The animals known in the late Pleistocene and inhabiting the cave areas to this day include *Felis chaus*, *Hyaena hyaena*, *Viverricula indica*, *Herpestes edwardsi*, *Hystrix indica*, *Lepus nigricollis*, *Golunda* sp., *Mus* sp., *Rattus* sp., *Bandicoota* sp. and *Manis crassicaudata*. Changed ecology does not threaten the survival of these animals.

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The total evidence—archaeological, faunal and geomorphological—suggests that these sites, both open-air and cave, represent Upper Palaeolithic way stations or transit sites.

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For bibliography see below 15.1.4.

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15.1.4 *General observations on Pleistocene fauna*. No geological system in India has a more varied development than the Pleistocene which represents every aspect of the last chapter of earth's geological history. Keeping in view the fact that the Pleistocene deposits in the Indian subcontinent cover roughly an area of 5,00,000 sq km the quantity of the fossiliferous deposits is meagre. In the Himalayas the poor preservation of fossils or their absence in the post-Villefranchian deposits is on account of torrential rivers and high-energy environment while in peninsular India there are very few sedimentary troughs suitable for a better preservation of fossils. This is also due to strong erosive forces operating on the plateaux of the peninsula during vigorous monsoons.

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Though sufficient light has been thrown on the environment of deposition of the peninsular rivers during the last 20 years or so, our knowledge regarding the chronology of various lithic industries in these regions is still inadequate. Our studies show that the major part of the exposed alluvia is not older than the Upper Pleistocene and that the Middle Pleistocene patches may be confined to some parts of the NARMADA VALLEY only. It must be admitted that the Middle Pleistocene deposits have so far been vaguely dated on palaeontological basis and not a single absolute date is available.

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Until recently the NARMADA alluvium and the fossils therein were considered as a standard for the post-Villefranchian deposits in India. During the last decade however palaeontological studies in the NARMADA, the GODAVARI, the Bhima and the PRAVARA valleys have shown that fossils hitherto considered as index for the Middle Pleistocene—*Equus namadicus*, *Bos namadicus*, *Elephas hysudricus*, *Stegodon insignis-ganesa*—in fact range from the Middle to Upper Pleistocene. *Stegodon insignis-ganesa* and *Elephas hysudricus* are also present in the Lower Pleistocene of the Upper Siwaliks of n. India. There are reports of the occurrence of even *Equus namadicus* in the Lower Pleistocene of the Upper Siwaliks. *Bos namadicus* survives late enough and is also reported from some Early Holocene [9.8.4; 15.1.5] deposits. Species like *Elephas maximus*, *Cervus duvauceli* and *Rhinoceros unicornis* range from the Late Pleistocene to the Holocene. Their presence in the late Pleistocene deposits of the Deccan river valleys is confirmed by several ¹⁴C dates. The author is of the view that only *Hexaprotodon namadicus* and *Sus namadicus* may today be considered as index fossils for the Middle Pleistocene. The latter resembles Middle Pleistocene suids reported from China, Burma and Java (Hooijer, 1963).

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The upper part of the Upper Pleistocene of the NARMADA can be correlated with the deposits of the GODAVARI, the GHOD and the PRAVARA valleys from where we have a score of ¹⁴C dates more or less of the same range along with identical fauna. Morphologically the fauna from the Lower Narmada Group which is associated with the Boulder Conglomerate appears to be older than the recovered from the GHOD, the PRAVARA and the Manjra valleys.

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The wide distribution in time and space of some fossils is on account of similar ecological niches, climatic conditions and geographical history prevalent most of the parts of c. and s. Indian regions. The animals seem to have had a zonal distribution in these parts without any definite ecological barriers between them Most of the forms appear to be the late survivals from the Siwaliks, having migrated to other suitable areas in India, especially the Narmada-Godavari complex, when the conditions in the n.-w. became unfavourable on account of glaciation.

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The ice sheet as a result of Pleistocene glaciation pushed out repeatedly from the n.-w. and acted as a physical and climatic barrier to the movement of animals n. wards and made the s. wards migration of most of the animals possible. Many of the species became extinct in course of such migrations due to adverse climatic conditions and allied factors like non-adaptability and are hence not represented in these deposits in such profusion or are totally absent. A few evolved into advanced forms in the Holocene [9.8.4].

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The climate during the Pleistocene was at times more warm and humid and at other times much drier and cooler than today. The existence of such widely diverse phenomena gave rise to profusion of large and varied fauna. However this magnificent assemblage of animals was not totally indigenous to India. Progressive groups possibly of local origin were the primates, many giraffe-like forms, musk-deer, goats, buffaloes, bovids and pigs.

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The mammals which were shared by the contemporary fauna of Europe were the sabre-toothed cats, hyenas, wolves, rhinoceroses, horses of the genus *Equus*, various deer, antelopes and hippopotamuses. To migratory routes lay e. and w. of the Himalayas (Pilgrim, 1925) and most of the larger animals migrated from Egypt, Arabia, e. Asia and n. America through passes across Alaska, Siberia and Mongolia. Hippopotamuses and elephants had their early origin in c. Africa from where they radiated out and entered India during the tertiary period through Arabia and Iran. The rhinoceros, horse and camel, all originating in n. America, evolved in some countries of C. and W. Asia before they migrated to India. The elephant and horse have been a world traveller and peopled almost every country of the world except Australia.

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It is well known that the migration of mammals chiefly occurred in the tertiary, starting vigorously in the Lower Eocene and continuing mildly till the Pleistocene. The Himalayan range began to be elevated as early as the Eocene. In the Miocene it must have acted as a formidable barrier to the free migration of mammals between India and C. Asia. However the migratory routes lay between Burma and China and through Baluchistan into Perisa. Intercommunication also took place between India and n. America and Mongolia.

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Between India and Africa the interchange of fauna probably took place more easily. There is sufficient evidence for the existence of land-bridge across the straits at the entrance of the Persian Gulf. A corresponding bridge across the Red Sea would have opened up ready means of communication between India and Africa through Arabia.

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Many species of European and C. Asian origin migrated to India during glacial periods and survived into modern times or became extinct.

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India’s population of higher mammals was far greater in the past than it is today. The sudden and widespread reduction of the vertebrates is a most startling event for the geologists and biologists. Large carnivores, varied races of elephants and numerous hoofed animals which inhabited the Indian jungles are no longer found. The sudden disappearance of the vertebrates in n.-w. India is attributed to the effect of intense cold of the Glacial Age while anthropogenic factors may have been responsible for the reduction of animals in c. and peninsular India. Some species were able to move to warmer regions, e.g. the giraffes, which were profusely abundant in the Upper Siwaliks but are now found only in Africa. Of the nearly 30 species of elephants that were present in India, only one is found living today.

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The complete absence so far of the remains of pre-*Homo-sapiens* in India is undoubtedly the biggest lacuna in Indian prehistoric archaeology. Though the handi-

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DISTRIBUTION OF FAUNAS IN PLEISTOCENE DEPOSITS, THEIR PROBABLE AGES & ENVIRONMENTS

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| *Locality* | *Important faunas* | *Associated cultures* | *Probable age* | *Environment* |
| Kurnool, Ghod, Manjra, Pravara, Godavari | *Canis* sp., *Bubalus* ssp., *Cervus* ssp., *Bos namadicus*, *Elephas hysudricus*, *Elephas maximus*, *Rhinoceros unicornis*, *Bos Indicus*, *Hexaprotodon* | Bone tools, burins blades, points (Upper Palaeolithic); scrapers, flakes, blades, points, borers (Late Middle Palaeolithic) | Late Upper Pleistocene (also dated by ¹⁴C to 40000-15000 ʙ ᴘ) | Savannah type with pockets of forests and swamps (humid in Kurnool) |
| C. Narmada (Upper Group: Paimer) | *Equus namadicus*, *Bos namadicus*, *Hexaprotodon palaeindicus*, *Elephas hysudricus*, *Stegodon insignis-ganesa*, *Cervus* ssp. | Scrapers, flakes, flake-blades, points, borers, handaxes, cleavers (Middle Palaeolithic); polyhedrals, discoids, choppers (late Acheulian) | Early Upper Pleistocene | Savannah grassland interspersed with swamps |
| C. Narmada (Lower Group) | *Equus namadicus*, *Bos namadicus*, *Hexaprotodon namadicus*, *Elephas hysudricus*, *Stegodon insignis-ganesa* | Choppers, handaxes, cleavers, flakes (Acheulian, Lower Palaeolithic) | Middle Pleistocene (not well-established) | Savannah grassland interspersed with swamps |
| Lower *karewa*; Pinjore of Upper Siwaliks | *Equus sivalensis*, *Rhinoceros sivalensis*, *Rhinoceros palaeindicus*, *Elephas hysudricus*, *Bos* sp., *Archidiskodon planifrons*, *Sivatherium giganteum* | No Stone Age tools | Lower Pleistocene | Valley and open savannah grassland with lakes and swamps |

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work of a man in the form of stone tools is available in profusion [4.2-5], the absence of physical remains of the authors of these tools has been a puzzle alike to the palaeontologist, geologist, archaeologist and anthropologist. The primitive man who certainly lived here must have left behind his bones and teeth somewhere and it is certain that with patience and luck they will come to light one day. As rightly pointed out by P.T. de Chardin, between Africa and Java India happens to hold an exceptionally critical place so far as the origins of man are concerned. The discovery of the physical remains of the early man will certainly make the most significant contribution to prehistory and palaeontology and fulfil a long-cherished dream. The author feels that the evidence of fossils and tools in the NARMADA and its tributaries, the presence of a number of rock-shelters [13] in the vicinity of the Narmada river and the well-preserved terraces make the Narmada valley an ideal place for the hunt of the primitive man.

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The distribution of important faunas in the Indian Pleistocene deposits along with their ages and the associated cultural material is given in the table above.

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Badam, G.L., in *Res. Bull*, P.U., New Series, 19, 3-4, pp. 453-5; 1972, in *Current Science*, 41, 14, pp. 529-30; 1973 in *Bull. Deccan College Res. Inst.*, 33, 1-4, pp. 21-40; 1976 (a) in *Colloquium on the Palaeontological Studies in s. Region*, Geological Surv. India, Hyderabad, Abstract, p. 51; 1976 (b), in *Soc. Vertebrate Palaeontology News Bulletin*, 108, pp. 39-91; 1978, in *Indo-Pacific Prehistory Seminar*, Poona, 19-21 Dec. Bhola Nath, 1967, in *Bulletin of the Indian Museum*, Calcutta, 2, 1, pp. 29-37. Chakravarty, D.K., 1931, in *Quarterly Jour. Geological Mineral & Metallurgical Soc., India*, 3, pp. 115-25; in *Current Science*, 3, 8, pp. 364-5; 1938, in *Quarterly Jour. Geological, Mineral & Metallurgical Soc. India*, 10, pp. 143-9. Clutton-Brock, J., 1965, *Excavations at Langhnaj: 1944-63*, 2, *The Fauna*, Poona, 27, pp. 1-41 Colbert, E.H., 1942, in Osborn, H.F., *Prohoscidea*, *American Museum Natural Hist.*, 2, pp. 1421-1521. Corvinus, G., Rajaguru, S.N., & Mujumdar, G., 1972-3, in *Quarter*, 23-4, pp. 53-6. Dassarma, D.C., 1976, in *Colloquium on the Palaeontological Studies in s. Region*, Geological Surv. India, Hyderabad, Abstract. Dassarma, D.C., & Biswas, S., 1978, in *Geological Surv. India News*, 9, 6, p. 7. De Terra, H., & Paterson, T.T., 1939, *Studies on the Ice Age in India & Associated Human Cultures*, Washington. Falconer, H., 1865, in *Quarterly Jour. Geological Soc. London*. 21, pp. 311-89. Foote, R.B., 1876, *Geological Features of the s. Maratha Country & Adjacent Dts, Mem. Geological Surv. India*, 12. Hooijer, D.A., 1963, in *Rivista di Scienze prehistoriche*, 18, 1-4, p. 20. Hora, S.L., 1937, in *Records Geological Surv. India*, 72, 2, 178-87. Joshi, R.V., Bopardikar, B.P., & Sali, S.A., 1966, in *Current Science*, 35, 13, p. 344. Joshi, R.V., G.L. Badam, & Pandey, R.P., in press, *E. Anthropologist*. Kajale, M.D., Badam, G.L., & Rajaguru, S.N., 1976, in *Geophytology*, 1, pp. 122-32. Khan, E., 1968, in *Annals Geological Dept. Aligarh Muslim Univ.*, pp. 61-72. Lydekkar, R., 1886, in *Palaeontologia Indica, Series C*, 4, 2, pp. 23-58. Murthy, M.L.K., 1975, in Clason, A.T., ed., *Archaeozoological Studies*, Amsterdam & New York, pp. 132-8. Paddayya, K., 1969, in *Jour. Asiatic Soc.*, 2, 1-4, pp. 12-14. Pilgrim, G.E., 1905, in *Records Geological Surv. India*, 32, 3, pp. 199-218; 1925, *Migration of Indian Mammals*, presidential address, Section on Geology, 12th Indian Science Congress; 1939, in *Palaeontologia Indica, New Series*, 26, pp. 249-330. Rajaguru, S.N., 1968-9, in *Purātattva*, 2, pp. 16-22; 1976, "Studies in the late Pleistocene of the Mula Murtha Valley", unpublished thesis, Poona Univ. Rajaguru, S.N., & Badam, G.L., 1976, Litho- and Bio-stratigraphy of the Quaternary Formations in the c. Godavari valley, Maharashtra. Symposium on Deccan Traps, Geological Surv. India, Poona. Sankalia, H.D., 1964, in *Science*, 146, 3642, pp. 365-75. Satsangi, P.P., & Dutta, A.K., 1968, Progress Rep. for the Field Season 1967-8, unpublished Geological Surv. India repot, Sewell, R.B.S., & Guha, B.S., 1931, *in* Marshall, J., *Mohenjo-daro & the Indus Civilization*, London, 2, pp 649-763. Supekar, S.G., 1968, "Pleistocene Stratigraphy & Prehistoric Arch. of c. Narmada Basin", unpublished thesis, Poona Univ. Thomas, 1975, in Clason, A. T, ed., *Archaeozoological Studies*, Amsterdam & New York, pp. 322-8; 1977, "Archaeozoological Aspects of the Prehistoric Cultures of w. India", unpublished thesis, Poona Univ. Tripathy, C., 1967, in *Records Geological Surv. India*, 95, pp. 355-66. Zeuner, F.E., 1952, in *Man*, 182.—G.L. BADAM

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*15.1.5 Holocene.* Of the excavated Mesolithic [4.5] sites only four—ADAMGARH, BAGOR, LANGHNAJ and TILWARA—have yielded skeletal remains of animals.

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(a) Adamgarh: The assemblages from ADAMGARH have been studied by Bhola Nath, 1967, who has identified 13 species consisting of both domestic and wild animals occurring in equal proportions. The domestic animals include: *Canis familiaris* Linn. (domestic dog); *Bos indicus* Linn. (zebu or the one-humped cattle); *Bubalus bubalis* Linn. (buffalo); *Capra hircus aegagrus* Erxl. (goat); *Ovis orientalis vignei* Blyth (sheep); *Equus* sp. (ass or horse); and *Sus scrofa cristatus* Wagner (pig). The wild animals are represented by: *Varanus grisius* Daud (monitor lizard); *Hystrix cristata* Linn. (crested porcupine); *Cervus duvauceli* Cuvier (barasingha); *Cervus unicolor* Kerr (sambar); *Axis axis* Erxl. (*chital*); and *Lepus nigricollis* Cuvier (Indian hare). In most cases the bones are fragmentary and fragile and hence unsuitable for measurements. The remains are represented in general by vertebrae, isolated teeth, maxillae and mandibles, long bones of fore and hind limbs, metatarsals, metacarpals, astragali, parts of pelvic and pectoral girdles and antlers. Most of the bones belong to adult individuals. Some, e.g. those of *Bos indicus*, *Sus scrofa cristatus*, *Axis axis*, are charred suggesting that they might have been roasted in open fire. The bones of *Bos indicus*, *Sus scrofa cristatus* and *Ovis orientalis vignel* have definite cut marks indicating their probable use as food. The remains of the cattle resemble the smaller-humped, short-horned variety from Harappa and HASTINĀPURA. The osteological parts of other animals also bear a close similarity with their counterparts found at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, HASTINĀPURA, MASKI and RANGPUR. Some of the buffalo bones seem to belong to the wild variety, being stouter and having strong muscular ridges. A smaller number indicates that the inhabitants maintained small herds of these animals. The remains of the sheep are smaller in number compared with those of the goat. The crested porcupine (*Hystrix cristata*) is found at very few prehistoric sites in India and Adamgarh is one of them. The presence of both wild and domestic animals suggests that the inhabitants practised both hunting and stock-raising. There is no evidence of local domestication. The full-fledged domestication of animals may be due to foreign influence especially from w. Asia where these animals were domesticated at a very early date.

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(b) Bagor: The faunal remains from BAGOR have been studied by Thomas, 1975. All the three cultural phases of the site have yielded faunal remains though the maximum number of skeletal remains was collected from Phase I. In fact 78·29% of the identifiable bones came from Phase I, 19.06% from Phase II and 2.65% from Phase III. The domestic species include: *Ovis orientalis vignei* Blyth race *domesticus* (sheep); *Capra hircus aegagrus* (goat); *Bos indicus* (cattle); and *Sus scrofa cristatus* (pig). The wild species comprise: *Bubalus bubalis* (buffalo); *Cervus unicolor* (*sambar*); *Axis axis* (*chital*); *Antilope cervicapra* (black-buck); *Gazella gazella* (*chinkara*); *Lepus* cf. *nigricollis* (hare); *Vulpes* cf. *bengalensis* (bengal fox); *Herpestes edwardsi* (Indian grey mongoose); *Hystrix indica* (porcupine); and *Rattus* sp. (rat). In addition, bones of the tortoise, fish and frog have also been collected but they cannot be precisely identified. They were definitely part of the food economy of the people. Bones of rats are found equally distributed in all the phases. These remains may not be contemporary with the prehistoric cultures but later intrusives. The remains of the sheepgoat predominate in all the three Phases. In fact the majority of these bones may belong to the sheep because of the larger lateral and medial trochleas of the distal articular surface of the metapodia. Measurements also reveal that the bones of the sheep/goat were larger than those of the present-day sheep/goat. The unworn teeth, the unfused epiphyses of long bones as well as the erupting stage of third molars suggest that large populations of sheep/goat were killed between the ages of two and three years. These animals were profusely slaughtered in Phase I after which there was a gradual decline in their proportion. The cattle from Bagor appears to be of medium size, being largely represented by long bones, metapodials and teeth. The evidence suggests that it was slaughtered preferably at a young age. Small herds of pigs were kept by the inhabitants. Some of their teeth show resemblance to those of wild boar. It is possible that wild pigs lived in the surrounding areas and the inhabitants of Bagor hunted them very frequently. Some bones and teeth are charred. The buffalo is found only in Phase I, being represented by long bones, carpals, tarsals and fragments of horn cores. It is possible that this animal too was hunted for food. The *sambar* and *chital* are represented by teeth and by their appendicular skeleton. The skeletal remains belong to animals of different age groups. These animals are confined to Phase I. The charred horn core of a black-buck collected from Phase I was probably used as a tool. On the whole about 70% of the total number of bones are charred, e.g. those of cattle, sheep/goat, pig, *sambar*, *chital*, black-buck, porcupine, hare, fox. In most of the long bones, e.g. those of cattle, sheep/goat, cutting or chipping marks are found. All this suggests the slaughter of these animals for food.

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(c) Langhnaj: The faunal remains from LANGHNAJ have been studied by Clutton-Brock, 1965. These occur to a depth of 215 cm from the surface with a higher concentration between 90 and 150 cm. The fauna is represented by the following species: *Canis of lupus pallipes* Sykes (the Indian wolf); *Herpestes edwardsi* cf. *ferrugineus* Blanford (the Indian grey mongoose); *Rhinoceros unicornis* L. (one-horned rhinoceros); *Sus scrofa cristatus* Wagner (the Indian wild boar); *Axis axis* Erxl. (the spotted deer); *Axis porcinus* Zimmermann (the hog deer); *Cervus duvauceli* Cuvier (barasinga); *Boselaphus tragocamelus* Pallas (nilgai); *Antilope cervicapra* L. (black-buck); *Bison sivalensis* Falconer; *Bos namadicus* Falconer; and *Bos indicus* L. and/or *Bubalus bubalis* L. In the ponds and rivers flourished a variety of fish and tortoise (exact species not known), both forming part of the dish of the Microlithic man. Burrowing animals like the rat, squirrel and mongoose were also present in the Microlithic phase. Perhaps except for the mongoose and wolf all the animals were used for food. The fauna is distributed uniformly through all the levels.

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The species are represented by maxillae, mandibles, isolated teeth, antler fragments, limb-bones, metapodials, vertebrae, scapulae and astragali. Some of the bones and teeth were deliberately charred and burnt. Many bones show marks of gnawing, mostly by rodents and small carnivores. Most of the long bones were cut longitudinally or cross-wise for the extraction of marrow. The skulls were cut open or smashed. On the whole the bones recovered were in a bad state of preservation. They have suffered from weathering and are heavily encrusted with carbonate deposit. *Herpestes edwardsi* is represented by a complete skeleton, which suggests that it died in a burrow. It may be intrusive and not contemporary with the Microlithic habitation of the site.

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Comparisons of measurements of the wolf collected at Langhnaj reveal that this animal had relatively small teeth, falling within the size range of the dingo, that is between the wolf and the pariah dog. The smaller size of the Langhnaj canine teeth presents insufficient evidence for domestication.

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A scapula of *Rhinoceros unicornis* collected at Langhnaj is thought to have been used by the prehistoric man as an anvil for the production of microliths (Zeuner, 1952). This is the only species that would be likely to be found in Gujarat. It was previously common in grassy jungles and swampy ground throughout the peninsula of India. At the present day however this animal is becoming rare and is confined to Assam plains and Nepal.

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The Indian wild boar *Sus scrofa cristatus* is represented by numerous teeth in varying stages of wear. In fact there is very little difference in size as in relative proportions between the subspecies *cristatus* and *scrofa*. The teeth are very variable in size. In India *Sus scrofa cristatus* replaces the European wild boar, *Sus scrofa scrofa*. *Sus scrofa cristatus* is common throughout the peninsula. It lives in grass jungle and scrub and near marshy ground.

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The bones and teeth of the deer family fall into three size groups assigned to *Cervus duvauceli*, *Axis axis* and *Axis porcinus*. The cheek teeth of *Cervus duvauceli* are larger than those of *Axis axis* and both the upper and lower teeth have a somewhat more complex and folded appearance. Moreover the labial side of the upper molar series and the lingual side of the lower series is very deeply ridged. The accessory column is nearly always enlarged and flattened in *Cervus duvauceli* forming a wide vertical fold. One talus of *Cervus duvauceli* shows tooth marks from gnawing. The teeth of *Axis axis*, as mentioned earlier, are smaller than those of *Cervus duvauceli* and larger than those of *Axis porcinus*. In both species of *Axis* the labial sides of the upper teeth and the lingual sides of the lower cheek teeth are less ridged than they are in *Cervus duvauceli*. Furthermore there is occasionally a small accessory pillar on the labial side of the lower teeth between the trigonid and the talonid. In some cases where the cingulum is not present on the teeth, it is difficult to distinguish the teeth of *Axis axis* from those of *Axis porcinus*. The teeth of *Axis porcinus* are characterized by their small size and lack of cingulum. A large number of antler fragments of the three species were also found, some of them bearing evidence of being cut off from the skull. The antlers of *Axis porcinus* are shorter and smaller in circumference than those of *Axis axis*. Moreover the pedicle is longer in the former species. In *Axis axis* the brow tine joins the beam rather nearer the burr than it does in *Axis porcinus* and at a less acute angle.

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*Cervus duvauceli* is found n. of the Ganga from Kumaon to Assam and in the c. plains. *Axis axis* inhabits the peninsula and is also found in Kumaon, Bengal, Sikkim, Nepal and Ceylon. *Axis*.*porcinus* is generally found in the Indo-Ganga plains. The remains of the deer indicate that vegetation was ample and that the climate was at least moderately wet.

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The nilgai (*Boselaphus tragocamelus*) is represented by the more hypsodont teeth than the teeth of the deer family. The labio-lingual width of the teeth does not widen towards the base of the crown, as is common with the teeth of the deer family. The teeth are characterized by simple enamel pattern and the accessory column forms a simple pillar that is detached from the lobes of the tooth. Some of the horn cores found at Langhnaj are small and straight. Some metacarpal and metarsal bones are also small in overall dimensions but not as slender as of *Cervus duvauceli*. At present the nilgai is found throughout India, especially in scrub-land and on grassy plains but not in dense forests.

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