An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c9.s3: 4.3 Middle Palaeolithic
An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology v1.c9.s3
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4.3 Middle Palaeolithic
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The recognition of the Middle Palaeolithic (from time to time called Series II, Nevasian and Middle Stone Gujarat, and isolatedly in n. Kerala, Meghalaya, Punjab and Kashmir. The culture thus seems to have covered practically the whole country, excluding perhaps the s. part of Tamil Nadu and the deltaic regions of the Krishna and GODAVARI rivers. Several Middle Palaeolithic sites have also been reported from Pakistan, the most important of these being the Sanghao and Parkho-darra caves near Peshawar. There are several river valleys in Maharashtra, Andhra, Karnataka and Uttar Pradesh where assemblages of this culture occur in deposits sandwiched between those yielding Lower Palaeolithic [4.2] and Upper Palaeolithic/Mesolithic [4.4, 5] artefacts. Similar evidence is available in the excavation in the rock-shelters at BHIMBETKA. Moreover we now have ¹⁴C dates that place the culture in the Late Pleistocene, thus justifying its being called Middle Palaeolithic.
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Intensive investigations in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh have shown that the Middle Palaeolithic sites outnumber the Early Palaeolithic ones, probably suggesting an increase in population. The known sites may be classified into three groups, viz. cave and rock-shelter sites, open-air workshops or factory sites and river sites. The Sanghao and Parkho-darra caves and the rock-shelters near BHIMBETKA are the best known examples of the first group. By far the most prolific sites are the workshops located at the sources of raw material—outcrops of chert, chalcedony, jasper and agate occurring in sedimentary formations and as intertrappean beds. Some of them are very extensive, covering several hectares of land; they contain thousands of artefacts comprising finished tools and waste products. KOVALLI and DEVAPUR in Karnataka and CHOLI and KHADKI MATA in Madhya Pradesh are among the best known sites of this group. Some of them are situated quite far away from the main rivers, which may imply that assured of the availability of food resources man had occupied the interior regions. The abundance of tools at some of these sites suggests that they were visited by human groups several times; it is even probable that they served as camping sites. At the river sites the artefacts, obviously derived over some distance from a factory or habitation site, occur in cross-bedded sandy pebbly gravels which overlie or rest against pebbly cobbled gravels yielding Acheulian assemblages. Several such sites have been found along the NARMADA, GODAVARI, Krishna and other rivers. NEVASA on the PRAVARA and TAMINHAL on the Krishna are two well-known sites of this group. In the Late Sohan of Punjab, which is now grouped under the Middle Palaeolithic both culturally and chronologically, the artefacts occur in gravel and silt deposits forming Terrace 2 cut into the tilted Boulder Conglomerate of the Middle Pleistocene. The importance of these river sites is by and large confined to the fact that they enable us to fix the relative stratigraphical position of the industry in the culture-sequence of a particular region. Apart from the three groups mentioned above, there are a few sites like SANGANAKALLU, Dt Bellary, where the artefacts occur on hilltops.
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As stated above, at several river sites the artefacts occur in a gravel deposit overlying or resting against another and earlier gravel formation with Lower Palaeolithic tools. At some places each of these gravels is associated with a silt formation, so that one can speak of two cycles of gravel-and-silt deposits. Some inferences about palaeoclimate have been made on the basis of these deposits (Sankalia, 1964): coarse sediments like gravels could only have been formed when the river had a higher competence, suggesting a wet climate, while silt deposits were formed during a dry phase; the culture has thus been considered to have flourished during a wet period following a dry phase. But such inferences have to be viewed with caution because, apart from climate, several other factors like the nature and source of debris supply, local topography and even vegetation govern the formation of river deposits. Sedimentological studies of the river deposits from certain parts of Maharashtra and Gujarat clearly show that there is no justification for postulating distinct wet and dry climatic cycles during the Late Pleistocene (Rajaguru, 1973). Basing on the relatively high proportion (25%) of kaolinite and the mature character of the silt deposits from the Pune region, Rajaguru suggests that the region might have experienced 20 to 25% higher rainfall, i.e. an average annual rainfall of about 900 mm as against the present-day average of about 700 mm. But he emphasizes that such fluctuations are only a matter of degree and not of kind. In other words the climate during the Late Pleistocene did not differ markedly from the present semi-arid climate, particularly in the Deccan peninsula. However the geomorphological and pedological data obtained from w. India, particularly w. Rajasthan, where the Middle Palaeolithic artefacts occur in a pebbly conglomerate, prove that the culture flourished during a wet phase, following which a distinct dry phase set in, leading to the formation of sand-dunes and associated phenomena (Goudie, 1973) [cf. 9.2]. In many parts of Saurashtra Middle Palaeolithic tools have been found in fluvial gravels overlain by miliolite [9.7] formations of fluvio-marine origin. This would mean that the Middle Palaeolithic man of this area witnessed a minor phase of marine transgression (information from S.N. Rajaguru).
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The absence of pollen data makes it impossible to reconstruct the vegetation. Very recently dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous leaf-impressions have been reported from the site of Wajjal, Dt Gulbarga, but these are too fragmentary to be of any help in the identification of species. We can therefore only refer to the general view that, as at present, most parts of the country might have been covered with thorn-and-scrub types of vegetation interspersed with thickets, such open vegetation being very suitable for hunting purposes. But the occurrence of sites in forested regions like the Dangs of Gujarat and the Garo Hills of Meghalaya suggests that the Middle Palaeolithic groups occupied even forested tracts.
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At several sites in Maharashtra (Rajaguru, 1969), Madhya Pradesh and also in the BELAN valley of Uttar Pradesh animal fossils have been found in association with artefacts or in gravels morphologically similar to the tool-bearing gravels. KALEGAON and PAITHAN on the GODAVARI, BOREGAON NANDUR on the Mula, AMBEJOGAI on the Manjra, DEVAKACHAR and BURMAN GHAT on the NARMADA and Hagargundgi on the Bhima are some of the more important of these sites. The species represented are the *Bos namadicus* Falconer, *Bubalus bubalis* L., *Stegodon insignis*, *Elephas namadicus* and *Equus namadicus*. Hagargundgi and a few other sites have also yielded remains of unidentified species of the deer family. Such herbivorous assemblage indicates an open forested country. With the probable exception of KALEGAON, where a few artefacts were found embedded in the skull of *Bos namadicus* Falconer (and hence might have been used for killing the animal), the association of the tools with animal fossils at all these sites is fortuitous and hence lacks cultural significance. But it is quite likely that some of these animals were hunted by the Middle Palaeolithic man.
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In a few regions like Dts Chittoor and Bellary raw materials (quartzite and dolerite) employed by the Lower Palaeolithic groups continued to be used during the Middle Palaeolithic. However in most parts of the country a basic change took place in the selection of raw material. Silica minerals, chiefly chert, agate, jasper and chalcedony, now became the most common media of working. These occur in inexhaustible quantities in the form of veins or bands in sedimentary formations (limestones) as well as in the form of intertrappean beds. The nodules from these beds served as the nuclei for working. As stated earlier, extensive workshops emerged at some of these outcrops.
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As in raw material, a wholesale transformation took place in the realm of technology inasmuch as flakes replaced nodules and pebbles as the chief category of blanks for the manufacture of tools. It is for this reason that the Middle Palaeolithic industries are often called flake-tool industries. These blanks were obtained from nodules or pebbles by means of the stone hammer, soft hammer and prepared core (Levallois) techniques [16.15.1]. They might be oval, round, square, elongate or irregular in shape. In some industries thick blade-like flakes, known as flake-blades, and even true blades were used for the making of tools. All these blanks were transformed into finished tools by means of various forms of secondary working. In the case of scrapers the edges were either retouched or chipped. Points were also obtained by means of edge-chipping and retouch; the tanged butt was obtained by way of shouldering the margins for a certain length at the distal end. The bifacial points occurring at some of the sites were fashioned by means of surface working involving the removal of small and shallow flakes from both the surfaces. In the borer group of artefacts the edge was notched to a concave shape on one or both sides of the working end.
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The chief finished tool types occurring in this culture are: 1, scrapers of various types, (a) straight edge (single), (b) straight edge (double), (c) concave edge, (d) convex edge, (e) concavo-convex edge, (f) transverse edge, and (g) all-round edge; 2, points, (a) simple points, (b) tanged or shouldered points, and (c) bifacial points; 3, borers; 4, combination tools like scraper-borers and borer-points; 5, knives; 6, denticulate tools; 7, burins (the last three of sporadic occurrence); and 8, handaxes, cleavers and chopping tools (confined to a few sites only). As scrapers, borers and points occur at almost all the known sites, the culture can be called the scraper-borer-point culture. At the same time it should be made clear that it betrays marked regional differences in the size of artefacts, determined by the nature of raw material as in the composition of types and their percentages. As an example it may be noted that the Middle Palaeolithic industries of w. Rajasthan and Dt Chittoor still have Lower Palaeolithic types like the handaxe and cleaver, while these types are completely absent in some regions like the Shorapur doab of Karnataka. Likewise, the Late Sohan of Punjab contains a high percentage of chopping tools.
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The culture has been placed in the Late Pleistocene on the basis of palaeontology and stratigraphy. Of late ¹⁴C dates in B.C. for a few sites have been available: MULA DAM, 30030 (+5715–3340) and 39000; DHOM DAM, 37640 (+9200–4245); PAITHAN, 17075 (±660); INAMGAON, 1975 (+630–585): Badalpur (an oyster-shell bed overlying a Middle Palaeolithic alluvial deposit), 23030 (+1680–1400); and site near DEVAKACHAR, 31750 (+ 1820–1625). Thus the dates ranging from 17000 to 39000, confirm the Late Pleistocene dating of the culture. Further such geomorphic evidence as the occurrence of artefacts in the old bed of the GODAVARI lying about 20 m above the present bed at PAITHAN suggests a date even earlier than 40000.
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The flake-tool character of this culture enables us to compare it broadly with the Levallois-Mousterian cultures of w. Asia, the Mousterian culture of w. Europe and the Middle Stone Age cultures of Africa. Sankalia particularly emphasizes the typological similarities between the Indian and w. European industries. Basing on these similarities and also other features like the use of new raw materials and occurrence of sites in the intermediate regions, e.g. Teshik-Tash in c. Asia and the Sanghao cave in Pakistan, he postulates that the culture was introduced into the country from w. Europe via w. and c. Asia. But one cannot completely rule out the probability of a local development from the handaxe-cleaver industries, more particularly in regions like the BELAN valley of Uttar Pradesh which have revealed an elaborate succession of cultures.
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**Fig. 4.** Middle Palaeolithic tools: 1, convex-sided scraper—Nagarjunakonda; 2, wide scraper; 3, denticulated tool; 4 concave side scraper—Paisra; 5, double-side scraper—Anagwadi; 6, knife on-flake—Nagarjunakonda; 7, 8, point—Anagwadi; 9, end-scraper; 10, end-scraper with retouched side—Shorapur Doab; 11, 12 point—Anagwadi; 13 angle scraper; 14, 15, borer—Mundva Belan valley
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Goudie, A., 1973, in Hammond, N., ed., *S. Asian Arch.*, New Jersey, pp. 29-37. Jayaswal, V., 1978, *Palaeohistory of India*, Delhi. Rajaguru, S.N., 1969, in *Puratattva*, 2, pp. 16-20; 1973, in Agrawal, D P. & Ghosh, A., ed., *Radiocarbon & Indian Arch.*, Bombay, pp, 80-7 Sankalia, H D. 1956, in *AI*, 12, pp. 35-52; 1964, in *Science*, 146, pp 35-52. 1974, *Prehistory & Protohistory in India & Pakistan*, Poona, with an exhaustive bibliography in ch. II. For sites see respective entries in vol II.—K. PADDAYYA & H.D. SANKALIA
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4.3.1 *Siwalik region*. The existence of the Middle Palaeolithic phase in this region is known from a few localities, including the Potwar area in Pakistan where it is known as Late Sohan (De Terra *et al.*, 1939). In India the main components of one of the important industries discovered at ROR in Dt Kangra by Sahani and Mohapatra, 1964, are prepared flakes, asymmetric cores, side scrapers and incipient borers. The pebble side scrapers which look like miniature pebble choppers indicate that this industry was evolved from the earlier tradition of the region [4.2.1].
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De Terra, H. & Paterson, T.T., 1939, *Studies on the Ice Age in India & Associated Human Cultures*, Washington. Sahani, M.R., & Mohapatra, 1964, in *Current Science*, 33, pp. 168-80. For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—V JAYASWAL
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4.3.2 *Vindhyan region*. Remains of the Middle Palaeolithic man are found in parts of Malwa, Bundelkhand and various Dts of Madhya Pradesh and s. Uttar Pradesh. From the Malwa plateau which is drained by the rivers CHAMBAL and Shivna three noteworthy implementiferous localities, MANDSAUR, KHADKI and NALGARH are reported (Khatri, 1957, 1958). The artefacts are preponderatingly side scrapers and points and are made of jasper nodules. Besides end scrapers are also fairly well-represented. The Clactonian technique [16.15.1] for detaching flakes prevails, with a complete absence of Levallois elements.
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The Bundelkhand Middle Palaeolithic group is represented by SIHARA, GHATSEMTRA, HASRAI and GONCHI sites, Dt Jhansi, in the Betwa basin (*IAR 1955-6*, p. 68; *1956-7*, pp. 5, 8, 11; Singh, 1965). This group is marked by the survival of the earlier tradition in the Middle Palaeolithic, as is evident from the implements of scraper-point types along with Acheulian tools. However advanced technological features are found in the form of faceted core technique and indirect percussion and punch techniques.
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Middle Palaeolithic implements found in the NARMADA basin are made mostly on quartzite, but some are also made on fine-grained siliceous stones. It has been observed that finished tools made on fine-grained stones are more than those made on quartzite. Various types of side scrapers predominate the tool kit. As is evident from the industries of MAHADEO-PIPARIA (Supekar, 1968) and ADAMGARH (Joshi, 1964), notched tools and specimens showing marks of Levallois character are quite frequent. The blade element is also at times found in the assemblages of the region. The tool assemblage from ADAMGARH is marked by the survival of handaxes and chopper elements.
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The remains of the Middle Palaeolithic man in the Son basin (Ahmed, 1966) are sporadic in nature, and detailed investigation in the region is in progress. The assemblages of the region are marked by the presence of the earlier tradition as well as a Levallois element.
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There is a marked similarity between the Middle Palaeolithic industries obtained from Dts Damoh (Joshi, 1961) and Banda (*IAR 1955-6*, p. 4). These are characterized by side scrapers and points along with advanced technological features.
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From the alluvial deposits of the BELAN system in Dts Mirzapur and Allahabad, Sharma, 1973 and 1975, discovered various facies of the Middle Palaeolithic, which show gradual development from the earlier tradition to the Upper Palaeolithic [4.4]. A number of factory sites which are situated on the slopes of the adjoining hillocks have also been discovered in this region. Besides the usual components, i.e. various types of side scrapers and points, the BELAN group is marked by a fair proportion of end scrapers and Levallois flakes. A good proportion of denticulated and notched tools is also noticed in these collections.
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Ahmed, N., 1966, “Stone Age Cultures of the Upper Son Valley", unpublished thesis, Poona. Joshi, R.V., 1961, in *AI*, 17, pp. 5-36; 1964, in *Asian Perspectives*, 8, pp. 150-63. Khatri, A.P., 1957, in *Bull. Deccan College Res Inst.*, 18, pp. 159-72; 1958, “Stone Age Cultures of Malwa", unpublished thesis, Poona. Sharma, G.R., 1973, in Agrawal, D P., & Ghosh, A., ed., *Radiocarbon & Indian Arch.*, Bombay, pp. 106-10; 1975, Presidential Address, Indian Prehistoric Soc., Delhi Singh, R., 1965, “Palaeolithic Industries of n Bundelkhand", unpublished thesis, Poona. Supekar, S.G., 1968, “Pleistocene Stratigraphy & Prehistoric Arch. of the c. Narmada Basın", unpublished thesis, Poona. For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—V. JAYASWAL
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4.3.3 *W. region*. The main localities yielding Middle Palaeolithic tools in Rajasthan are BHUTIA, HAJRA-KHERI, BEAWAR and CHAMPAKHERI (Mısra, 1967). Gravel II of the Banas system at these sites contains implements on chert, jasper, quartzite and sandstone. Besides the characteristic feature of side scrapers on flakes, almost an equal position is shared by the handaxe, borer and point. A considerable proportion of Levallois flakes and a few tortoise cores evidence the technological advancement of the assemblages. In the Kadamli basin a similar lithic tradition was noticed, the only difference in the latter being the choice of the raw material, invariably quartzite, for making implements.
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Misra, V., 1967, *Pre- & Protohistory of the Berach Basın*, Poona. For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—V. JAYASWAL 4.3.4 *Chota Nagpur region, e. region and n.-e. Deccan.* Four groups of flake industries come from the CHAIBASA, SINI, GUA, GHATSILA and CHANDIL areas of Dt Singhbhum all bearing almost identical typotechnological features (Ghosh, 1970). The proportion of scrapers is as high as 75·50%, though a small number of Acheulian implements is present.
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In s. Bihar the cultural remains of the Middle Palaeolithic man mainly come from BHIMBANDH and JAMALPUR, Dt Monghyr (Jayaswal, 1978). The collection contains scrapers, including side and end, denticulated tools and flakes obtained by the Levallois technique. All the specimens are made on quartzite nodules and have close typo-technological similarities with the BELAN group of industries.
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The finds from the yellow sand deposits of KANGSABATI and Kumari rivers in Dts Bankura and Purulia are characterized by both scraper-point and Acheulian traditions (*IAR 1959-60*, pp. 48-50). In Dt Purulia the later assemblages of Middle Palaeolithic tradition are devoid of Acheulian implements and consist of well-prepared flakes having fine retouch.
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Though the earlier work in Dt Mayurbhanj by Bose and Sen [4.2.5] did not reveal Middle Palaeolithic remains, later investigations in Dts Keonjhar, Dhenkanal and Sundargarh have brought to light a number of localities of the phase (Mohapatra, 1962), with tools on several stones such as opal, chert, quartzite, quartz, jasper, shale and limestone. The industries retain the true scraper-point character with a complete absence of Acheulian tradition and of the Levallois element.
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Most of Assam remains unexplored up to this day. The only known assemblage of Garo Hills is made on dolerite and follows the general pattern of scraper-point tradition of the Indian Middle Palaeolithic culture-complex (*IAR 1967-8*, pp. 7-8; *1968-9*, pp. 2-3; *1969-70*, pp. 1-2).
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Ghosh, A.K., 1970, in *Trans. American Philosophical Soc.*, N.S., 60. Jayaswal, V., 1978, *Palaeohistory of India*, Delhi, pp. 64-5. Mohapatra, 1962, *Stone Age Cultures of Orissa*, Poona. For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—V. JAYASWAL
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4.3.5 *Upper, s.-e. and lower Deccan.* Middle Palaeolithic industries found in various parts of Maharashtra are characterized by almost similar typo-technological trends, i.e. scrapers and points and a uniformity in the selection of the raw material, which is invariably siliceous grained stones. Noteworthy discoveries are from KANDIVLI (Todd, 1939; Malik, 1959), Mula-Mutha, Dt Pune (Rajaguru, 1970), and the GODAVARI and PRAVARA valleys in Dt Ahmadnagar (Sankalia *et al.*, 1958).
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Pleistocene deposits are well-preserved in quite a number of places in Andhra Pradesh. Middle Palaeolithic tools are here associated with Gravel II deposits of the Krishna system, lying mainly in Dts Nalgonda, Guntur and Kurnool and the Shorapur doab. Industries found in Kurnool (Isaac, 1960) and Shorapur (Paddayya, 1968) are made on siliceous stones like chert, jasper and chalcedony, etc., and follow the scraper-point tradition. The tools from the ANAGWADI group of sites (*IAR 1955-6, 1956-7, 1964-5*) and the ones obtained from the NAGARJUNAKONDA valley (Subrahmanyam, 1975) are made on quartzite. Along with scraper-point variety of tools these contain tools made in the Acheulian tradition also.
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In Dt Cuddapah Pleistocene remains are confined to the banks of the Sagileru, a tributary of the Pennar (Reddy, 1968). The Vemula group of sites (Reddy, 1970) has yielded implements made of fine-grained quartzite. Scraper-point tradition here is found along with the earlier pebble tool tradition. It is interesting to note that though the chopper-chopping trend survived in the later phase the Acheulian tradition died out. Levallois and blade-detaching techniques were in existence.
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Similarly the group of sites represented by VEDULLACHERVU, Dt Chittor (Murty, 1966), on the bank of the Rallavakalan, a tributary of the Suvarnarekha, contains implements made on quartzite. Here also the earlier tradition continued in the Middle Palaeolithic phase, but there was a continuity of the Acheulian trend. The tools are now finer in workmanship and the proportion of retouched specimens is comparatively low. The technological character of the industry is quite developed, as is evident from the prevailing position of the Levallois and blade element.
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Issac, N., 1960, “Stone Age Cultures of Kurnool”, unpublished thesis, Poona, Malik, S.C., 1959, in *M.S. University Arch. Series*, 4, Baroda, Murty, M.L.K., 1966, “Stone Age Cultures of Chittoor”, unpublished thesis, Poona, Paddayya, K., 1968, “Pre-& Protohistoric Investigation in Shorapur Doab”, unpublished thesis, Poona, Rajaguru, S.N., 1970, “Studies on the Late Pleistocene of the Mula-Mutha Valley”, unpublished thesis, Poona. Reddy, K.T., 1968, “Prehistoric Cultures of Cuddapah Dt,” unpublished thesis, Sagar; 1970, in *Indian Antiquary*, 4, pp. 227-34. Sankalia, H.D., & Banerjee, K.D., 1958, in *Jour. Palaeontological Soc. of India*, 3, Lucknow, pp. 158-9. Subrahmanyam, R., *et al.*, ed., 1975, *Nagarjunakonda (1954-60)*, Mem. ASI, 75, Delhi. Todd, K.R.U., 1939, in *Jour. Royal Anthropological Inst.*, 69, pp. 257-72. For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—V. JAYASWAL
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4.3.6 *S. region.* The flake industry reported from the Kortalayar basin near Madras seems to contain Mousterian features (Krishnaswami, 1938). The s.most extension of the Middle Palaeolithic culture of the Indian subcontinent is marked by a group of sites, situated on the Vagai and Maratta basins in Dt Madurai. The important locality of the region is T. PUDUPPATTI, which has yielded implements made of fine-grained siliceous stones (*IAR 1960-1*, p. 18). The assemblage has perhaps unique typological features, for along with scrapers made on flakes and points shouldered arrowheads were also discovered. Besides, the collection is said to be devoid of the Levallois element.
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Krishnaswami, V.D., 1938, in *Jour. Madras Geological Association*, 13, pp. 58-90. For sites see respective entries in vol. II.—V. JAYASWAL