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The Doctrine of the Jainas, Described after the Old Sources c9: Cosmography

The Doctrine of the Jainas, Described after the Old Sources c9

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Cosmography

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§102. The "cosmic system"—by which name we intend to comprise both the general plan of the cosmos and the organization as well as the activities of its occupants—is, in contrast to renunciation and world conquest (see Chapters VI and VII), a given fact just as is the "world course" (see Chapter IV). The great amount of details ask for an individual treatment of the subject which, however, as to the cosmographic plan will be restricted to the more important items (of which there will be still enough after all), since, on the one hand, we have more or less comprehensive descriptions at our disposal already,¹ and since, on the other, vagaries not based on ethical grounds and hence being empty are not attractive to dwell upon. In order not to overcharge our text we, therefore, frequently disregarded to deliver detailed proofs, all the more since the passages in question can easily be traced from chapter III. The main sources are Pannav. 1. 2; Jivābh. III with the Divas.; Jambudd. and the cosmographic sections of Thāṇa and Samavāya.

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¹ The cosmographic plan has been described in all general representations, of the system, first of all in those by Mrs. STEVENSON, v. GLASENAPP, GUÉRINOT (§ 4.6). KIRFEL in his Kosmographie der Inder (Bonn 1920), pp. 208-339—reviewed by the AUTHOR ZDMG 75, 254-275—and in the Bilderatlas zur Religionsgeschichte (Lpf. 1928), No. 12a (ill.) deeply goes into details. Comp. also PULLÉ in La cartografia antica dell' India. P. 1 (SIF II 4, 1900); BARNETT, Antag. pp. 137-141. and, finally BASTIAN, Ideale Welten, vol. 3 (Bln. 1892), A. C. Sen IHQ, 8, 43-48,

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§103. There is (Thāṇ. 1 b; Samav. 1 b) but o n e world (loga) and beside it but o n e non-world (aloga). The latter surrounds the world on all sides like a hollow sphere (Viy. 522a) and is out of reach, since beyond the boundaries of the world the medium of motion is absent (Viy. 717 b). The extension of both is illustrated (Viy. 525 b) by describing the speed of divine personalities and the distance they are able to cover by it; in figures the world measures 7 times 10¹⁴ joyana¹ in all directions (Viy. 579 a). Seen in its vertical cross-section it narrows from below to the centre and then widens again in nearly the same degree to above (Viy. 248a; 616 b). Both the summit and the base are built up in a convex shape. To make it plain we may compare it with an 8 of equal halves rotated round its axis. Canonically, however, the three sections (Thāṇ. 126a)—we call them by the names of the lower, the centre and the upper world²—are compared with a bed to rest on (paliyanka), a so-called thunderbolt (vara-vaira), and an upright standing drum (uddha-muinga)—this following the teaching of Pāsa (Viy. 248 a); acc. to Viy. 522a the lower and centre section are even illustrated by a couch (tappa³) and a cymbal (jhallari), resp. For the whole Viy. 522 a; 616 b apply the comparison with a supaiṭṭhaga, i.e. a "broad-bottomed" vessel. By these conceptions it is demonstrated as good as certain that the horizontal cross-section was thought to be circular. The calculations, however, drawn from the Lokaprakāśa of the Śvet. (composed 1708 A.D.) by KIRFEL⁴ prove that its author imagined the world as three pyramids one upon the other each having a square base and rising in steps on all sides, the centre one of which standing on its top surface, whereas the description given by the Dig.⁵ shows three roof-like bodies of the same unchanging length but of a steadily de-, resp. increasing width. In the Canon we read of these details as little as we do of the unit of measure of rajju, "rope", by means of which the proportions of the parts is being expressed.⁶ With the height of the whole world measuring 14 r. the upper and the lower world each come to 7 r. (the centre world is not considered). The width of its base decreases from 7 r. down to 1 r. in the centre world, in order to increase again to 5 r. (§ 129) and then to decrease once more down to 1 r. A third non-canonical conception refers to a world of human appearance¹ (as *loka-puruṣa*). This easily makes itself clear by the mere outline of the whole which, moreover, certainly accounts for the name of the Gevejjaga or "neck" regions (§ 129) and the expression of *loga-matthaga* (Dasav. 4, 25).²

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¹ koḍākoḍi (Jīv.: koḍikoḍi) = 10¹⁴.

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² Acc. to Thāṇ. 171 b the upper world causes the least, the lower world the greatest difficulty for understanding (abhigama). (The passage is a fragment.).

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³ talpa, not tapra (uḍupaka Vy.).

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⁴ Kosmographie, p. 210 f.

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⁵ Comp. Brahmaveda on Davvasamgaha, 20 (SBJ 1, 47 ff.) Vīrasena in Saṭkhaṇḍāgama Vol. 4, p. 11 f. and Introd. p. 11 gives tala-rukkha-saṃṭhāna as the shape of the world.

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⁶ The rajju which is nothing but a proportional number has also been made to be some kind of an absolute quantity. (Comp. COLEBROOKE, Misc. Essays III. 1983.).

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¹ But by no means of an expressly female app. as GRÜNWEDEL, Alt-Kutscha I, 47 gives it. The interpretation of the corresponding figure 20 (see also KIRFEL, Bilderatlas) is certainly very doubtful.

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² The AUTHOR ZDMG 75, 260 f.

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§104. Along with the shape and the organization of the world and its different sections we shall equally consider the beings they contain, and we feel entitled to do so by the fact that the tabular treatment they receive in the dogmatic texts ascends in stages through all three worlds; the inhabitants of hell are followed by those appertaining to the classes of gods which belong to the uppermost stage of the lower world and the upper world, they again are followed by the prestages of the animals and their lower classes, by the higher animals and men, and, finally, by the gods of the upper world and the Siddhas on a still higher stage. Outside dogmatic teaching the entity of all beings is called by the words of *pāṇa bhūya jīva satta*, certainly without making any discriminations by doing so, as the commentators want it.³ According to the number of their senses all animals (*tirikkha-joṇiya*) down to their most simple forms are called one- to five-sensed (§ 118). As is the case with all beings, they are either fully developed (*pajjatta*) or not (*ap.*), to which we ask to comp. § 63. The one-sensed beings (*eg'indiya*)—so called since they have nothing but feeling—are the animate smallest particles of earth, water, fire, wind, and plants. As occupants of these particles or accumulations of matter (*kāya*), their souls and equally the beings themselves are called *puḍhavī*- etc. *-kāiya*. Their number in any of their kind is *a*, as is the case with all beings in the Saṃsāra, with the only exception of the plant souls whose number is ∞ (Pannav. 179 a). The one-sensed beings occur both in a form so fine that no sense is able to conceive it (*suhuma*) and in a concrete (*bāyara*) shape. In their fine form we find them, indifferentiated within their kinds, all over the world (*savva-loya-pariyāvannaga*, Pannav. 71. b).

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³ In a frequently (e.g. Jīv. 305 b; Prajn. 191b; Ācār. (old ed.) 80, 15) quoted verse; but comp. Ācār 162a 12.

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Among the plant souls or *vaṇassai*¹-*kāiya* we also find the *nigoya* or *nioya-jīva*. Jambūdv. 171 a; Vy. 309 a explain *nigoda* by *kuṭumba*, which makes us think of *nyoka(s)*. As mentioned above, the *nigoya* (Viy. 889 b—Jiv. 423b; Viy. 764 b; Pannav. 381 a) are both fine and concrete. Originally, however, the name is certain to have belonged to the former (*suhuma*) only. This is explained not so much by the word of *nigoya* (without an adjective) standing side by side with *bāyara-n*. (Pannav. 381 b) than by an objective exceptional position. The above mentioned ∞ number of plant souls goes to the debt of the fine ones among them; they alone may stay for an infinitely long time in the same form of existence, whereas the remaining fine elemental beings (to say nothing of the higher ones) can leave it, at the latest, after an indeterminably long (*a*), i.e. after all a measurable time (Pannav. 377a, 381b). This is the so-called *kāya-ṭṭhii*, the uninterrupted sequence of existences having the same form (§ 93), i.e. existences each of which ends within one *muhutta* in a fine form in the elemental beings and plants regardless of either their complete or incomplete development (Pannav. 171b). Hence the fine undeveloped *nigoya*, though it pertains to the Saṃsāra, yet does not take part in the up and down within it, until it starts to develop. By this way it is the intellectual and actual counterpart of the Siddha (§ 101). The Canon does not supply us with any detailed information about a certain way as to how the *nigoya* fill up the entire world. It is most probably a post-canonical conception acc. to which these *nigoya* form in *n* numbers into *n* minute balls (*gola*) each having *∞* souls—which for their part permeate all and everything.¹ Pannav. 39a speaks of an *aya-gola* only by way of comparison.

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¹ Also *vaṇapphai*.

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¹ Comp. the Nigoyachattīsi incorporated by Abhayadeva in his Vy. vṛtti (528a ff.). Nig. 12 appears in the Kālaka legend, comp. AUTHOR OLZ 1933, col. 451.

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§105. The concrete (*bāyara*) elemental beings do not occur in the same way everywhere in the world, but we find them in all of its three sections. They represent the palpable occurrence of the elements, and, to mention but some of them, they appear in the forms of earth, minerals, metals; of water, clouds, snow; of flame, coal, lightning; of breath, wind, storm. Their concrete shapes are, resp., those of the lens, the drop (*thibuga*), the quiver, and the flag (Thāṇ. 234b; Jīv. 11a, 24b, 27a; 29a; Pannav. 410b). The animate elements of earth, water, and wind² appear in a concrete shape (Pannav. 71b ff.) except in the centre world at all obvious places also within the sphere of the subterranean and heavenly dwellings and, naturally, also in the structure of the hulls enveloping the lower world (§ 107). In the watery hulls there are also concrete vegetable bodies with their souls; acc. to Viy. 278 b clouds come into existence also in the lower world and in the upper world as a work of gods (*deva, asura, nāga*). Fire only is confined to the centre world as far as it is inhabited by men. It comes into being at a fire-place (*iṅgālakariyā*), but it comes to glow (*ujjalai*) only when joined by the wind (*vāuyāya*) (Viy. 696 b). The lower (two- to four- sensed) and the higher animals (*pañcendiya tirikkha-joṇiya*) occur in the lower and centre world at places where, according to their kind, they belong (*tad-ekka-desa-bhāe*). We shall consider them when dealing with the centre world (§ 113).

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² Wind caused by walking, blowing, pressing, etc. is inanimate (*acitta*). Hence as to this statement Thāṇ. 334b ought to have *vāu-kāya* instead of *vāu-kāiya*.

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§106. The concrete plants, acc. to Pannav. 30a ff. (in prose and nearly 100 Gāhās), fall into individual plants (*patteya-sarīra*) and group plants (*sāhāraṇa-s*. Viy. 762a), the latter a.o. lichens and mosses, without any subdivisions, but very rich in variety. The more highly developed individual plants are divided twelve-fold acc. to their habit into trees, bushes, shrubs, creepers, grasses, etc. Trees are subdivided into two groups, the mono-kernels (*eɡ'aṭṭhiya*) and the multi-kernels (*bahu-biyaya*). On grasses (*taṇa*) it has been observed that they bear seeds at the top, at the roots, at the stalk, and at other places (Dasav. 4, introd., Ṭhāṇ. 186b, 322b, 354b). The five classes of *rukkha*, *ajjhāroha*, *taṇa*, *osahi*, and *hariya* (Sūy. II, 3) joined by a sixth bearing no name of its own, look older than the duodecimal classification. Both classifications are now crossed by one classifying according to the number of souls within a plant. With its quality to have more than one soul the plant stands alone in the realm of living beings¹. The seats of these souls are the roots, the bulb (*kanda*), the stem, the bark, the branches (*sālā*), the twigs (*pavāla*), the leaves, blossoms, fruits and seeds (*mūlā mūla-jīva-phuḍā* etc. Viy. 300a). Acc to Sūy. this refers to the five classes mentioned above, acc. to Pannav. to the trees, acc. to Ṭhāṇ 520b to the *taṇa*. The taking in of matter and its transubstantiation starts (Viy. 300a) with the souls of the roots which are near to the souls of the earth (*paḍi-baddha*) from whom they take what substance they need. From there it is taken by these of the bulb, from here by those of the stem, a. s. o. As to this theory concerning the growth of plants (the text of which suggests the wrong conclusion that the resp. former were decaying in favour of the resp. succeeding ones) it may be pointed out that this growth decreases in proportion to the sequence of the starting of the rainy season—the main rainy season²—autumn—winter—spring—, and summer. The opposing vital force which manifests itself in the general bloom is explained acc. to § 94-. ³ Now, the number of the souls in trees is either x, ¿ or ∞ (Viy. 364a; Ṭhāṇ. 122b), the quantity of ¿ pertaining to the roots, etc., whereas the first pertains to the blossoms (Pannav. 31a) and one to each leaf. ∞ souls are attributed (acc. to Viy. 300 a) to a number of certain specified plants. The *uppala* and other plants are discussed by Viy. 508 b ff., while Viy. 800 a deals with useful plants for the most part. Pannav. gives many details especially of the *sāhāraṇā-sarira*.

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¹ Discussed by KOHL, Ztschr. f. Ethn. f8 (1953), p. 91-95.

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² pāusa-vāsā-rattesu. This bipartition reoccurs in the monastic lif, see § 146.

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³ gimhāsu ṇam buhave usipa-. j.j.ya p. ya vaṭassaikāy.utās vakkamanti etc.

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§107. The Lower World (*ahe-loga*). In the lower world there are seven regions (*puḍhavī*, Umāsvāti gives *bhūmi*). Their names are Rayaṇappabhā (*imā R.*, see § 113 footnote), Sakkarappabhā, Vāluyappabhā, Paṅkappabhā, Dhūmappabhā, Tam(appabh)ā, and Tamatamā or, commonly, Ahesattamā (Mahātamaḥprabhā).¹ This is their sequence from above to below. In between them there are spaces of unmeasured extension,² and a space of that kind separates also the lowest region from the non-world (Viy. 651 b). For each region is enveloped by hulls which, in succession, consist of viscous water, viscous wind³ and light wind. The last and most remote is followed by an intermediate space (*uvās’antara*), Ṭhāṇ. 177a,388b; comp. Viy. 152a and also Ṭhāṇ. 152b). Below each region these hulls are very wide: the water hull amounting to 20,000, the remaining to ¿ joy.; to their sides, where they are ring-shaped (*valaya*), they are quite thin: measuring 6, 4½ and 1½ *joy.* in the Rayaṇappabhā, increasing evenly up to 8.6 *joy.* in the remaining regions and measuring 2 *joy.* in the Ahesattamā. Beyond the light wind hull, at the sides, the world ends (*loy’anta*); thus the intermediate part of space lies below the regions only. The hulls of the uppermost region include the centre world and, partly, also the upper world (§ 129).

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¹ Other names for all seven regions are given by Ṭhāṇ. 388b, acc. to which the Bhāṣya ref. to T. 3, 1 in the edition (p. 90) must be partly rectified. Ṭhāṇ. 440 also counts Isipabbhārā (§ 135) as *puḍhavī*.

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² Any concussion of these hulls (*guvie samāṇe*) is conveyed by the water hull to the earth and causes a general earthquake (Ṭhāṇ 161b).

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³ By entering a minute distance from above into the space below the Rāy. (and naturally horizontally in the centre) we come to the centre of the world (Viy. 606a) and, equally, to the centre of its three sections—§ 103—, that of the centre world called Ruyaga (§ 58).

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§108. The regions are determined in respect of their depth only, but not as to their width. Of the latter Viy. 604 b (=Jīv. 306a) merely says that it increases downwards. The depth decreases from 180,000 *joy.* in the Rayaṇappabhā down to 108,000 in the Ahesattamā which is the number of the places of hell it contains (*niray’āvāsa*), 8.4 mill. in all, and in the 1st to the 5th region from 3 mill. down to 300,000. Tamā has 99,995, Ahesattamā but 5, though especially extensive, places. While (Pannav. 79b) the layers of the 1st to the 6th region lie between every two unoccupied layers of 1,000 *joy.*—the upper one in the Rayaṇappabhā equals the thickness of Jambuddīva (§ 113)—, these layers in the 7th region amount the 52,500 *joy.*, so that the occupied is but 3,000 *joy.* in depth here. In the Rayaṇappabhā we have three special layers: Khara-kaṇḍa, Pakabahula-k. and Āubahula-k. of 16, 000, 84, 000 and 80,000 *joy.* These names indicate the transition to the water hull which follows accordingly. The former on its part has 16 layers of 1,000 *joy.* each, the uppermost being called Rayaṇa-k. (Thāṇ. 525a; Samav. 89b f., 92b, 104b).

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Another arrangement in layers—though not represented in the Canon itself—goes by the way of *patthaḍa*.¹ In the 1st to the 7th region there are 13, 11, 9, 7, 5, 3 and 1 of such layers tiered one beneath the other, i.e. 49 in all. From the central hell of Simantaga in the uppermost layer of the Rayaṇappabhā measuring 4,5 mill. *joy.* in diameter² a succession of 49 hells leads off in every main direction, and a succession of 48 hells in every intermediate direction. In the second layer the numbers are 48 and 47, etc., up to 49, which is identical with the 7th region where the medium one is surrounded by 4 only. More extensive hells at certain places in these successions are called something like “eccentric” (*avakkanta-mahāniraya*) (Thāṇ. 365b). So far as these hells appear in successions they are either circular or quadrangular, while in other cases they may be of any shape possible. In the lowest region four triangular hells, called Kāla, Mahākāla, Roruya, and Mahāroruya, with their vertex pointing outward form a frame round the 5th circular one, called Appaiṭṭhāṇa.¹ The latter measures 100,000 *joy.* in diameter.² The different hells in the Rayaṇappabhā are 3,000 *joy.* in depth, and they are something like egg-shaped. Within them it is dark.³ except for a glow of fire,⁴ slippery with fat, pus, blood and filth, evil smelling as if of decay, and a touch causes pain. In the descriptions given by the Sūy. and Utt. (except the reference of Utt. 19, 48) the hells are considered hot only; in the Jīv. their three uppermost regions are hot, whereas the two lowest are cold; in the 4th and 5th they have both in the extreme; heat prevails in the former, cold in the latter.

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¹ Sthān. 366 b *paithaḍa* is *prastṛta*, though it is rendered as *prastaṭa* exclusively. Abhayadeva here refers to the *Vimānanarakendrak’ākhya grantha*, presumably the *Vimāna-and Naraya-Pavibhatti*, comp. AGRM, 24, 1924.

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² Because it is as large as Samayakhetta (§ 122), the Uḍuvimāna in Sohamma (§ 129) and Isipabhārā (§ 135) (Thāṇ. 125a, 250b).

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¹ Less accurate are the earlier statements made by Sūy. II 2, 66 f.= Dasā 6, 15 f.—Pannav. 79b; Jīv. 102b; *te ṇaṃ naragā anto vaṭṭā, lahīṃ cauramsā, ahe khurappa-saṃṭhāṇa-saṃṭhiyā*. They must not be referred (as JACOBI does in Sūy.) to the inside and outside of the various hells. Comp. § 111.

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² This it shares with the Jambuddīva (§ 119), the Pālaga-jāṇa-vimāṇa in Sohamma and Savvaṭṭhasiddha (§ 129) (Thāṇ. 250 b) Comp. the nālī § 95.

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³ For its motivation see Thāṇ. 263 a.

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⁴ *nicc'andhayāra-tamasā... kāū (or kāu'; Sūy. wrong kaṇhā) agaṇi-vaṇṇ'abhā*.

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§109. The earlier conception—already mentioned above—still represents the beings occupying the hells as humans who, in these hells, partly at certain designated places, rivers and the Veyāliya mountain, suffer the most exquisite punishments by cruel warders (Sūy. 1 5; Utt. 19, 47 ff.). Acc. to later conceptions the hells are populated by beings (*neraiya*)⁵ totally different from humans. They look black and ghastly, they resemble plucked birds, they are sexless, emanate a smell of decay and cause pain when being touched. They greatly vary in size, the maximum being in each region twice that of the preceding and reaching up to 1,000 *dhaṇu*. They suffer from hunger and thirst, heat and cold, and even though they themselves cause terror, they live in constant indescribable fear of mutual persecution in the most different shapes into which they change.¹ All these torments increase in proportion to the increasing depth of the region to which they are doomed according to the measure of their wrong-doing (Viy. 596a, 604b, 606b). But also the animate elemental and plant-particles to be found in the different hells or either building them up, have much to suffer after they have been transferred there by their Karman (Jīv. 127b; Viy. 606a).

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⁵ Acc. to Viy. 230b the world of hell is covered with hell-beings down to a depth of 400 to 500 *joy.* (*samāiṇṇa*).

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¹ Viy. 314 a=Thāṇ. 505a quotes 10 gen ral painful sensations of the hell-beings.

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§110. However, the lower world is not only a place occupied by hell-beings, but its uppermost region, known as Rayaṇappabhā, is also the seat of gods, the Bhavaṇavāsī and the Vānamantara, though we shall see that both kinds are not confined to the lower world, but are at home to a great extent in the centre world, too. Of the Bhavaṇavāsī (or -vai; Pannav. 84b) there are 10 different kinds: the Asura-, Nāga-, Suvaṇṇa-, Vijju-, Aggi-, Dīva-, Udahi-, Disā-, Vāu- and Thaṇiya-² kumāra. By the denomination they have in common they are characterized as youthful appearances with all exterior virtues, and in dogmatic passages they are described mainly as male, though elsewhere some of them are female³ according to their root-word. The size of these gods is 7 rayaṇa, and they differ in colour; the Asurak. are black, the Nāga- and Udahik. whitish (paṇḍura), the Suvaṇṇa-, Disā- and Thaṇiyak. golden, the Aggi-, Dīva and Vijjuk. orange, and the Vāuk. dark (piyaṅgu-vaṇṇa).⁴ These colours contain indications as to their activities and their seats, and so do, in parts, also their emblems (Uvav. 34= Pannav. 85a)⁵ and, above all, the offices assigned to them consequent on the logapāla (§ 132). The Asurak. are mere gods of the lower world. But just as they may go down into the deep beyond the Rayaṇappabhā, they are able to reach both the centre- and the upper world.¹ The Nāgak. are water gods in general and as such are connected with the rain clouds² while the Udahik. seem to command over the sea.³ to water must apply to the Udahik, just as well. The Suvaṇṇak. having their seat also in the Māṇuss’uttara mountains (§ 122)⁴ go back to the idea of the Supaṇṇa-Garuḍa,⁵ the Disāk. to that of the world elephants. The latter female dignitaries share in the consecration of a Titthagara for the purpose of which they come running from the centre world as well, for these disākumārī-mahattaryā⁶ have their seats also on the Ruyaga mountains (§ 123) and in the tree tops of the Nandaṇa forest (§ 115).⁷ The meaning of the Divak. with a lion as their attribute⁸ is not clear. The Vāk. occupy submarine caves (§ 121), and they cause the movement of the wind bodies (Viy. 212 a) which is either a normal or an abnormal one (ahā-riyam riyai, uttara-kiriyam r.). Following the same passage (211b) the theory of the wind may be added here. There are winds of the 4 kinds or grades isim-purevāya, patthāvāya, mandā-vāya, mahā-vāya, and in the sections of the compass-card opposite each other winds of the same character are simultaneous, whereas winds blowing over continents (diviccaya, comp. Nāya 11) are not simultaneous with winds blowings over oceans (sāmuddaga), since the wind turns back on the sea-shore (tesi ṇam vāyāṇam vivaccāseṇam Lavaṇe samudde velaṃ nāikkamai).

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² JACOBI, Utt. 6, 225 wrong Ghanika. The sequence above rendered by Viy. and Pannav. is the normal. In Dev. it is: 1. 2. 3. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 4. 5. For another different sequence see Umāsvāti on T. 4, 11.

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³ kumāra and -rī only Viy. 3, 7; 4, 1-4. Exclusively disākumārīo Jambudd. 383 ff.; disākumārī- and vijjukumārī-mahattariyāɔ. Thāṇ. 198b, 222 b, 418b. The grammatical gender of dis and vidyut obviously excludes masculine princes.

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⁴ Partly different in Umāsvāti on T. 4, 11.

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⁵ Those of the Udahik. and Vāuk. are exchanged by mistake in the text.

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¹ For the motives see Viy. 169b, 180b.

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² Viy. 278b; Jambudd. 238 b f.

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³ velaṃ dharanti Divas. 308a.

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⁴ Divas. 342a.

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⁵ Hence it is wrong to render it by Suvaṇṇak. in Prajn. Comp. Āyār. II, 15 XII f. and the comm. on Samav. 155b. Their fight with the Nāgak. may be the cause for a partial earthquake (Thāṇ. 161 b).

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⁶ See ALSDORF’s instructive essay New Ind. Ant. 9, 105-128. The author complains that his essay abounds in misprints.

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⁷ They therefore are called aheloga-vatthavva as well as uddhaloga-v. (Jambudd. V, (383ff., 388b) comp. Thāṇ. 436 b and Sthān.) since in this altitude the upper world has begun already.

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⁸ The lion of the so-called Dvipakumāra may go back to the animal of the dvīpu kat’ exochen, Simhaladvipa. But the neighbourhood of aggi and vijju, perhaps even the princely names of Puṇṇa and Vasiṭṭha (Avaśiṣṭa) are indicative of dipa instead of dvipa.

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§111. With regard to both kinds of gods the Rayaṇappabhā region is horizontally divided into a southern and a northern half, being void, however, above and below in a layer measuring 1,000 *joy.* in depth both of hells and places pertaining to gods. These places (*bhavaṇa*) are bright,¹ sumptuously furnished and pleasant in every respect. Those situated on the edge are circular, those situated inside are square shaped, the nethermost layer is merely circular (Jīv. 94b). The total number is 77.2 mill., the number of the individual kinds differs from 6.4 mill. with the Asurak. up to 9.6 mill. with the Vāukumāra.²

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¹ Viy. 246 b.

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² Viy. 770a, where also the places of Vāṇamantara and Joisiya are mentioned.

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Each of the two halves, of which all southern ones contain some more places than the northern ones, is governed by a prince. These pairs of princes in the above quoted sequence of the kinds are: Camara and Bali Vairoyaṇa, Dharaṇa and Bhūyāṇanda, Veṇudeva and Veṇudāli, Harikānta and Haris(s)aha, Aggisiha and Aggimāṇava, Puṇṇa and Vasiṭṭha, Jalakānta and Jalappaha, Amiyagai and Amiyavāhaṇa, Velamba and Pabhañjaṇa, Ghosa and Mahāghosa. It is but in the case of Camara and to a smaller degree of Bali that we come to know more than the mere names of these princes, while the remaining pairs stand back completely, and it is only by their surnames (Viy. 200b) that we are, partly, informed of their origin. With regard to Camara and his Asurakumāras (and equally with Sakka, § 131) we can speak of something like a mythology (comp. Viy. 169b ff., 319b, 752a, etc.) His residence—it is called Camaracancā—as that of Bali bears the name of Balicancā—is described in Viy. 144a, 617a, though it is added that it does not serve him as a dwelling but simply as place of entertainment.

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§112. The transition to the centre world is formed by the Vāṇamantara- (or Vantariya-) gods, for their seats are partly (Pannav. 95a) subterranean (§ 110), partly in the groves (Jambudd. 31a) summarized in § 116—in the so-called Long Veyaḍḍha hills (Jambudd. 72a) (§ 114) and (Jīv. 145a) on the intermediate continents (§ 116). In the acknowledged sequence they range between humans and star gods who belong to the centre world. In them we find the dogmatic reflection of popular spirits, ghosts and demons,¹ and it is characteristic, that in the Canon nothing special is being said as to their activities and numbers (¿ × 100,000, Viy. 601a). There were two sequences of Vāṇamantara kinds known, though at least by Umāsvāti T. 4, 12 one of them got the preponderance over the other. It is (Ṭhāṇ. 442b; Pannav. 95b) that of the Pisāya, Bhūya, Jakkha, Rakkhasa, Kinnara, Kimpurisa, Mahākāya (Ṭhāṇ. 161b 442b, Mahoraga), and Gandhavva with two princes each (Pannav. 97b). The other sequence has the Aṇavanniya, Paṇavaṇiya, Isivāiya, Bhūyavāiya, Kandiya, Mahākanduya, Kohaṇḍa (Ku-) and Payaṅgī, and here equally two names of princes² for each were invented (Pannav. 95b, comp. also Ṭhāṇ. 85a). Umāsvāti mainly quotes these Vāṇamantara as sub-groups of the former sequence (differently classified by him). That at least the Aṇavanniya enjoyed popularity is clearly proved by Viy. 498a. As to T. 4, 12 we also find specifications regarding their outward appearance which, except for the Rakkhasa, is a pleasing one; the colour is mostly of a dark shade (śyāma). The dwellings (bhomejja-nagara) are in the uppermost layer, the Rayaṇakaṇḍa, of the Kharakaṇḍa of Rayaṇappabhā, and, what is more, within the 800 joy. left both above and below after deducting 100 unoccupied joy. on either side. The largest among these dwellings are as large as is the Jambuddīva, the medium ones as large as Videha (§ 113), and the smallest are khetta-sama. Within them the Vāṇamantara lead a happy life, free from care and ageless (Dev. 75 f.).

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¹ Thus also Ṭhāṇ. 141b quotes the deva, nāga, jakkha, and bhūya as either sending or refusing rains.

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² Dev. 72 has none but these, quoted by Pannav. 98a.

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§113. The Centre World (tiriya-loga). The centre world rests on a disc the thickness of which we may say to be 0. For the 1,000 joy. beneath the surface into which the mountains penetrate (usually with the *uveha*, a fifth quarter of their visible elevation¹) are identical with the 1,000 *joy.* which, in the Rayaṇappabhā, are void of places pertaining to either gods or hells. The surface of the centre world consists of the circular continent of Jambuddīva surrounded by other continents and by oceans in concentric rings.² We shall deal but with the former first.

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¹ This is shown by the distances measured in *joy.*, and the astronomical distances (comp. Jīv. 376 ff.) counting from a *bahu-ama-ramaṇija bhūmi-bhāga* in Rayaṇappabhā. Hence the reason why it is merely called by the name of *imā Ray.*

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² We shall see (§ 123) that their number is limited, though by the term of *asaṃkhejjāṃ diva-samuddāṃ* we might suppose the reverse. Also Umāsvāti on T. 3, 7 calls them countless, yet at the end of his Jambudvi-pasamāsa he gives a specified list.

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The diameter of the Jambuddīva³ measures 100,000 *joy.* Its centre point and therewith that of the whole centre world, is the Mandara mountain (s.b.). To the south of it—from S. to N.—we have the different parts of the world (*vāsa, varisa, vassa*)⁴ called Bharaha, Hemavaya, Harivāsa, and to the north—from N. to S.—those of Eravaya (Erāv.), Hiraṇṇavaya (also Her., Er.),⁵ Rammaga, They, however, do not occupy the entire disc. It its centre there lies the continent called Mahāvideha or Videha. It divides into Puvva-Videha east and Avara-Videha west of Mandara, whilst to the south and to the north of it we have the countries of Devakurā and Uttarakurā⁶ (-kuravaḥ). In the latter we behold the world tree of Jambū from which the whole continent derives its name. It measures 8 *joy.* both in thickness and height, and it is the seat of the god Aṇādhiya. In Devakura the tree Kūḍasāmali inhabited by the Veṇudeva Garula corresponds to it.

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³ For a plan not true to scale see Antag. ed. BARNETT, p. 138.

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⁴ Umāsvāti T. 3, 10; *vaṃsa, varṣa vāsyā iti c'aiṣāṃ guṇataḥ payāyā-nāmāni bhavanti; vaṃśadhara* on T. 12. In the Prakrit of the Dig. we read *vaṃsa*.

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⁵ Viy., Thāṇ. and Samav. write Eravaya and (H)Eraṇṇavaya, Jambudd. has Erav. and Hir., also Nelavanta except in Jambudd. V. Comp. § 119.

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⁶ Pl. *-kuravaṃ* corresponding to *Bharahāṃ* etc. Viy. 791b.

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These seven parts of the world are separated from each other by world mountains (*vāsadhara-pavyaya*) extending from east to west, so that in the south between Bharaha and Hemavaya we have Cullahimavanta (Himavan), between Hemavaya and Harivāsa: Mahāhimavanta, between Harivāsa and Mahāvideha: Nisadha; in the north between Eravaya and Hiraṇṇavaya: Sihari, between Hiraṇṇavaya and Rammaga: Ruppi, and between Rammaga and Mahāvideha: Nilavanta.

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As to the ratio of size of these continents and world mountains, it is of a kind that towards the centre each of the succeeding is twice as wide as the preceding. The width (vikkhambha) of Bharaha and Eravaya measures 526 1/19 joy.—i.e. two quite narrow segments—, that of Cullahimavanta and Sihari 1,052 16/19 joy, etc. By taking Bharaha as 1 we may imagine the Jambuddiva as consisting of 190 units (khaṇḍa). From the width there follows the length of the chords (jīvā) representing the boundaries of the continents and world mountains, of the pertinent arcs (dhaṇupaṭṭha), and of the arc sections between the chords (bāhā). The northern edge of the Cullahimavanta, for instance, is a little longer than 24,932 8/19 joy., and the arc above it embracing both the mountains themselves and Bharaha measures 25, 230 14/19 joy.

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§114. The world mountains—JACOBI calls them by the appropriate term of "banks" (on T. 3, 11)—have 100, 200 and 400 joy. in height measured in pairs towards Mahāvideha, and they show 11, 8 and 9 summits (kūḍa).¹ These summits rising to an individual height of 500 joy. sit upon the mountains. In the centre of these mountains we find the longish lakes (maha-ddaha) from which the large rivers spring (Thāṇ. 72b). From those of the Cullahimavanta and Sihari there flow three each, i.e. into Bharaha eastward the Gaṅgā, westward the Sindhu, northward into Hemavaya the Rohiyaṃsā; into Eravaya eastward the Rattā, westward the Rattāvai, southward into Hiraṇṇavaya the Suvaṇṇakūlā. From the remaining lakes spring two rivers each to flow southward and northward. Thus from the Mahāhimavanta there come the Rohiya in Hiraṇṇavaya and the Harikantā in Harivāsa from the Nisaha ibd. the Hari and the Sioyā in Mahāvideha. They correspond to the Ruppakūlā in Hiraṇṇavaya flowing northward and the Narakantā in Rammaga flowing southward from the Ruppi, as do the Nārīkantā and the Siyā in Mahāvideha flowing from the Nilavanta ibd. These rivers start by flowing on top of the mountains in the above mentioned directions to leave it in a leap (called *jibbhiyā* for its tongue-like shape). At their foot they cross a lake (*pavāya-kuṇḍa*, *p.-daha* or *salila-kuṇḍa*) and turn off into their definite direction before the uplands (soon to be mentioned) in order to fall into the Lavaṇa Sea either to the east or to the west. Those mountains lying in this course are crossed by flowing beneath them. The medium continents are divided by the rivers into two equal halves. All rivers of the continents that start by flowing to the south end up in the east, all others end up in the west. A chord standing perpendicularly on them and its ends coinciding with those of the Nisaha and Nilavanta forms the boundary of an arc 2,923 *joy.* wide which is filled by the "estuary forest" of these rivers (*muha-vaṇa*).

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¹ Thāṇ. 70 a ff. counts 2 each.

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Each of the two rivers in Bharaha and Eravaya has 5 tributaries (*antara-naī*, Ṭhāṇ. 351a, 477b). Those of the Gaṅgā are called Jamuṇā, Sarayū, Ādi, Kosiyā and Mahī, those of the Sindhu: Sayadū, Vivacchā, Vibhāsā, Erāvai and Candabhāgī. Both the Siyā and the Sioyā have three tributaries each of which springs from lakes on the slopes of the southern and northern world mountains.

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The mountains of the different continents, with the exception of Mahāvideha, are known by the name of Veyaḍḍha, (T. 3,11: Vaitāḍhya, Jambūdv.: Vijayāḍhya or Vijayārdha; comp. end of § 115).¹ The Veyaḍḍha mountains which divide Bharaha lengthwise into equal parts are exemplary. They measure 25 *joy.* in height and 50 *joy.* in width, and they culminate in 9 summits. These mountains to which, naturally, there are corresponding ones in Eravaya, are called long (*dīha-V.*), whereas the other Veyaḍḍhas (bearing special names), are called round (*vaṭṭa-V.*). The latter are situated in the four remaining continents on the S.-N. Middle axis and are hemispherical in shape with 1,000 *joy.* in diameter and height. Other characteristics of Bharaha and Eravaya are (a.o.) the Usabha-kūḍa on the slope of the Cullahimavanta or, resp., the Sihari between the two rivers.

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¹ For the etymology (*vedyardha*) see ALSDORF ZDMG 92, 485f.

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§115. The mountains in Mahāvideha are called *vak-khāra-pabbaya*. They are grouped round the Mandara mountain which forms the centre point of the Jambuddīva. This mountain which, apart from 14 other names (Samav. 31b),¹ bears the name of Meru—preferred by later authors—reaches below the earth surface by 1,000 *joy.* and rises above it by 99,000; at its visible foot in measures 10,000 and on its top 1,000 *joy.* in diametre. On its slopes we have four forest districts (*vaṇa*). On the earth surface there is the Bhaddasāla forest extending over a distance of 22,000 *joy.* from east to west, but of not more than 250 *joy.* from south to north, with eight directive summits (*disāhatthi-kūḍa*) rising from it up to a height of 500 *joy.* (Thāṇ. 436a). On the side of Mt. Mandara, at a height of 500 *joy.* we have the flat terrace of the Nandaṇa forest, and at a height of 62,500 *joy.* that of the Somaṇasa forest, both measuring 500 *joy.* in width. The former has ninesummits (Thāṇ. 454a). At a height of 36,000 *joy.*² above the latter there follows the Paṇḍaga forest with four sacred places (*abhi-sega-silā*) for world-emperors (*cakkavaṭṭi*) (s.b.) and Titthagaras (Thāṇ. 224a). From its ring 494 *joy.* broad the headpiece (*cūliyā*) on the top level of the mountain measuring 12 *joy.* in diametre juts up. It is 40 *joy.* high and 4 *joy.* wide at its top. From the Mandara four mountain ranges stretch in the intermediate directions to the Nisaha and Nilavanta, their height decreasing on their course from 500 down to 400 *joy.*, whilst their width increases from a minimum up to 500 *joy.* They embrace the countries of Devakurā in the south and of Uttarakurā in the north. Either country has five lakes with 20 mountains of gold each, i.e. 200 mountains of gold (*kañcaṇaga-pabbaya*) in all; in Devakurā we have, furthermore, the mountains of Citta- and Vicittakūḍa corresponding to the two twin mountains (*Jamaga-p.*) in Uttarakura. In their western, resp., eastern part we have the world trees referred to above. Moreover, there are four times 4 parallel mountain chains;¹ stretching from the world mountains by which Mahāvideha is bounded, they hit the two rivers a right angles, and it is here that they have their maximum height in correspondence with the case mentioned before. Between every two of them there flow the 12 tributaries quoted above following their course. As in all other world continents, the mountains consist of one kind of noble metal each or either of precious stones. Merely the nethermost 1,000 *joy.* of the Mandara, hidden in the earth, consist of common rock.

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¹ Jambudd. has but 12 in all, whereas Sūrap. 5 and 7 has 20. The Meru is described by the name of Sudamsana in Sūy. I, 6, 10 to 13. Comp. also Dasav . 11, 16.

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² The figures (500+62,500=) 63,000 and 36,000 acc. to Jambudd. Samav. 75a gives 61,000 and 38,000 for these parts (*kaṇḍa*).

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¹ They are listed with the other *vakkhāra-pabbaya* in Thāṇ. 224a, 326a.

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The mountains and rivers, as well as the estuary forests of the Siyā and Sioyā form, in equal distances, the boundaries of the empires (*cakkavaṭṭi-vijaya*) under the rulership of a world-emperor (*cakkavaṭṭi*). By including Bharaha and Eravaya there are 34 of them in all (Thāṇ. 435 b). The empire of Bharaha with its Veyaḍḍha,² with its Gaṅgā and Sindhū and other geographical details is merely copied by the remaining ones, and so are these names. There we also find a great number of cities with an imperial residence in each case, and countless villages.

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² Since they halve the empire, Umāsvāti’s Jambūdvīpasamāsa (Appendix to Tattvārthādhigama Bibl. Ind. 1905), also gives Viyāyaddha owing to a wrong etymology (see end of §114).

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§116. At the point where the mountains of Cullahimavanta and Sihari touch the edge of the Jambudīva, we find four intermediate continents (*antara-dīva*) protruding into the sea in the four intermediate directions for a distance of 300 *joy.* and six more following each in the same directions always for a distance of 100 *joy.* So that, then, each of the mountains ends up in 14 promontories, whilst their total number is 56.

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In rendering a description of the geography of the Jambuddīva we have confined ourselves to dealing with its major points only, and we shall continue to do so in dealing with the rings surrounding the J. In this connexion it may suffice to mention summarily that, just as is the case with the J. itself, “all hills, hill tops, summits, lakes, forests, estuary forests, spring ponds, sacred places, water courses, etc.”¹ are surrounded by an enclosure (*pauma-vara-veiyā*) and a grove (*vaṇa-khaṇḍa*). The respective descriptions follow a certain conventional pattern. Here we also but mention the palaces, gates, lotus ponds, sanctuaries and residences of gods on mountains and in islands.²

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¹ Umāsvāti, Jambūdv. 4.

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² For examples concerning their description see LEUMANN, VI OC III, 2, p. 495 ff

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§117. Though the dwelling place of man is not confined to the Jambuddīva but extends beyond it also to the continent of Dhāyaīkhaṇḍa and the inner half of Pukkharavara (§ 122), we may yet discuss it already here. The quasi political classification of men is done according to their dwelling quarters, i.e. to the *kamma-bhūmi*, *akamma-bhūmi* and *antara-dīva*. Karman places of a kind, where the Karman is acquired and annihilated, are found on the 2½ continents in the world parts of Bharaha, Eravaya and Mahāvideha, except the two Kurā; the latter, the remaining world parts and the intermediate continents are free from Karman (Viy. 791 b). At the Karman places there live (*kamma-bhūmaga*) Aryans and Barbarians. Among the different classifications of the former (Umāsv. on T. 3, 15; comp. Ṭhāṇ. 358a) the *khett’āriya* range first. We are given 26 towns in 25½ countries as native places of Jinas, *cakkavaṭṭi*, *baladeva* and *vāsudeva* in that one section (*Kekaya*) is considered non-aryan. With the *bhāsāriya* the Ardhamāgadhī and the “holy script” (*bambhī livī*) serve as a criterion,³ the latter being distinguished into 18 provincial and technical scripts. The Barbarians (*milakkhu*, also *meccha*) greatly vary in kind; Pannav. has more than 50 names of different peoples.

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³ Umāsvāti, being a Sanskrit author, expresses himself in general terms only.

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Unfortunately these names as well as the others are given next to no support by the commentary. We but mention the Saga, Javaṇa, Cilāya, Pārasa, Hūṇa, and Romaga. The list of the royal household which, next to some curiosities, includes even ladies of foreign nationalities, is much shorter (Viy. 457a, 557a; Nāyādh. § 117; Pannav. 14a; Uvav. § 55). About the places void of Karman and their people we are told next to nothing (§ 119). The inhabitants of these intermediate continents (*antara-divaga*) are strangely shaped: they are one-legged, they do not speak, they have tails and horns, the ears and mouths of horses, elephants, cattle, etc., radiant teeth, etc. etc. Their 28 different kinds on the southern continents—each bearing one—repeat themselves on the northern. Their cultural state is that of paradise. They are vegetarians and eat but every second day. They live in trees and know of no communal life. Their character is the best one can think of. They have neither masters nor servants, neither parents nor children, neither enemies nor friends, no harmful animals and nothing evil from whatever side. Their outward appearance (they are 800 *dhaṇu* tall) is of every possible excellence, and as to the mentioned abnormities, they apparently do not stand in its way.¹ The beauty of their wives is most extraordinary.

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¹ The description in Jīv. 350a ff. equals on the whole that of Mahāvīra's Uvav. 16, but since it concerns beings of common standing, it goes in the opposite direction, i.e. from below to above (just so Āyār. 2, 23 ff.). In either case the procedure is contrary to Brahman usage.

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The mountain-banks as well as the different mountain ranges and hills are considered not to be inhabited by humans, and to get there or to the oceans of Lavaṇa and Kāloya (§ 122) they can only do so by transposing themselves (Umāsv. on T. 3, 12).

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§118. All over the centre world we find the animals of any shape. The one-sensed kinds have been mentioned above already, since the smallest particles of earth, water, fire, wind and plants occur in all parts of the world, no matter whether they are solid or subtle. The two-sensed kinds which are capable of sensing and tasting, the three-sensed which, in addition, are capable of scenting, the four-sensed which are gifted with seeing, and the five-sensed which are even able to hear, all these kinds vary greatly; Pannav. 41 a ff. without having the intention of being exhaustive, counts up to 40 species.¹ The informations given in Utt. 36² are less complete. And yet the classification is crude. Worms appear side by side with shells, many lower insects as having three senses, and bees, scorpions, crickets, flies, etc. as having four. The highest class is formed by the higher animals, though, strangely enough, we are but insufficiently informed concerning their habitats (Pannav. 78 b f.); for merely to say that all two-sensed animals live about water places of the most different kinds, is but relatively true, and yet this statement is repeated for all three- to five-sensed animals, for the latter even twice (Pannav. 84a). The habitats equally serve for the classification of the higher animals, though only secondarily, for their being called water-, earth- and air- animals, or, more precisely, such that move in the corresponding element (*jalayara*, *thalay.*, *khahay*., Sūy. II 3, 22 ff.; Utt. 36, 171 ff.; Pannav. 43 b ff.) goes back to the fundamental discrimination between voluntarily movable and immovable beings, the *tasa* and *thāvara pāṇa*³—the latter comprising the earth- and water- beings and the plants⁴ (a. o. Ṭhāṇ. 134a). The medium or the way of locomotion further leads to speak of the land animals as solid- and multihoofed, as equipped with claws, and as such crawling either breast- or armwise (*ura-* and *bhuya-parisappa*). In Sūy. II 3 we are systematically informed of the first and the later food taken by these creatures as well as by men and lower animals down to the elemental beings and plants.

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¹ Many animals are quoted in a more than one context. Pannav. 7b f.

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² The two- to four-sensed do not occur as *suhuma*. Hence the translation of Utt. 36, 128, 137, 146 SBE 45, 219 f. has to be rectified.

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³ The *tasa pāṇa* are divided (Āyār. 5, 1 f. (=Dasav. 4, 1 intr.) acc. to their physical creation into such coming out of eggs, being born ready made, being brought forth with the amnion, irto such coming into existence in moisture, in sweat or by coagulation, and others that spring from the womb of the earth or from the nil. We have dealt with the sixth case in § 63 already. It is mentioned by Ṭhāṇ. 114a where it is claimed that the first and second case (*aṇḍaya* and *poyāya*) pertair to fishes, birds and the afore quoted crawlers. For an attempt made by KOHL (ZDMG 103, p. 151-155) to explair *poyāya* by "born in a boat" see above, p. 142.

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⁴ It is improbable that the five *thāvara-kāya* called *inda*, *bambha*, *sippa*, *sammai* and *pājāvacca* together with their consonant *ahirai* (Ṭhāṇ. 292 a) have anything to do with it, even though Ṭhāṇ. insists on it. In the Dig. 2, 13 f. also fire and wind are *thāvara*.

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§119. The conception of the circular shaped Jambuddīva is obviously due to that of the segment Bharaha as which the Indian peninsula seemed to show. We may further assume that the conception of the intermediate continents goes back to an ancient knowledge of Indo-China and the Malacca peninsula which was symmetrically enlarged later on. Bharaha (or Bhāraha vāsa) is called after the king bearing this name and whose capital Viṇiyā lay in the centre of the country to the south of the Veyaḍḍha. He gained the rule over the entire continent, as we are told by Jambudd. III, and thus became cāuranta-cakkavaṭṭi. Of Eravaya we hear nothing except the precise repetition of this legend where, naturally, the king is given the name of Eravaya. In Mahāvideha we find the happy conditions prevailing in the *susama-susamā* period (s. b.). In the following pairs of Karman-free continents the conditions are of the *susama-dūsamā* or, resp., the *susamā* kind. The names of Hemavaya and Hiraṇṇavaya have been explained by the rich occurrence of gold, and this certainly goes back to the gold found in Tibet. As to the form of the latter Eraṇṇavaya it is, of course, of a secondary character.¹ In Harivāsa the people are of a yellowish or reddish colour (*aruṇ’ābha aruṇ’obhāsa*), by which it is intended to define the name. Rammaga needs no explanation regarding its name.

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¹ For its occurrence in later texts comp. LEUMANN, Übersicht 44a.

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§120. The periods we have just come to mention have been connected with the ever turning time-wheel in a rather clumsy way.² The most happy period of *susama-susamā* (Jambudd. 97a; Viy. 276a) is followed by the *susamā*.³ Both and two thirds of the succeeding, the *susama-dūsamā* are essentially equal; their conditions correspond with those of the inhabitants of the intermediate continents, and they differ but in certain physical qualities of the human being and the regions, where they are reincarnated. Their want of food, for instance, manifests itself in the three periods after four, three and two days.¹ In the last third of the *susama-dūsamā* the change for the worse makes itself felt, it increases in the *dūsama-susamā* and *dūsamā* to reach its climax in the *dūsama-dūsamā*. The birth of Mahāvīra fell in the end of the *dūsa ma-susamā*;² 75 years and 8½ months later the *dūsamā* came on. Towards its end it brings the corruption of all religious and social order (comp. Ṭhāṇ. 398a),³ and with the *dūsamā* the order of the Jains, too, ceases to exist. With their names changing, her last representatives are with the Śvet. the monk Duppaṣaha, the nun Viṇhusirī (Phaggusirī) and the lay-couple of Jiṇadatta (Nāila) and Phaggusirī (Saccasiri).⁴ In the *dūsama-dūsamā* (Jambudd. 164a; Viy. 305a) all disaster aggravates beyond all bounds; the moons radiate detrimental cold, the suns scorching heat, and evil comes raining from the clouds. The earth is red-hot and impassable so that people have to hide in caves which they dare not leave but at sunrise and sun-set in order to feed on the water animals jiggering on the dry banks of the retreated rivers. These six periods or spikes (*samā*, Ṭhāṇ. 120a; 357a) are unequal in length. They measure 4, 3, 2 times 10¹⁴ *sāgarovama* (1 s.= 8,400, 000¹⁹), 10¹⁴ minus 42,000 and two times 21,000 years.⁵ They form an *osappiṇī*, i.e. the descending half of the time wheel. Then they are followed⁶—again beginning with a *dūsama-dūsamā*—by the ascending half, the *ussappiṇī*, with the same periods. By calling them both *samā*, Thāṇ. 47b may well have thought of the adj. *sama*.

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