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History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c25: 6.2 Fermentation Technology

History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c25

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English

Contents

6.2 Fermentation Technology

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Fermentation (from Latin ‘Fermentum’, to boil) is a particular method of digesting of relected substances that leads to chemical transformation of organic substances into simpler compounds by the action of ferment. Generally fermentation quickly sets in substances of high sugar-content. Hence fermentation technology started in different parts of the old world with sweet-substances, may it be vegetable or animal product. In Egypt honey was utilized first for preparation of intoxicating drink by fermentation. In India *Soma* juice, a sweet substance formed the first article of fermentation by the Vedic Aryan.

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On all probability the art of fermentation was invented from observation of some changes in several fruit juices and other food substances stayed over for a day or two or three or more. The technique of fermentation, as history evince, appeared almost simultaneously with settled agriculture during Neolithic period. At the outset the technique came to be recognized as ‘self- generated’, a fact proved by the two terms indicating fermented product from honey and date in Egyptian terminology (Forbes, 1965, pp.61-65).

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Coming to India, as its earliest literally record, the *Ṛgveda* (c.1500 B.C.) shows fermentation paced its first step in connection with the preparation of *Soma*-juice, a sweet potion for divine oblation. There also occurs another drink of fermented product called *surā* (beer, a product of cereal and honey).

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Besides spirituous acetic fermentation (*Sandhānāmla*) was known in India from early period. From 1st century A.D. onwards these two fermented products are found to have also been used as aid to different medicinal compositions, surgical performances (spirituous liquor served the purpose of anesthesia) and in numerous chemical and alchemical operations.

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Milk products, like, curd (*dadhi*) requiring fermentation for changing of milk into such coagulated substance, was a very popular food article even in the *Ṛgveda*. The technique of curdling milk occurs in a number of texts connected with the *Yajurveda*.

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Fermentation in India principally centred round the preparation of spirituous drink. Terminology associated with fermentation are :-

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(i) *āsuta* (begetting a new form),

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(ii) *abhiṣuta* (extraction, may indicate extraction from fermentated mash),

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(iii) *parisrut* (‘foaming’, ‘fermenting’, i.e. the state of fermenting) and

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(iv) *Sandhāna* (complete absorption of ferment with fermenting material).

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The expressions, however have a direct approach to ‘distillation’, the post fermentation operation in the manufacture of liquor. All the terms therefore, signify ‘brewing’, predominated by act of fermentation. Excepting the last one all the other terms are found to occur in Vedic literature.

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So far the technology concerning fermentation is found to have been based on four functionaries: These comprise:

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(a) base material (*yoni*),

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(b) ferment or yeast (*kinva, nagnahu*), alternatively, auxiliary (*sambhara*), imparting flavour and good taste to liquor in addition to fermenting,

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(c) heating or digesting, and

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(d) fermenting vessels.

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How this technology in India evolved from sacrificial altar to chemical laboratory, i.e. a period from c. 1500 B.C. to 15th- 16th centuries A.D. is to be now summed up in three major phases of development :

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(i) Vedic period (c.1500 B.C.- 600 B.C),

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(ii) Post-Vedic period (600 B.C. - 1st century A.D.) and

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(iii) Period of scientific and technical literature (c.1st century A.D. onwards).

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Paucity of written document debars us from extending the antiquity of art of fermentation beyond Vedic period.

I. Vedic Period

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*Soma* and *Surā*, are the two soft quoted drinks in vedic India. *Ṛgveda*, the early text of the Aryan, clearly states *Soma* as a divine potion and *Surā* as a human drink. The *Yajurveda* however deifies *Surā* and uplifts it in the status of *Soma*.

Fermentation evident in the Ṛgveda

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*Spirituous Fermentation*

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*Soma*, the exhilarating plant product by itself, usually prepared by squeezing its juice. The post operations suggest fermentation as evident in the following statements:

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a) Admixture of thick juice of *Soma* with barley powder (ṚV.IX. 68.4). Here clear indication of fermentation with barley is noticed.

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b) ‘Fifteenth day old highly intoxicating *Soma*’. This ‘Fifteenth day’ on all probability refers to ‘kept in fermented vāt for 15 days (ṚV.X.27.2)

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c) The *Rgveda* (IX.82:1) in another place specifically mentions 'Soma being treated is red". Here the root verb 'asavi' from Root *Su* indicates fermentation. What is interesting, in Chinese language *Su* means fermentation. The *Surā* in Sanskrit is Sula in Chinese, meaning 'rice beer' (a fermented product from rice) (Mahdihassan, 1981, p.227).

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*Fermentation Technique*

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The techniques revealed in the above passages comprise,

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(i) fermentation with barley (possibly *yavakinva* or barley as ferment of later period), and

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(ii) fermentation carried on even for fifteen days.

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Base Material: *Soma* juice-the other components of *Soma* juice were *dadhi* (curd) and *surā* (beer). Later Vedic texts, i.e. *Srauta Sūtras* describe technique of preparation of these two substances.

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Fermentation vessel: *droṇī* (wooden bucket).

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*Yajurvedic evidence to Fermentation*

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*Spirituous Fermentation*

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The *Śukla Yajurveda* (Vāj. S. XIX. 13-15; 82-83) on two occasions describe preparations of two intoxicating drinks, viz. *Surā* and *Parisrut*. *Surā* is beer, stated to have been prepared from germinated paddy, germinated barley, parched rice (*laja*) fermented in honey with the aid of ferment or yeast (*nagnahu*).

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The technique involved there was deposition of the entire substance in a pitcher (*kumbhī*) for three nights. This particular fermented product was called *māsara*. The liquid extracted from fermented mass was purified by means of sieve (*kārotara*).

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The *Kātyāyana Śrauta sūtra* (XV, 9.28-30; XIX, 1-2) gives a detail account of preparation of *Surā*. In this preparation boiled rice or boiled barley used to have been mixed with ferment (*nagnahu*) and also with *māsara* (i.e. above fermented product as in the later period some acetous fermentation underwent a mixture with some fermented product). The entire mass was kept in a jar and the jar was deposited in a pit for three nights. During this period cow's milk and powdered parched rice were poured in the pot. (*Fig.1*)

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The technicalities thus revealed in these two preparations are:

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*I. Māsara*

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a) substances for fermentation: germinated paddy and barley, parched rice.

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b) Medium: Honey.

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c) Application of ferment.

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d) Sealing up in a pitcher for three nights.

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*II. Surā*

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a) Substances: as above, the additional was milk.

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Fig. 1 Vedic Technique of Fermentation

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b) Use of *māsara* as well as the ferment.
c) Deposition of the pot in a pit.
d) Pouring of milk and powdered parched rice during fermentation.

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*III. Parisrut*

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*Parisrut* (meaning ‘foaming, fermenting’) another fermented drink, called *surā* (beer) is found to occur in the *Śukla- Yajurveda* (Vāj.S II . 34, XIX. 15, XX.19, XXI.29). According to the commentator it was either fermented flower juice, possibly *Bassia latifolia* (II.34, vide Mahīdhara’s commentary) or fermented germinated paddy (*Śat. Br.* V. 1.2.14, commentary by Harisvāmin).

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*Coagulation of milk*

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Dairy product involving fermentation is evident from the *Ṛgveda*. The produce is *dadhi* (curd), essential sacrificial offering to Gods and an ingredient for the preparation of *Soma* juice.

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The *Taittirīya Saṃhitā* (II.5.3.5) describes the technique and substances for curdling of milk by curd, by whey, by rice-grains, by pieces of Soma-creeper, by *pūtika* (*Basela alba*) and by bark of *palāśa* (*Butea frondosa*). Curdling was performed on previous night. Fresh hot milk was used for coagulation.

II. Post-Vedic Period

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The post-vedic period introduces us with some new developments in fermentation technology. Excepting ferments, auxiliaries and large number of plants in the preparation of different varieties of liquor, adaption of new technicalities in fermentation is presumed from two new preparations: vinegar (amla) and liquor from bread (puvasurā). Fermented liquor came to be known as āsavya (Aṣṭd. iii.1. 126) and kṛta-surā (Rām. Sund, 11.12; 22-23). Industrialization of Surā as opposed to sacrificial preparation of the same took place. This highlighted the following development in the field of brewing, fermentation wherein formed the primary operation.

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I. (i) Base materials became numerous with the utilization of a large variety of plant substances (AŚ. II.25) Vip.S.ii.19; Rām.Ayo.114.20) inclusive of: (a) rice and barley among cereals; (b) grape, palm, mango, wood-apple, dhātrī (Emblic myrobalan) and sugar-cane, among fruits; (c) flower like Jāti (Jasmine), madhuka (Bassia latifolia), dhātakī (Grislea tomentosa), (d) barks of meṣaśṛṅgī (Gymnema sylvestra), putraka (Artemisa), etc.

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(ii) Treacle (AŚ. II.25) in addition to honey became very popular fermenting substance. Pre-eminence of both the substances, particularly molasses went unabating in the next period when a new era began with employment of fermented produces in therapeutic measures and chemical practices.

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II. (i) Ferment (Kiṇva, bījabandha, surā-bīja): Composition consisted of one droṇa (about 12 litres) pulp of māṣa bean, raw or boiled, rice flour, one-third of a droṇa admixed with one karṣa (about 23 gms.) each of moraṭa (roots of sugar-cane) and other substances. Substances and ratio of preparation occur in Kauṭilya’s Arthaśāstra and thus liquor with high percentage of ferment was called bījottara (AŚ.II.25)

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(ii) Auxiliary (sambhāra) (AŚ. II.25): A compound served two-fold purposes, fermenting and adding flavour and taste to the liquor. The ingredients of this preparation consisted of cinnamon, Plumbago zeylanica, Emblia ribes and gaja-pippalī (Elephant pepper plant) each one karṣa of weight along with two karṣas, each of betel nut, liquorice, Cyperus rotundus and Symplacos racemosa. This auxiliary was employed for the preparation of āsava. Kauṭilya recommends bark and fruit of putraka as added in Sambhāra for effecting fermentation. It was a substitute for kiṇva (ferment). Sambhāriki a special liquor was prepared with high percentage of sambhāra.

III. Technicalities Associated with Preparation of

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(a) beer (surā) from cake and

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(b) vinegar (amla).

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(a) Surā from cake (puvc surā). The Buddhist text in course of discussion about five kinds of Surā, refers to surā from cakes (VP. IV.110). The technicalities involved in this preparation is not discussed. This can be substantiated from ancient practice of preparation of ‘beer-bread’ prevailing in Near Eastern countries. Germinated cereals and hulled fruit soaked in water (added salt or lye) dried, ground and given the shape of a cake which was called bread. Brewing was performed by soaking it in water and subjected to fermentation with the aid of yeast (Forbes 1965, pp. 65-67).

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(b) Amla (Vinegar, acetic acid): Kauṭilya refers to two types of amla-preparation, derived from fruit-juice and phalāmla and from molasses (amla-sidhu). Fermentation in this preparation was made for a longer period so that product became sour. Kauṭilya states these as home-made products (AŚ.II.25)

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*General Principle of Preparation of Different Substances*

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The ferment generally constituted 1:2 or 1:5 ratio of the weight of the principal substance. Kautilya formulated proportions of different substances for a particular variety of intoxicating drink.

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Names of Surā(beer) (AŚ.II.25, Rām, Bāla, 53.2; Sund. 2.22-23)

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Medaka (spiced rice beer),

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Prasannā (spiced barley or wheat bear),

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Āsava (sugar cane beer),

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Āriṣṭa (medical tincture),

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Maireya (fermented liquor from treacle, decoction of bark of mesasrngi, and three myrobalans)

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Madhu (grape beer).

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These were some of the popular drinks during this period.

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The varieties of fermented liquors envisage knowledge about different fermentation processes developed during this period. On all probability the techniques came from outside either through foreigner’s visit or from trade-contact.

III. Period of Scientific and Technical Literature

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With the advancement of medical science and with the progress of chemical and alchemical practices there occurred development also in fermentation technicalities. A number of digesting devices appeared.

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These include (a) depositing the fermenting vessel inside earth, sometimes with arrangement of horse dung surrounding the vessel (Śār.S, Madhya. XI.72; Āin, p.73); (b) placing in heaps of grains (SS.Ci x.6; C.Saṃ, Grahaṇī Cikitsā. VS.31-32) (c) exposure to sun(Śār.S Madhya, XI 19); (d) fumigation of the pot with desired substances (RP. XV. 251-53). (Fig.2)

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Apart from Kiṇva or yeast several plant substances were marked as sandhāna-oṣadhi (herbs effecting fermentation, Rhṛ. iii.4). Some new recipes for ferment were formulated. One such recipe is laid down in the Rasopaniṣat (RP. XV 251-253). “The best ones among the five classes of bulbous plants with latex pounded along with grains of rice, of Kodrava (Paspalum scrobiculatum), and products of plant madana (emetic nut), pasted with whey of buffalo or cow-milk and kept closed in a bowl and another such is arranged over it. The (closed) vessel is then placed over exposure to sun. The acid residue thus obtained is kiṇva (yeast)”.

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Horse Dung

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Grain Heaps

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Exposure to Sun

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Fumigation substance

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Fire

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*Fig.2 Four Digesting Devices*

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The manifold uses of spirituous fermentation and acetous fermentation started. For different purposes difference in substances and in operational methods are notable. Base-material was called *yoni* (SS. *Sū*. 45. 214). The fermented produces were specified as *tri-yoni*, *dvi-yoni* etc. in cases where materials were not confined in one substance but two or three. The juicy product obtained from fermented mash was called *Jāta-rasa*. (SS. *Sū* 44.30; 34; 45. 203). On several occasion the liquid extract from boiled substances were used as medium of fermentation (SS.*Sū*.44.42-43).

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*Āriṣṭa*, *āsava* and *surā*, the three spirituous fermentations were potent medicinal drugs. Likewise - *āraṇāla*, *cukra*, *dhānyāmla*, *kāñjika*, *sauvīraka*, *śukta*, *tuṣāmbu* and the *yavāmbu*, the various acetic acids, apart from their medicinal uses (SS. *Sū* 44.28-40; *Utt*. 58.15-16), were considered essential substance for washing of metals and minerals and for various mercurial operations (*RHṛ*. ii.3.4, 14; *Rṇv*. x. 39-41; vii.124; xi.61-65). Even they formed an important article in hair-dye.

Techniques Involved in These Two Preparations

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*I. Spirituous fermentation (Surā-Kalpa) (SS. Ci. 10.6-8).*

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*Ariṣṭa* : Powder of selected drugs (having medicinal value as well as fermenting properties), water (half of the weight of powder), iron-powder and treacle (28 1/2 of the weight of water), placed in an earthen vessel purified before and coated inside with a mixture of honey, clarified butter and powdered *pippalī* (long-pepper plant, *Piper longum*) and containing clarified butter. The vessel tightly sealed was dipped for fermentation in a mass of barley for seven nights.

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*Āsava* : A mixture of three parts of cold alkaline water, prepared from the ash of either *palāśa* (*Butea frondosa*), or sesamum, and two parts of inspissated juice of sugar-cane was subjected to fermentation like *ariṣṭa*.

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*Surā*: In this preparation fermentation of decoction of desirable drugs admixed with ferment (*kiṇva*) was performed in the same way that followed in case of *āriṣṭa* or *āsava*.

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*Special Surā for Purgation (SS. Sū. 44. 29-34):*

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(i) Three parts of decoction of prescribed plant substances and two parts of sugar boiled over fire, made cool and the solution kept in an earthen jar for upwards of a month in such a manner so that half of this period in the winter and the other half anterior or posterior of winter, was subjected to fermentation.

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Similar preparations made with alkaline water, cow’s urine and spirituous or distilled liquors, are also prescribed by Suśruta.

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(ii) *Māṣakalāya* (*Phaseolus Roxburghii*) soaked in a decoction of purgative roots was dried in Sun. Some winter rice was also washed in the decoction (and dried) and powdered coarse. Pulse and rice mixed together was made into balls, dried and powdered very fine. The powder heated along with the decoction of purgative drugs, pressed hard and made paste. Three parts of this paste and one part of *kiṇva* (herbs used for as forment) admixed with suitable quantity of decoction was subjected to fermentation in an earthen jar.

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This preparation finds similarity with ‘beer-bread’ of the Egyptian, Sumerian and Accadians.

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Apart from these medicated liquors, a number of other fermented liquors with variations in basic material and with their respective medical valued are found to occur both in *Caraka* and in *Suśruta-Saṃhitās*.

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A List of fermenting substances with base materials is given in *Table 1*

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*II Acetic fermentation.*

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The acetic acid substances included in acid-group by the alchemists are given in *Table 2*.

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The history of fermentation technology in India from antiquity to the medieval period highlights some aspects of this art which are particular to India and also enlightens some bearing similarity with those prevailing in more or less contemporary world. These relate to:

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Table 1 - Fermenting substances

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| | Name of drink | Base Material | Reference |
| i) | Ākṣiki | Chebulic myrobalan and rice | CS. Sū.27(Madya Varga) |
| ii) | Jogala | Unboiled rice | SS. Sū.45(Madya Varga) Ibid. |
| iii) | Jambu | Molasses with juice of the fruit of jambu, Eugenia jambolana. | SS. Sū. 45 |
| iv) | Khārjura | Date | SS. Sū. 45 |
| v) | Madhūlaka or Madhūlika | Mahua, Bassia latifolia (mountain variety also) | CS. Ibid. SS. Ibid. |
| vi) | Mādhvika | Honey | SS. Ibid |
| vii) | Maireya | Rice or barley or wheat flour, molasses, honey (three base materials). | SS. Ibid |
| viii) | Mṛdauka Mṛdvika or Madhvāsava | Grapes. | SS Ibid |
| ix) | Pakvarasa or Pakvarasa Sidhu | Thickened cane juice and dark- brown crude sugar | SS Ibid |
| x) | Yavasurā | Ferment of barley (yavakiṇva) | SS. Sū. Ibid |

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Table 2 — Acetic fermentation (Sandhanamla)

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| Name of sour liquid | Base material | Technicalities | | | |
| | | Ferment medium | Digesting device | Vessel | Reference |
| Aranala | Husked uncooked wheat or any cereal group | | Heat (solar) Duration - oneweek | | RHṛ.III.4. (vide its comm. by Caturbhuja Miśra |
| Cukra | Bulbous root root, fruits, etc. of desired plants | Medium - Drinks alcohol sweet juice whey | Deposition in heap of pady Duration - Three nights | Purified earthen vessel | Sār. Sas. Madhya khaṇḍa, XI, 7-9. Caraka-saṃgraha Grahaṇī, cikitsā, SI. 31. Caraka, Sū. 15. 7. Amarakosa. Vaiśya varga, |
| Dhānyāmla | Unhusked, raw paddy powdered no associated with any other substances. | Ferment same as with Kāñjika. Medium- Water | | | Caraka, Sū.15.7 Amarakosa Vaiśya varga, SL. 39. Rasārṇava, VII. 22; X. 40. |

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| Name of sour liquid | Base material | Technicalities | | | |
| | | Ferment medium | Digesting device | Vessel | Reference |
| *Kañjika*. also called *Amla kañjika* | a) Boiled rice b) Boiled inferior *māṣa* c) Boiled millet or barley also | The entire body inclusive of roots of plants in pieces Names of plants: *bhṛṅgarāja*, *muṇḍi* *Viṣṇukrāntā*, *Punarnavā* *minākṣi*, *sarpākṣi*, *sahadevi*, *śatāvari*, three myrobalans, *girikarṇi*, *haṃsapadi*, *citraka* | — | Earthen vessel | *Śār. Sam.* *Madhya khaṇḍa* XI. 13. *Caraka Cikitsā* V.77. *Rasaratnākara* of *Nityanātha*, quoted in *Rasaratnasamuccayatikā*. 115p. |
| *Sauvīraka* | Barley (coarsely powdered and then fried) | Medium-cold decoction of roots of prescribed plants. | — | Earthen vessel | *Suśruta Sū.* XLIV. 208-209 |
| *Śukta* | Mixed substance consisting of treacle, honey, fermented rice water, whey and the like. | — | Deposition in heaps of paddy. Duration - three nights (in summer) | Earthen vessel | *Caraka, cikitsā*, XIX.9. 212 *Cakra-saṃgraha* *Grahaṇi-cikitsā* SL.31-32; *Vātavyādhi* SL. 100. *Śār. Sam.* *Madhyakhaṇḍa* XI.10 |
| a) *Guḍa-sukta* | Molasses-water (associated material - oil and plant products). | Molasses water | — | — | *Śār, Sam,* *Madhyakhaṇḍa* XI.10. |
| b)*Ikṣu-śukt* & *Mṛdvika-śukta* | Sugarcane juice Grape(not fully matured) | — | — | — | *Śār, Sam,* *Madhyakhaṇḍa* -do- |
| *Tusāmbu* or *Yavāmbu* | Ground barley | Medium Water | — | — | *Ibid.* 12. |

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*I. Distinguishing traits not common in world context.*

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(i) Fermentation concerned mainly or preparation of intoxicating drinks and acetic acids than several food articles involving fermentation, prevailed in Egypt and Mesopotamia.

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(ii) Fire-heat rarely employed for fermentation.

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*II. Identical marks*

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(i) Fermentation with the aid of cereal grains.

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(ii) Use of oleaginous substances or milk products in fermentation.

References

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*Āin-i- Akbari*, translated by H. Blochmann, Asiatic Society, Second Edition, Calcutta, 1927.

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*Cakra-saṃgraha* of Cakrapāṇi, Edited with the commentary of Sivadasa Sena by Devendra Nath Sen and Upendra Nath Sen, Calcutta.

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*Caraka-Saṃhitā*, Edited by G.Pandeya with commentary of Cakrapani. Kasi Sanskrit Series, No.194, 1970, Benaras.

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*Forbes, R.J.* : 1965, *Studies in Ancient Technology*, Leiden, E.J. Brill, Vol.III.

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*Kātyāyana Śrauta Sūtra*, Edited with the commentary by Karka, Parts I & II, Benares, 1928.

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*Mahdihassan, S.* : 1981, ‘Parisrut the earliest distilled Liquor of Vedic Times or of about 1500 B.C.’, *IJHS*,16(2), 223-229.

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*Rāmāyaṇa*, Edited and published by Hemachandra Bhattacharya with the commentary of Rāmānuja, Calcutta, 1869-86.

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*Rashrdaya*, Edited by Acharya Daulatram Rasasastri with the commentary of Caturbhuja Misra, Chaukhamba Orientalia, Benares, 1989.

v1.c25.s4.9

*Rasaratna Samuccaya-ṭīkā*, by Vinayaka Ganesa Apte, Anandasrama Sanskrit Series No. 115, 1941.

v1.c25.s4.10

*Rasopaniṣat*, Edited by K Sambasiva, Trivandrum Sanskrit Series, No.92 Trivandrum, 1928.

v1.c25.s4.11

*Sāraṅgdhara Saṃhitā*, Edited by Jivananda Vidyasagar, with the commentary, *Dipika* of Adhamalla, Calcutta, 1931.

v1.c25.s4.12

*Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa*, Edited by A. Weber with extracts from the commentaries of Sayana, Harisvamin and Dvivelaganga, Leipzing, 1924.

v1.c25.s4.13

*Suśruta Saṃhitā*, Edited by Jadavji Tricumji Acharya & Narayana Ram Acharya, Chaukhamba Orientalia, Delhi, 1987.

v1.c25.s4.14

*Vājasaneya Saṃhitā* or *Śukla Yajurveda Saṃhitā*, Edited by Vasudeva Lakshmana Sastry, Panasikara, with the commentaries of Uvatacharya and Mahidhara, Bombay, 1929.

v1.c25.s4.15

*Vinaya-Piṭaka*, Edited by H. Oldenburg, *Vols.* I-V, London, 1979- 1885.

v1.c25.s4.16

*Vipākasūtra*, Edited by P.L. Vaidya, Poona, 1933.

Linked texts (18)