Pramāṇa · Search · About · API

Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c28: 20. Some Indian Archaeo-Materials in Ancient Works of Art

Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c28

Language
English

Contents

20. Some Indian Archaeo-Materials in Ancient Works of Art

v1.c28.1

Commenting on the Harappan arts, Allchins (1983: 202-03) made a remark that ‘the boundary between the field of craft and technology, and that of art is never very distinct, and constantly overlaps; where works of art survive, they did add greatly to our comprehension of pre-historic cultures, for they provide an insight into the minds of the artists’. The Indian artists’ minds dwelt on not only the contemporary spiritual and secular traditions but also the physical properties of the materials they worked with. Our primary concern in this chapter is with the latter aspects viz. the ‘craft and technology’ related to the objects of art. The modern sophisticated instruments permit us to undertake non-destructive testing of the ancient artefacts made of stones, gems, pigments, metals and alloys etc., and thus to establish a direct rapport with the ancient material culture and technology. This chapter is a sojourn of the material science in the world of ancient Indian art.

Stones and Gems

v1.c28.s1.1

Only a few mutilated stone sculptures of the Mature Indus civilization have survived. Most of them are made of steatite, limestone or alabaster, which are soft materials. The outstanding pieces are the 19 cm height head with bearded face and shoulders (made of limestone) from the DK area at Mohenjo-Daro, and two small figures from Harappa. The Mohenjo-Daro fragment is that of a male priest, the like of which has been found in the limestone fragments from Mundigak. There are indications that inlays were used for decoration and for the eyes.

v1.c28.s1.2

A Harappan masterpiece is a tiny 9.3 cm nude male torso of red sandstone, with a pendulous belly, exhibiting in the words of Sir John Marshall, ‘refined and wonderfully truthful modelling of the fleshy parts’. The two tubular drill holes on the front of the shoulders may have been intended to take an inlay. The second Harappan figure of similar size is made of a grey stone. It is a nude dancing figure, also male, with twisting shoulders and one raised leg. Marshall proposed its similarity with the much later icon of Śiva as Naṭarāja. We would refer to the famous cast bronze dancing girl from Mohenjo-Daro and the Dāimābād bronzes at a later stage in this chapter.

v1.c28.s1.3

The wide varieties of stones and beads used as art objects in the Harappan and Post-Harappan chalcolithic cultures have been mentioned in the chapters 3-9. We have discussed the uses of hard and soft stones for the Taxilian art objects in chapter 14. Gems of a large variety have been processed, used and exported from the sub-continent; exhaustive references are to be found in the chapters 15, 16 in Vol. I and in the chapter 7 on Ratnaśāstra in Vol. II of this monograph.

The Buddhist Relic Caskets

v1.c28.s1.t1.1

One of the earliest assortments of art objects related to the historical period has been excavated along with the Buddhist relic caskets from Piprahwa, district Basti, Uttar Pradesh. (Bhattacharyya, 1986-87; Ghosh, 1989, Vol. 1: 271-73) Within a sandstone coffer (1.33 m by 65 cm by 63 cm height) were found a number of steatite vases, some inscribed, indicating that the relics were those of Buddha himself. There were a loṭā-shaped steatite vessel and also an exquisitely polished crystal casket, 11.5 cm in maximum diameter and 10.5 cm height. The handle of the latter was in the shape of a hollow fish stuffed with seven gold bands having gold granulated six-petalled flowers and gold circular frames attached to them and several tiny beads in paste.

v1.c28.s1.t1.2

Some wooden and silver vessels contained gold leaves impressed with swastikā, triratna, female figures, figures of lion and elephant, a gold disc impressed with profusely connected spiral of copper wire, perhaps a ring, a carnelian bird, a malachite bird, semi-precious stones, and charred bones, probably the relics of Gautama Buddha. The caskets dated to fifth-fourth centuries BC and their contents bespeak of the artistic splendour of ancient India of a pre-Aśokan date.

v1.c28.s1.t1.3

The second century BC site of Bhattiprolu (16º 6' N, 80º 47' E) near Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, has yielded several stone receptacles containing 164 gold flowers, rolled inscribed strip of silver, 24 silver coins, beads, pearls, crystal casket, beryl reliquary and bone of Buddha.

v1.c28.s1.t1.4

In our chapter 14 on Taxila we have discussed the early use of four varieties of sandstone. The Chunar variety was used for the world-famous Aśokan pillars. The beautifully chiselled pillars and the inscribed messages remain as living specimens of art and wisdom. The Aśokan *vajrāsana* at Bodh-Gayā is a polished sandstone throne. Attributed to Aśoka are the *stūpas* at Sārnāth and Taxila. In the former was found a sandstone box containing a green marble relic casket with bones, decayed pearls and gold leaves. The latter (*Dharmarājika stūpa* at Taxila) yielded a steatite vase containing a gold casket, bone relic, three gold safety-pins, and beads of ruby, garnet, amethyst and crystal. (Ghosh, 1989, Vol. I: 270) In a small Buddhist chapel close to the *Dharmarājika stūpa* of Taxila was found a vase-shaped casket of grey micaceous schist with a silver vase inside. In the latter an inscribed scroll of silver and a small gold casket containing some minute bone pieces were found. The inscription in the Kharosthī character and dated AD 78 tells us that the relics were of Gautama Buddha. (Bhattacharyya, 1986-87: 44) The Peshawar *stūpa* built by Kaniṣka yielded an inscribed metal casket containing a hexagonal crystal reliquary holding three pieces of bones believed to be those of Buddha.

Historical Period Art-Works and Stones

v1.c28.s1.t2.1

The above examples illustrate the art traditions and the choice of materials during the centuries immediately following the demise of Gautama Buddha. The traditions went on without any break or interruption. The author of this monograph had the opportunity of visiting a beautiful display of ancient Indian art objects in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston during June 1990. The collection was chronological and emphasized specific materials used for the artefacts. Some of the exhibited items are recorded in Table 20.1. The tabulated data illustrate how different materials terracotta, sandstone, marble, schist, schistose marble, ivory, metal alloys (to be discussed later in detail), soapstone, jade etc. were used in India in different epochs and locations to produce diverse artefacts and works of art.

v1.c28.s1.t2.2

One should particularly note the definite Hellenistic influences, found in the Kuṣāṇa and Mathurā art, introducing brilliant sculptures and facial expressions on stone and metal. The exquisite ivory carvings from Begram, Afghanistan (now in Musee Guimet, Paris) resemble in style the Kuṣāṇa sculpture from Mathurā and the Amarāvatī sculptures of the first-second centuries AD for obvious reasons: expansion of the Kuṣāṇa empire and the cultural contact with the Sātavāhana empire through Buddhism. While Begram specialised in ivory, and Mathurā artisans preferred sandstone, there was the dark-mauve sandstone at Bharhut, and we have the master pieces from second century AD Amarāvatī (Adoration of the Buddha’s Alms Bowl) and from third century AD Nāgārjunakoṇḍa (The Nativity and Seven Steps) made in the pale-greenish limestone of Palnad. The medium differed but there was a homogeneity of artistic styles across Greater India. We find similar moonstone doorsteps in Amarāvatī, Nāgārjunakoṇḍa and Anuradhapura at Sri Lanka. The colossal Buddha in Bamiyan, Afghanistan was carved out of a sandstone cliff around fourth-fifth centuries AD and this was reported by Hiuen-Tsang. The Kuṣāṇa bronze tradition was quickly disseminated in the Early Gupta Period.

v1.c28.s1.t2.3

Table 20.1

v1.c28.s1.t2.4

A Sample of Chronological Collections of Art Objects from Ancient India

v1.c28.s1.t2.5

(Boston Museum of Fine Arts)

v1.c28.s1.t2.6

| Date | Item | Material |
| 3rd century BC | Standing Mother Goddess with big ear-ring and hair-dress | Low fired grey terracotta |
| 2nd century BC | Standing female figure, Peshawar, hand-modelled, mother cult, hair-dress, cāndmālā. | Fine terracotta |
| 120 BC | Torso of fertility goddess Yakṣī | Sandstone |
| 25 BC | Yakṣī | Grey sandstone |
| 1st century BC | Goddess with three fishes | Terracotta covered with pigment |
| - do - | Gajalakṣmī | Terracotta |
| 1st century AD | Different forms of sitting Buddha | Red sandstone |
| AD 50 | Birth of the Buddha — Amarāvatī | Pinkish schistose marble |
| 2nd century AD | Makara goddess — Mathurā | Red sandstone |
| 2nd century AD | Buddha as a mendicant monk. Gāndhāra style | Grey schist |
| 2nd century AD | Mother goddess with child, Double molded | Terracotta |
| 2nd century AD | Bodhisattva | Grey schist |
| 2nd century AD | Worship of the Bodhi tree; Representative of a Stūpa; Temptation of the Buddha, Amarāvatī | Grey and white schistose marble |
| 2nd century AD | Worship of the wheel, Dharma Cakra | Schistose marble |
| 2nd-3rd century AD | Parinirvāṇa of the Buddha — Pakistan | Grey schist |
| 5th century AD | Gaṅgā Devi on crocodile; Makaravāhinī; Besnagar | Sandstone |

v1.c28.s1.t2.7

| Date | Item | Material |
| 8th century AD | Ivory Buddha from Kashmir, then a flourishing centre of ivory-carving | Ivory |
| 10th century AD | Bodhisattva of compassion — Bihar | Grey schist |
| 10th century AD | Lotus, bearing Buddha — Bengal | Black schist |
| 10th-11th century AD | Buddha, Mahavira, Viṣṇu | Bronze and brass |
| 10th-11th century AD | Model of Mahabodhi temple. Small models used to be brought home by pilgrims as souvenirs. | Soapstone |
| Mughal Period | Handles of steel sword | Jade (greyish green) |
| | Bowl | Jade (White) |
| | Spoon | Jade (green) |

v1.c28.s1.t2.8

There are some specific publications on potteries authored by B.P. Sinha (1969), Vibha Tripathi (1976), T.N. Roy (1986), A. Ghosh (1989: Vol. I, Section 11 on potteries including ceramics). Many items are of great artistic interest. However not much scientific work has been done. We have mentioned some exceptional scientific work on NBPW pottery and the slip glaze on it in chapter 11. There are specific writings on terracotta art. (P.L. Gupta, 1972; A. Ghosh, 1989: Vol. I, Section 17)

v1.c28.s1.t2.9

Archaeological excavations have yielded many pre-historic and proto-historic brick structures which are of great artistic value and archaeological interest. Although several authors (Chattopadhyaya, D, 1986; Ghosh, A, 1973 and 1989: Vol. I, pp. 294-95) have discussed different aspects of the brick structures in ancient india, much more scientific work remains to be done. It is also necessary to analyse the ancient rectangular tiles made of gritty clay mixed with straw. (Ghosh, 1989: Vol. I, p. 296)

Mortars, Plasters and Pigments

v1.c28.s2.1

In ancient India specific mortars were used to join the bricks and plasters to coat the walls. These contained gypsum, lime, clay and sand. Analysis of some of the ancient samples are provided in Table 20.2.

v1.c28.s2.2

Rock wall painting in India has a 2000-year old tradition involving the uses of plasters and pigments. Apart from the pre-historic cave paintings in Panchmarhi, Mirzapur etc., we have in the Jogimara caves of the Ramgarh hill the earliest (2nd century BC) paintings of the Historical Period. The Ajaṇṭā murals spanned across the period second century BC to sixth century AD. The dates of other wall paintings in ancient India (up to 12th century AD) and the materials used therein are presented in Table 20.3. Agrawal (1969-70) has studied the material bases of the mural paintings.

v1.c28.s2.3

The fourth-fifth century AD text Viṣṇudharmottara Purāṇa (Shah, 1958: 115-16) provided the earliest textual recipes for the paints and the plasters which had to be prepared and applied before painting. The text recommended the use of lime in the plaster along with organic binders such as guggula (Boswellia Serrata gum), madhucchista (beeswax), guḍ (molasses etc.). Often lime used to be mixed with clay or sand. Abhilāṣitārtha Cintāmaṇi (of king Someśvara 12th century AD) recommended vajra-lepa or binding paste containing lime, white clay, moonshine white mineral nāga from the Nilgiris (most probably kaolin) smeared with oil or plant-exudation gums etc. as the plaster before painting.

v1.c28.s2.4

Before we refer to the use of pigments, let us mention the applications of lime and gypsum in whitewashing, plasters and mortars. As in Egypt, gypsum was used along with lime in Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. Table 20.2 shows the analyses of mortars, lime-washes and plasters in the Harappan civilization, Kauśāmbī, Ajantā and seventh-thirteenth century AD samples in ancient India.

v1.c28.s2.5

The thin white coatings on the Paraśurāmeśvara and Mukteśvara temples and on the Koṇārka one are very rich in lime content and do not seem to contain any intentionally added sand; these are therefore simple limewashes. The lime-pasters (like the mortars in Mohenjo-Daro) contain substantial portions of sand (and clay); the lime: sand ratios range from 4 : 1, 3 : 1, 2 : 1 to 4 : 3. In the last case, as in the interior of the vimāna of Koṇārka temple, the coarse plaster is about 0.56 cm in thickness. For the plaster of the Liṅgarāja temple which assays 3.12 per cent MgO, dolomitic limestone must have been used after calcination. Despite having small percentages of SO₃, the plaster samples did not have any substantial amount of gypsum. Gypsum, used in Egypt, Mohnejo-Daro and Harappa, were locally available.

v1.c28.s2.6

Gairola (1949) also analysed the red paints on the temples and did not find any organic matter therein. These were simple mixtures of local hematitic ochre and clay mixed to give the desired tint. The red paint from the Mukteśvara temple assayed 36.42 per cent Fe₂O₃ and 40.97 per cent sand and clay. A sample of the red ochre collected from the Bhubaneśwar market assayed 58.80 per cent Fe₂O₃ and 28. 90 per cent sand and clay. None of the two samples contained any manganese oxide which is a common impurity in hematite. Thus local red ochre, free from manganese oxide, must have been used and a thick slurry painted with a brush on the ancient temples. Ochres of different shades are available in the Bihar-Orissa region and must have been used in the works of art.

v1.c28.s2.7

Analyses of Some Mortars, Lime-washes and Plasters Used in Ancient India (percentages)

v1.c28.s2.8

| Sl. No. | Samples | CaSO₄ | CaCO₃ | Clay and Sand | Fe₂O₃ and Al₂O₃ | Clay and Al₂O₃ | SO₃ Sand* | MgO | CO₂ Phases | Alkali Salt |
| 1. | Monhenjo-Daro wall mortar HR-Site | 74.12 | 2.50 | 20.41 | | | | | | 1.18 |
| 2. | Mohenjo-Daro Vat mortar HR-Site | — | 69.58 | 21.71 | | | | | | 5.44 |
| 3. | Kauśāmbi, Plaster | 27.53 | | | | 38.09 | | 1.29 | 23.07 | |
| 4. | Kauśāmbi, mortar | 27.98 | | | | 29.95 | | 1.29 | 23.42 | |
| 5. | Ajaṇṭā, Rough Plaster | 1.00 | | | | 60.00 | | 0.95 | 1.83 | |
| 6. | Lime-wash, Paraśurāmeśvara temple, 7th-8th century AD | 49.22 | | | | 7.27 | 0.63 | 1.14 | 39.38 | |
| 7. | Lime-wash, Mukteśvara temple, 8th century AD | 53.72 | | | | 4.62 | 0.56 | 0.48 | 40.32 | |
| 8. | Plaster, Liṅgarāja temple, 10th century AD | 37.30 | | | | 19.26 | 0.78 | 3.12 | 33.31 | |
| 9. | Plaster, Nālandā Site no. 3 | 33.95 | | | | 27.52 | 0.27 | 1.13 | 25.84 | |
| 10. | Lime-wash, figure on jagamohana, Koṇārka, 13th century AD | 51.16 | | | | 1.46 | 0.50 | 0.24 | 44.24 | |
| 11. | Plaster, interior of vimāna, Koṇārka, 13th century AD | 30.72 | | | | 35.89 | 0.38 | 0.16 | 25.70 | |

v1.c28.s2.9

∗ This portion of the sample insoluble in three per cent HCl showed clear particles of sand and clay under microscope.

v1.c28.s2.10

*Viṣṇudharmottara Purāṇa* recommended the following pigments for statues and mural paintings: gold, silver, copper, mica, ultramarine, red lead, lead yellow, orpiment, lime, lac vermilion and indigo; the recommended use of astringent probably helped to fix the pigments on the substrate as tannin complexes. *Abhilāṣitārtha Cintāmaṇi* endorsed the use of pulverised gold, conch, cinnabar, lac juice, copper powder, orpiment and lamp black. Agrawal (1969-70: 112-13) summarised the analytical data for the Indian mineral paints, a gist of which is presented in Table 20.3. He also mentioned, on the basis of chemical analysis conducted, the use of additional pigments for wall paintings in ancient India:

v1.c28.s2.11

| Red | : | vermilion, red ochre, red lead |
| Yellow | : | yellow ochre, pulverised gold |
| Blue | : | ultramarine, indigo |
| Green | : | terre verte, malachite, chrysocolla |
| White | : | lime, chalk, kaolin |
| Black | : | lamp black, charcoal |

v1.c28.s2.12

Oddy *et al.* (1981: 100-01) analysed the pigments on the selected 121 pieces of Tibetan and Himalayan metalworks. A quarter of them were gold-painted. The other pigments used in the twelfth-sixteenth century AD context were subjected to X-ray diffraction analysis and found to be blue azurite, red lead, cinnabar, some amorphous black component etc.

Metal-Alloy Systems

v1.c28.s3.1

We would now discuss the use of metals and alloys in the ancient Indian works of art. Four varieties of metal were discovered in Mohenjo-Daro: (1) crude copper lumps, with considerable amount of residual sulphur, (2) refined copper, (3) 2-5 per cent arsenic alloy of copper, (4) bronze containing as much as 13 per cent tin. Analysis of 200 Harappan artefacts showed (D.P. Agrawal, 1982: 235-36) that only 23 per cent were alloyed with tin, 12 per cent with arsenic, and 8 per cent with lead. Evidently it was a copper-bronze culture. The Harappan smiths used higher percentages of tin in the bronze for making bangles (11.82 %), and pins (13.83 %) than in producing tools such as spear (2.27 %). Silver, gold and light yellow electrum constituted a separate series of art or ornament constituents.

v1.c28.s3.2

Silver was more common than gold in the Mature Indus civilization. Vessels and other utensils made of silver resembled those of copper. Among examples of finer workmanship is a silver buckle from Harappa, with soldered scroll pattern of gold wire and gold-capped beads, and a boss of silver inlaid with conch-shell. (Allchins, 1983: 195)

v1.c28.s3.3

Materials in Some Indian Mural Paintings

v1.c28.s3.4

| Sl. No. | Site and period | Carrier and Plaster | Ground | Pigments | Medium |
| 1. | Ajaṇṭā murals 2nd century BC-6th century AD | Ferruginous earth mixed with sand, organic fibrous material on basalt | Lime, Kaolin and gypsum | Lime, Kaolin and gypsum (white); yellow ochre; yellow ochre; lamp black; terre verte (green) | Organic binding medium |
| 2. | Rock-cut temples of Bādāmi 6th-7th century AD | Rough plaster on sandstone wall | No fine plaster | Yellow and red ochres; terre verte; carbon; lime | Glue |
| 3. | Bāgh caves; early 7th century AD | Red ferruginous earth; lime sand | Over the rough plaster, a fine layer of lime and gypsum | As above; also lapis lazuli (blue) | Glue |
| 4. | Cave temples at Sittan-avasal 7th century AD | 2.5 mm thick lime-sand plaster | 0.5 mm thick lime-wash on rough plaster | Lime, wood charcoal, lamp black, yellow and red ochre, ultramarine (blue) terre verte (green) | Lime |
| 5. | Wall paintings at Kanjivaram, 8th to 9th century AD | Similar | Similar | Similar | Similar |
| 6. | Bṛhadeśvara Temple Tanjore, Cola Period 11th-12th century AD | 2.6 mm hard lime plaster on stone wall | Lime | Similar | Fresco Buono; No medium |

v1.c28.s3.5

The cast bronzes in the Harappan civilization came mainly from Mohenjo-Daro. The most significant specimen of international repute is the little figure of a dancing girl about 11 cm in height. “The dancing girl in bronze from Mohenjo-Daro is a very delicate representation in the round of a female nude; the ease of her stance, the graceful way of resting one hand on the hip, and the slight tilt of the head enhance her voluptuous appeal”. (D.P. Agrawal, 1982: 216-18)

v1.c28.s3.6

A second figure of comparable size also comes from Mohenjo-Daro; there were a fine buffalo and a ram cast in bronze. The little models of bullock-carts and ikkās from Chanhu-Daro and Harappa are interesting examples of the skill in casting. (Allchins, 1983: 206) No Harappan mould for casting has been discovered so far.

v1.c28.s3.7

D.P. Agrawal (1982: 234-35) recorded that the Harappans made the vessels in two parts, the bottom and the top, and then joined them. For vessel fabrication they used sinking, raising and lapping, and for joining metal, running on and rivetting techniques. Soldering was used only for noble metals. Metallographic examination showed that the Harappans resorted to open and closed casting, slow cooling of casting, annealing, and cold work. Small animal and female figurines were cast by the cire perdue or lost wax process.

v1.c28.s3.8

In our chapter 8 on the chalcolithic cultures of peninsular India, we discussed the cache of four solid bronze figures excavated at Dāimābād. Made of low arsenic alloy, the four pieces, namely an exquisite chariot pulled by a pair of bull-horse ‘unicorn’s’ an elephant, a rhinoceros and a buffalo corresponded to the Late-Harappan Period (2000-1800 BC). The wheeled bronzes must have played an important role in the religious life of the people, serving as vāhanas of deities. The tradition persisted, and we find from the Jorwe level at Dāimābād a terracotta cylinder seal depicting a procession, and a unique terracotta, covered by a coat of red ochre, showing the figure of a deified sage and three consorts united with him.

v1.c28.s3.9

In the chapters 5-9 we have mentioned the beads and artefacts made of stone, terracotta, metals and alloys in the Post-Harappan cultures of the different parts of India prior to the Historical Period. The chalcolithic culture in South India persisted and produced many metallic artefacts. Large quantities of ornamental bronze articles have been found at the fourth-third century BC burial sites at Tinnevelly in Tamil Nadu. The bronze articles, found with numerous iron implements, include ornamental vase-stands, jars and cups of different patterns with ornamental bowl lids, besides bronze bangles, necklaces, ear-ornaments and diadems. Circular tubes, a number of sieve cups and perforated strainers for straining rice were also recovered. (Annual Report, Archaeological Survey of India, 1902-03; Ray, 1956: 94)

v1.c28.s3.10

In the chapter 14 we have discussed the artefacts made at Taxila over a period of ten centuries (five before the birth of Christ). Many ornaments, toilet articles, surgical instruments, spatula, household vessels, cooking pots, jars etc. were made of copper, bronze and brass. Copper and bronze moulds or dies were used for the fabrication of gold and silver ornaments. The art of granulation and filigree, as well as that of incrusting jewellery with gems, were known to the metal-workers of Taxila in the first century AD.

Literary References to Metals, Alloys and Their Casting

v1.c28.s4.1

As we enter the Historical Period, we find plenty of literary references to the use of metals and alloys in the works of art, and these would be reviewed in several chapters of our Vol. II. Following the references to copper and tin in the Vedic literatures, we find specific mentioning of bronze or *kāmsya* in Pāṇini’s *Aṣṭādhyāyī*, and of brass or *ārakūṭa* in Kautilya’s *Arthaśāstra* (2.12.23). The latter prescribed alloying of gold and silver with copper, iron, tin, lead and antimony (2.12.24; 2.13.44-56) in specific proportions to make particular coins and ornaments. Specific recipes were suggested e.g., 2 parts of silver and 1 part of copper to make *tripūṭaka*. Later, bell-metal was prescribed to contain eight parts of copper and two parts of tin.

v1.c28.s4.2

The *Rasaśāstra* texts recommended *vartalauha* or alloy of five metals: *kāmsya*, *ārakūṭa* or *riti*, copper, iron and lead. Although Madanapāla designated zinc metal as *yaśada* in AD 1374 (Ray, P.C., 1903, Vol. I: 156 ff), and Bhāvamiśra’s *Bhāvaprakāśa Pūrva Khaṇḍa* (Sastri, 1955), declaring brass as an alloy of copper and zinc, was written during Emperor Akbar’s time in the sixteenth century AD, the use of brass in India had started in the pre-Christian era and the knowledge of distilled zinc as a ‘metal like tin’ was almost that early.

v1.c28.s4.3

Both solid- and hollow-casting by the lost wax process have a long history in Northern India. (Lo Bue, 1981b: 69) According to Reeves (1962: 29), the earliest literary evidence for the process is the description contained in the *Madhūcchiṣṭavidhāna* (Bee’s wax process for casting), as recorded in chapter 68 of the *Mānasāra* which is believed to have been compiled in the Gupta period (Shukla, 1958, II: 108); this description is however brief. The *Viṣṇudharmottara Purāṇa* (Shah, Priyabala, 1958), containing descriptions of both hollow- and solid-casting by the *cire perdue* method, is claimed by some to belong to fourth-fifth century AD. This text is well-known in Nepal. (Pal, 1970: 13) In his *Kāmasūtra*, Vātsyāyana included *dhātuvāda* (metal-working) in the list of 64 *kalās*. Varāhamihira’s (505 AD) *Bṛhat Saṃhitā* has the last chapter (No. 57) on *vajralepa* or adamantine glue, vegetable gums and exudation products used in cementing the idols. For metallic icons, a popular cement consisted of eight parts of lead, two of bell metal and one of ritikā possibly calx of brass. (BS, 57.8)

v1.c28.s4.4

The best medieval description which gives detailed instructions for metal-casting is contained in the Abhilāṣitārtha Cintāmaṇi, also known as Mānasollāsa. This was written in AD 1131 by king Someśvara Bhūlokamalla of the Cālukya dynasty of the Karnataka area. The verses on the lost-wax process, as translated by Saraswati (1936: 143), specify the various details.

v1.c28.s4.5

According to Mānasollāsa, a wax image is first made and then fine clay coating is applied three times. The clay coating should contain well-ground charred husk, finely shredded cotton and a little powdered salt. The wax is melted out, and then the molten metal is poured in the moulds. The image is removed on cooling after breaking the clay mould, and then carefully finished. The text also provided a fairly good information regarding the techniques of modelling, moulding, dewaxing and baking the mould along with the description of the solid casting process. It has also described the methods for calculating the amounts of particular metals required for casting as proportions to the weight of the wax in the model (brass and copper 10 times, silver 12 times and gold 16 times that of wax, reflecting their densities), the temperature required for melting different metals, the melting process, casting and finishing etc. (Bose, D.M. et al., 1971: 339-40; Swarnakamal, 1980: 28-29)

v1.c28.s4.6

In ancient India, hollow-casting had reached a degree of perfection which enabled sculptors to attempt very large images, for which the Repoussé technique is otherwise generally preferred. The 2.225 m high Sultanganj copper Buddha (in Birmingham City Museum) was cast in more than one piece by the hollow-casting method, and it is very likely that the 1.86 m high Devsar brass backplate (in Srinagar Museum, Kashmir) was cast by the same method. (Lo Bue, 1981b: 69)

Other Metal Working Techniques

v1.c28.s5.1

Starting from the Harappan era, several techniques were used for decoration and finishing of metallic artefacts and art-objects. (Agrawal, D.P., 1971, 1982; Dahiya, 1986) Dahiya has reviewed (1986: 111-16) some of these techniques.

v1.c28.s5.2

Repoussé technique was employed for raising a pattern in relief on a metallic piece by giving of blows on the underside, while the side to be decorated was allowed to rest on a soft surface such as wood, lead or pitch. Goldsmiths used to produce identical relief patterns on annealed surface of gold and silver by striking with lead or bronze stamps. Filigree and granulation involved soldering cut wires or grains of noble metals on a sheet surface. Shells, stones and gems used to be ‘inlaid’ into the cavity of another metal to produce design.

v1.c28.s5.3

Rods of gold, silver and copper were softened by heating and then pulled through holes in a metal sheet of appropriate size to produce wires of specific dimension. Thin sheets of gold and silver used to be wrapped on various surfaces such as lac, copper and bronze to produce ornaments. The goldsmiths used various tools and instruments such as chisel, saw, knife, borer, drill, spatula, hammer etc. for metal-working.

v1.c28.s5.4

Various metal forging techniques were known and employed by the Harappans: hammering and chiselling, hammering using mandrel, raising, hollowing and sinking. There are evidences that some samples were cold-worked and hardened below recrystallisation temperature (Chanhu-Daro celt); some hot-worked above recrystallisation point (Mohenjo-Daro bowl); some samples were annealed (Chanhu-Daro wire and celt). Several techniques of joining were known: running on mehtod (for joining a hilt to tanged sword etc.), soldering gold and silver, riveting, lapping etc.

Household Objects and Ornaments

v1.c28.s6.1

Mahajan has reviewed the spectra of household objects quite a few having artistic values (1986: 72-103), and ornaments (1986: 123-79) used in ancient India.

v1.c28.s6.2

Most vessels were made of earthenware and ceramics and objects made of terracotta. However similar shaped objects were also made of metals such as silver, copper, bronze, iron etc. Bronze vessels were found in both Bhir mound (with round bottom and sides) and Sirkap in Taxila. Silver bowls, dishes and goblets were found in only Sirkap. Metallic spouted vessels were found in ancient India only after the Sātavāhana period. Copper and bronze offering stands were made in the Harappan civilization and again later by the Kuṣāṇa artisans in Taxila. Dishes of cast copper and silver coming from Sirkap date from the first century AD. The copper specimens reported here show shallow dish with flat bottom, concave sides and raised boss or omphalos in the centre. A silver dish belonging to this type is round in shape and the raised boss in the centre is terminated into a knot and surrounded by six incised concentric circles; there is an inscription in Kharoṣṭhī on it.

v1.c28.s6.3

The megalithic culture (7th-8th century BC) of Mahurjhari and Naikund has shown copper bowls of artistic merit. While bowls found at Mahurjhari have flat base, bulbous sides and small clubbed out edge, the copper bowls found at Naikund have convex, flaring sides and flat or rounded base. These are made of thin sheet of copper. Copper dishes found at Mahurjhari show different varieties: (1) with uniformly thin sides and slightly inturned rim, (2) with uniformly thick sides and clubbed rim and (3) with an incipient boss in the centre. Kitchen equipments, cooking utensils, spoons, ladles, surgical instruments etc. used to be made out of several metals such as iron, copper, and bronze.

v1.c28.s6.4

Mirrors were made of bronze and glass, combs out of ivory. Antimony rod or kohl stick, made of copper and bronze was a popular item. Toy birds and animals or wheels were mostly made of terracotta. But there were many imitations on copper and bronze also. The leopard toy on wheel found at Nāgdā (600-200 BC level), for example, was made of copper. The Dāimābād bronzes also come under this category.

v1.c28.s6.5

Mahajan (1986: 123-79) has made an excellent review on ornaments in ancient India; we would merely highlight the main types which she has reviewed.

Neck Ornaments

v1.c28.s6.t1.1

Necklaces of single string of beads, of many strings of beads, with pendants and beads, chains of copper, bronze, cabled strips of gold, torque of solid gold wire, torque of beaten sheet of gold on a core of lac, golden necklace set with jewels etc.

Ornaments for Hand

v1.c28.s6.t2.1

Bangles and bracelets, copper bangles various kinds, bangles of gold and silver from Sirkap, shell bangles of many kinds from Prakash, Ujjain, Nasik (600-200 BC) and many other sites, glass bangles of a great diversity in many archaeological sites starting from Hastināpur (1000-800 BC level), Prakash, Śrāvastī, Ujjain, Maheśwar, Bhir Mound in Taxila etc., bichrome and polychrome glass bangles, ivory and bone bangles, gold bracelets (to be worn on the wrist) made of fretted sheet of gold with square clasps encrusted with gems and strengthened with cross strips of gold solder at their back (recovered from Sirkap), copper bracelets, armlets made of copper, bronze and gold, golden armlet set with precious stones and pearls, finger rings (plain), rings with bezels usually made of copper, iron and lead.

Ornaments for Legs

v1.c28.s6.t3.1

Single and double ring silver anklets from Taxila, copper anklet from first century BC-second century AD. Nevasa of the Sātavāhana period, leg bangles, silver nūpuras, anklets of spiral coils, anklets of circles of gold pieces etc.

Ornaments for the Waist

v1.c28.s6.t4.1

Gold, silver and bead girdles, *mekhalā* or waist bands for the women, kaḍisutta and ornamented string for men, belt of golden coins, coral bead strings and pearl strings, golden girdles set with gems, chain of gold used as girdle at Sirkap etc.

Ear Ornaments

v1.c28.s6.t5.1

Ear-plugs, ear-buttons, ear-pendants, ear-rings etc.

Bead Strings

v1.c28.s6.t6.1

Made of various gems, metals, glass etc. and of a large variety of designs.

Amulets

v1.c28.s6.t7.1

Many types supposed to ward off dangers, amulets with religious symbols such as *swastikā*, *triratna* (Buddhist), *nandipada* (Śaiva), etc.

v1.c28.s6.t7.2

Any detailed discussion about the household utensils and ornaments in ancient India is outside the purview of this monograph. We have merely drawn attention to the fact that there was a wide variety of objects with artistic quality in ancient India made of metals, alloys and stones. Mahajan (1986) has exhaustively reviewed these subjects documenting them with 360 references for household objects, 757 for dresses and ornaments and 470 for tools and weapons. A large majority of these refers to metals and alloys and attests to the glory of material culture in India. There are separate treatises on beads (Dikshit, 1949) and glasses (Dikshit, 1969; Sen and Chaudhuri, 1985) in ancient India, which may be consulted by the interested readers.

Metals and Alloys in Ancient Indian Coins

v1.c28.s7.1

Numismatics is also outside the scope of our discussion for which the specialised treatises written by Cunningham (1891), V.A. Smith (1906, reprinted in 1974), Rapson (1922), Allan (1936), Sahni (1945), Prakash and Singh (1968), Thakur (1972), Basu (1977), Bhardwaj (1987) and the series of excellent articles and books by B.N. Mukherjee (1978, 1982, 1985, 1986, 1988) may be consulted. We would merely highlight some of the points for our discussion.

v1.c28.s7.2

Mukherjee (1986: 47 and 1988: 11) divided the ancient Indian coins into four classes: (A) archaic die-struck including the so-called ‘punch-marked’, (B) cast, (C) repoussé and (D) sophisticated die-struck on both sides.

Punch-Marked Coins

v1.c28.s7.t1.1

Small sheets or strips receiving one punch or a few successive punches on one side may be defined as ‘punch-marked’ coins. The sophisticated die-struck coins received punches from both sides simultaneously.

v1.c28.s7.t1.2

Dikshit (1981) reported on the overlooked silver pieces, some flat, circular, square and rectangular, found in a silver vase from the DK area in Mohenjo-Daro. He submitted that these pieces were ‘the precursors of punch-marked coins of later times’. Comparing the weights, Mukherjee (1988: 54) came to the same conclusion that the pieces could be related to standard cubical weights found at the Indus sites and therefore belonged to a metallic currency system. There was alphabetic cuneiform script on one of the pieces which must have been imported from Ur, Mesopotamia around 2000-1700 BC. The expression *manā hiraṇyayā* in *Ṛgveda*, 8.78.2 could have an allusion to the Babylonian weight called *minā*. The *Ṛgveda* (1.56.2; 1.126.2; 4.24.9-10; 5.19.3; 8.47.15) contains many references to *niṣka* or monetary currency of noble metals. Post-Vedic literatures refer to gold pieces, *śatamāna* etc. Pāṇini’s *Aṣṭādhyāyī* refers to *rūpya-rūpa* and Kauṭilya’s *Arthaśāstra* to *tāmra-rūpa* meaning punch-marked silver and copper coins respectively. Archeological data corroborate the literary evidences.

v1.c28.s7.t1.3

The hoard of coins unearthed at Bhir Mound, Taxila contained 1055 punch-marked pieces of the older type, 33 long bent-bar coins, 79 minute coins, 2 pieces of Alexander the Great, an Achaemeninan siglos, but not a single die-struck coin. On this basis Mukherjee (1988: 12 and 67) has argued that around fourth century BC the coins in vogue were punch-marked and die-struck ones. The Chaman-i-Hazuri hoard in the Kabul area suggests that the punch-marked and saucer-shaped pieces were in circulation even in the fifth century BC.

v1.c28.s7.t1.4

The punch-marked pieces bearing 5 symbols and struck on the standard of 32 *raktikās* (or 57.2 grains) have been unearthed from different parts of the subcontinent and must have been issued by the Nandas and the Mauryas. The *signati argenti* presented by the king of Taxila to Alexander the Great were stamped or punch-marked silver coins.

v1.c28.s7.t1.5

The tradition of die-struck coins must have been initiated around third century BC under the foreign influence specially at Taxila. During this time we find the obverse die-struck copper coin of Dharmapāla at Eran, Madhya Pradesh.

Cast Coins

v1.c28.s7.t2.1

Cast Coins are those which used to be made from hot metal cast in moulds bearing the required impressions in negative. Sahni (1945) has made a classic study on the technique of casting coins as practised in Rohtak, Eran, Taxila, Mathurā etc. (*fig.* 20.1). His findings have been summarised by Mukherjee (1986, 1988).

v1.c28.s7.t2.2

The negative of the intended coin-type was engraved or etched on a blank mould made of heat-resisting plastic clay or on a mould in cast metal. If a coin was destined to carry devices on both faces, a second mould had to be prepared and an opening made through the rim of each of the moulds. Some cast coins found still joined together by a bar of metal indicate that these were cast in pairs.

v1.c28.s7.t2.3

Molten metal could be poured into different moulds separately, or which was more popular as in Sunet, it would be made to flow down through a vertical column communicating with the channels leading to the coin sockets of the moulds placed vertically.

v1.c28.s7.t2.4

The most elaborate of coin-casting has been revealed by the fragments of early Yaudheya coin moulds found at Khokrakot, near Rohtak (site dated around 100 BC). Each disc seems to have a hole in the centre, from which radiating channels run into eight coin-sockets arranged in a circle. The practice of producing cast coins in ancient India was gradually abandoned after third-fourth century AD. (Mukherjee 1988: 33)

Repoussé Coins

v1.c28.s7.t3.1

Repousé coins were thin metal samples put over stone or metal displaying some positive impression in high relief and then carefully hammered to receive in relief the impression of the matrix on which it had been placed. Mukherjee (1988) has given the illustration of a repoussé gold coin of king Mahendrāditya.

Die-Struck on Both Sides

v1.c28.s7.t4.1

During the beginning of the third century BC, the metal-smiths of Taxila, who had developed the die-striking technique indigenously, were convinced of the superiority of the circulating Greek coins, die-struck on both sides, and switched over to the new technology. This technology spread to the other parts of the sub-continent. The early gold coins of the Imperial Guptas, who issued fine die-struck pieces, were made following the earlier Kuṣāṇa tradition. (Mukherjee, 1988: 68)

v1.c28.s7.t4.2

The coins of the Indo-Greeks, Scytho-Pārthians, Kuṣāṇas and the Imperial Guptas were struck from two separate dies used probably simultaneously. Around the Gupta period the metals used for coinage were: gold, silver, copper, lead, billon (alloy of silver with copper or tin), brass and potin (an alloy of copper, lead, zinc and tin which was used for making icons also).

v1.c28.s7.t4.3

The molten metal or alloy was first poured into circular shaped moulds of regulated sizes to produce blanks of specific weights. Negative impressions of the obverse reverse types (and inscriptions) were probably engraved on two separate dies made of stone or soft steel or bronze. Each metal blank was heated or slightly softened by annealing and put in between the anvil die and the punch die, properly aligned and then hammered.

v1.c28.s7.t4.4

No die-striking assembly has been discovered so far from any of the ancient sites. Several coins, scrutinised under microscope, show homogeneity or near-homogeneity in size of the grains of their metal. This indicates that either the blank or the die-struck coin might have been heat-treated to promote a good amount of recrystallisation and homogenization of grain-sizes. (Mukherjee, 1988: 21)

Elemental Analysis and Metallography of Coins

v1.c28.s7.t5.1

In our chapter 17 we have discussed and provided chemical analysis of Mohenjo-Daro silver pieces, Taxila punch-marked silver coins (Table 17.3), Devnimori silver coins, Nagara lead coins and their trace element impurities (Tables 17.6 and 17.7). Earlier, silver-copper alloy coins were discussed in chapter 10 and copper-nickel coin mentioned in chapter 14 (Table 14.8).

v1.c28.s7.t5.2

Elemental analysis provided considerable insight to the contemporary raw material situation. The issue of progressive debasement of silver coins with increasing proportion of copper was discussed in chapter 10 as an index of dwindling silver reserve in the economy and the political situation. The nickel content of the ‘white copper’ coin in Taxila (Table 14.8) reflected the contact of Taxila with the nickel-rich areas of Central Asia and China.

v1.c28.s7.t5.3

The trace element impurities in coins (several examples provided in Tables 17.3, 17.6 and 17.7) suggest the possible sources of mines from which the ores had been reduced to the respective metals. The Ahicchatra coins have been reported to contain appreciable quantities of antimony and some contain lead as well. (Lal, 1953: 202) Bismuth and arsenic were detected in the Indo-Greek silver, and there are iron globules in the Kuṣāṇa copper coins, rendering them to be responsive to the magnet. (Bivar, 1987) We would discuss later in this chapter the scientific and archaeological interpretation of the entry of iron globules in ancient copper artefacts. In ancient India, shortage of copper led to the use of lead coins as in Nagara (vide Tables 17.6 and 17.7) on the one hand, and on the other to the debasement of copper coins through alloying with iron as in Paunar, Maharasthra. (Hegde, 1975) Some 310 Paunar coins dating from seventh century AD assayed 71.9-77.3 per cent copper, 21.8-23.2 per cent iron, zero to 4.4 per cent tin, 0.3-0.4 per cent lead and trace of Ni, Co, Bi and Zn.

v1.c28.s7.t5.4

The Gupta Period gold coins with dates between AD 375 to 467 assayed 74-77.5 per cent gold alloyed with 22.5-26 per cent silver, and contained trace of iron. (Bhardwaj 1979: 127) A silver coin belonging to AD 900. Rājghāt assayed 61.5 per cent Ag, 32.1 Cu, 0.57 Sn, 0.54 Fe, 0.5 Pb, 0.5 Ni, 0.2 S and some CaO and insoluble component. The coin also contained trace of bismuth. (Bhardwaj, 1979: 109)

v1.c28.s7.t5.5

Fig. 20.1: The sites for the manufacture of coins in ancient India.

v1.c28.s7.t5.6

Metallographic examination provides further insight to the steps which might have been taken to make these coins. Bharadwaj (1979: 107-22) studied the Taxilian silver coins (reported in our Table 17.3) and the AD 900 Rājghāt silver coin just now reported. The presence of lead globules (and sulphur) in the coins indicated that argentiferous galena must have been the principal ore from which the metal was extracted. In the Rājghāt coin, bismuth was present; this being insoluble in copper and silver, spread as a thin film along the grain boundaries and caused embrittlement and crack in the micro-structure. The punch-marked coins from Taxila showed dendrites of silver and eutectic mixture of silver and copper; this implies an essentially cast structure, slowly cooled before being die-punched. The grains appeared to be equiaxed. On the edges, grains were elongated and distorted, the micro-constituents were curved around the punch-marks. (Bhardwaj, 1979: 110 and 113-22)

v1.c28.s7.t5.7

Bhardwaj (1979: 127-28) also examined the Gupta Period gold coins from Rājghāt analysing about 75 per cent gold and 25 per cent silver. The silver-content results in increased solubility of oxygen in molten gold; some of the pits and cavities revealed in the metallographic examination might be of this origin. The micro-structure shows equiaxed fine grains of dimensions around 20 µm. This indicates that the die-struck coins were either hot-worked or cold-worked followed by annealing above the recrystallisation temperature. The excellent details of embossing on both sides indicate that the die-striking techniques were well-developed in the Gupta Period; the die alignment was however not perfect, and this resulted in slight eccentricity of the striking on the reverse side.

v1.c28.s7.t5.8

The gold coins of the Gupta Period (fourth-fifth century AD) and of the Colas, Cālukyas and Kadambas of South India (after 10th century AD) were like commemorative medals depicting the rulers and deities in many modes. In the words of B.N. Mukherjee (1988: 50), “the transformation of the pieces of metal called coins into the objects of art was facilitated by the artistry of the obverse and reverse devices — dies or moulds — purity and/or suitability of the required metal and efficiency in the technique of minting”. The excellence of this transformation was matched and possibly surpassed by the artistic and ageless icons which we would like to discuss next.

Metals and Alloys in Icons of Ancient India

v1.c28.s8.1

We have discussed earlier the wonderful cast bronzes of Mohenjo-Daro and Dāimābād. The gap between the first (Harappan) urbanisation in India and the second (Mahājanapada era starting from eighth-seventh century BC in the Gaṅgā-Yamunā valley) has remained an enigma, and in this context Neogi (1917, 1979: 36) commented that “India missed a Bronze Age since the use of iron was known from Vedic times”. Since 1917 when Neogi wrote these lines, archaeological discoveries have shown us that India did not altogether miss the Bronze Age. The Post-Harappan chalcolithic cultures of the Eastern and the Peninsular India yielded many artefacts of alloyed copper. The Peninsular chalcolithic culture culminated with Tinnevelly bronze (of the fourth-third century BC period) which we have mentioned earlier. In the Northern India, Atrañjikhera produced artefacts not only of iron but also of copper alloyed with tin, lead and even zinc. Prakash and Rawat (1965) analysed antiquities from Kauśāmbī which were made of copper and bronze; the bronze objects contained high proportions of tin varying between 19.1 to 26.5 per cent. At Taxila, distilled zinc was used for the first time in the world to produce the famous brass vase; the Bhir Mound brass and bronze objects are dated fifth-fourth century BC, well before Alexander’s invasion.

v1.c28.s8.2

One of the reasons why we do not have many icons of the pre-Christian era is that the tradition itself of making icons whether of metal, stone or of terracotta, started somewhat late in ancient India during the spread of Buddhism. There is a collection of bronzes in the Madras Government Museum, particularly the Amarāvatī group of Buddhist bronzes datable to pre- or post-Christian era (not later than second century AD). We find Amarāvatī style bronzes from Badulla (now in Colombo Museum), several places in Malaya Peninsula and one third century AD Buddha bronze from Dong Duong in Vietnam (now in Hanoi). Nāgārjunakoṇḍa excavation have yielded a few metal figures of the period of Ikṣvākus who succeeded the Sātavāhanas in the Krishna valley towards the end of the second century AD. It was in the later half of the second century AD that the alchemist Nāgārjuna was experimenting on yellow brass as a substitute of gold in the Sātavāhana empire.

v1.c28.s8.3

A male copper figure from Sirkap, Taxila was made in first century AD. This was followed by the Gāndhāra images made of copper in solid cast. A group of bronzes from Chausa near Buxur in Bihar (now in the Patna Museum) has been dated by U.P. Shah (quoted by Swarnakamal, 1980: 27) to a period from second to fourth century AD. Belonging to the Kuṣāṇa age, these images show nude standing Tīrthaṅkaras.

v1.c28.s8.4

The Gāndhāra-Mathurā tradition of sculpture strongly influenced the iconic traditions of the Gupta Period. With the Sultanganj copper (some alloying elements might be present) Buddha, earlier discussed in chapter 10, the glory of the icon-casting tradition of Harappan India was at last revived, with less secular and more spiritual overtones. Swarnakamal (1980) has given several examples of pre-Gupta Period icons from Gujarat which we would discuss later. The bronze Brahmā, a colossal image (gilt bronze inlaid with silver) from Mirpur Khas, Sind, now in the Karachi Museum, is one of the earliest known examples of the Western Indian sculpture, closely following the Gupta traditions. During the Gupta Period, the literary tradition of recording the metal fabrication and casting techniques was initiated; we have reviewed this literature earlier.

v1.c28.s8.5

The historical survey of metallic icons in ancient India may be either chronological or focusing on regional variations; the best method would be a combination of the two approaches. There are many noticeable trends of the proportions of the constituent elements such as tin, lead and zinc in copper-based alloys varying with the passage of time and change of location in ancient India. These were dictated by market demands; emergence of new styles and technologies, and above all availability of the raw materials. In the studies on the said topic, one must avoid erroneous assumptions such as the one on ‘late arrival’ of zinc in ancient India. This point needs some elaboration.

v1.c28.s8.6

In the earlier chapter 18 on zinc we have shown how we have gathered recent knowledge on the early emergence of zinc and brass in the pre-Christian era of ancient India. This knowledge was not available when Swarnakamal (1980) wrote his famous book on the metallic art of Gujarat. Thus, he wrote (1980: 145) what must now be contradicted: “The Nalanda copper and bronze technology developed so much so that it finally led to the discovery of a copper-zinc alloy, and towards the development of a brass technology”. The suggestions of Werner (1972), endorsed by Swarnakamal (1980: 145-46), that zinc-alloying of copper was not done in the earlier period of Indian history and that “it was possible to distinguish ancient from modern bronze, because the quantity of zinc increased in the composition with progress of time”, cannot be accepted in any unqualified sense. Although there was a spurt of zinc technology and use of brass in ancient India after the thirteenth century AD, there had been a similar spurt around sixth-seventh century AD before the tradition at Nalanda, and evidences from the Zawar mines and Taxila attest that there must have been mini-spurts in the pre-Christian era as well.

v1.c28.s8.7

By accepting Werner’s proposition to determine the antiquity of an icon in terms of its zinc content, Swarnakamal (1980: 90) might have made a mistake. He disagreed with U.P. Shah’s (1956 and 1959) early dating (5th-11th century AD) of the Akota bronzes and commented that the high zinc bronzes or brass icons were made much later. We would rather support U.P. Shah who based his conclusions on the palaeography of the inscriptions. Bisht and Jain (1981-82)

First 93 of 359 passages. Read on

Linked texts (64)