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A History of Indian Medical Literature v2.c30: Chapter 3: Vimānasthāna

A History of Indian Medical Literature v2.c30

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English

Contents

Chapter 3: Vimānasthāna

v2.c30.2

recorded their observations on syndromes resembling cholera and their treatment; see L.B. Da Costa (1987); P. Hymavathi (1993): 272–273; J. MacPherson (1872): 79–123; J. Semmelink (1885a): 26–301. See on the āyurvedic treatment of cholera: N.K. Dutta and M.V. Panse (1962); J. MacPherson (1872): 25–26; M.V. Panse and K.P. Nayak (1971). See on the history of cholera in general: E.H. Ackernecht (1963): 20–28; V. Fossel (1903): 802–828; R. Hare (1967): 122; J. MacPherson (1872); G. Sticker (1912).

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9 Intestinal torpor (Gulabkunverba; R.K. Sharma and Bhagwan Dash). See HIM I, Intr. 111–112; Jyotir Mitra (1985): 237. Alasaka is also the name of a kṣudrakuṣṭha (Ca.Ci.7.23 and 29).

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10 Food poisoning (Gulabkunverba).

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11 Compare Ca.Vi.2.7–13 and Su.U.56.6–8, 10, 12–13.

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12 The title of the chapter is deśoddhvaṃṣanīyamittiya in the colophon. See on the janapadas: V. Agravāl (1955/56): 57–77; E. Lamotte (1976): 8–9; S. Saxena (1995): 91–370.

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13 Cf. Su.Sū.6.19–20; Ni.5.33–34. See on a ritual to drive out an epidemic: J.J. Modi (1895–99).

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14 These derangements are mentioned in a hierarchical order; those of water are harder to avoid than those of air, etc. (3.9–11).

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15 Cf. Ca.Śā.5.5; A.s.Ni.1.2–3. See on the four yugas: E. Abegg (1928): 5–39; M. Biardeau (1994); J. Chemburkar (1974); C.D. Church, (1971), (1974); Dowson; A.S. Gupta (1969); Hopkins; H. Jacobi (1925a); D.R. Mankad (1951): 309–321; M.A. Mehendale (1995): 234–243, 247–250, 252–255; J.E. Mitchiner (1982); R. von Roth (1860); S. Srinivasan (1979): 147; M. and J. Stutley (1977); Vettam Mani (s.v. Manvantara); W.J. Wilkins (1974): 353–360; H. Zimmer (1974): 11–19.

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16 See on daiva and puruṣakāra: J. Jolly (1912b); P.V. Kane V.1, 544–546; U. Venkatakrishna Rao (1946). See on the concept of karman in āyurveda: Y. Krishan (1980), (1982); M.G. Weiss (1987).

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17 Cf. Ca.Śā.6.28; Cakra ad Ca.I.2.3–5. Compare also the treatment of the same subject in the Milindapañha (see I.B. Horner, 1964: II, 132–142; compare ABI 141–142; Jyotir Mitra, 1977: 289, 1985: 31–39).

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18 Cf. Bhela Ci.1.19cd–22.

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19 Cf. Su.Sū.10.4–5.

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20 Yukti is not separately discussed in this chapter. Compare Ca.Sū.11.17–33 on the caturvidhā parīkṣā; Ca.Vi.8.33 and 83. See on Ca.Vi.4.4: A. Roṣu (1978): 90, n.2. See on taraka: G. Oberhammer, E. Prets and J. Prandstetter (1996): 113–115; E.A. Solomon (1976): 462–518.

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21 To be inferred from his vyavasāya.

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22 To be inferred from his saṅga (attachments).

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23 To be inferred from the absence of vijñāna. See on moha: E.M. Hoch (1991): 57–64.

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24 Śraddhā means the desire for food, the longing experienced by pregnant women, etc., in āyurvedic texts, but it has another, more general, meaning here. See on the religious meanings of this important concept: G. Bhattacharya (1971); E.B. Findley (1992); P. Hacker (1963); M. Hara (1963); H.-W. Köhler (1973); S.K. Lal (1980): 199–208; S. Lévi (1898): 108–121; H. Oldenberg (1996): 448–450.

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25 To be inferred from the ability to record things read, etc. (nāmagrahaṇa).

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26 See on smṛti: A. Roṣu (1978): 183–184.

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27 Compare Ca.Sū.30.12, where dhamanī, srotas and sirā are distinguished. See on the channels in Indian medicine: G.N. Chaturvedi (1971): 65–75; S. Dasgupta (1975): II, 344–352;

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S.P. Gupta (1977): 197–216; B. Seal (1985): 208–218. Cf. Su.Śā.9.12. Compare also Saṃgītaratnākara 1.2.101–113.

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28 The kind of vāta called prāṇa according to Cakra, not the prāṇaḥ; vāta is transported by all the vessels (dhamanī).

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29 Central cavity (Gulabkunverba; R.K. Sharma and Bhagwan Dash). See on this term, designating the alimentary tract (tractus digestivus): Ca.Sū.11.48; Ca.Ni.3.8–9; Cakra ad Ca.Ci.7.33; Ḍalhaṇa ad Su.Ci.7.30–36; A.h.Sū.12.46; Indu ad A.ś.Śā.6.15.

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30 See on udaka as a bodily constituent: Ca.Śā.7.15 (with Cakra's comments); Ca.Ci.13.46; A.ś.Śā.5.62; Madhukośa ad Mādhavanidāna 49.1–6 and 25cd–30. See on its equivalent, abdhātu: Ca.Ci.22.11; Su.U.47.70cd–71; A.h.Ci.7.29; A.s.Ci.9.166 and Ci.12.13.

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31 See on kloman: Ca.Sū.17.94; Cakra ad Vi.5.8; Ca.Śā.7.10 and Ci.13.45 with Cakra's comments; Ca.Si.9.6; Gayadāsa ad Su.Ni.1.23; Ḍalhaṇa ad Su.Ni.9.18, Śā.4.25, U.39.184; Su.Śā.5.26 and 27; Hemādri and Parameśvara ad A.h.Sū.12.3; A.h.Ni.5.11cd; Aruṇa ad A.h.Ni.12.36cd–40ab and Śā.3.12; A.ś.Śā.5.28; Śārṅgadharasaṃhitā I.5.8 with Āḍhamalla's comments; Madhukośa ad Mādhavanidāna 16.1–2 and 40.11cd–16; Bhāvaprakāśa 1.3.82. The kloman is known in Vedic literature; it is mentioned in the Atharvaveda (2.33.3), Bṛhadāraṇyakopaniṣad (1.1; see Śaṃkara's comments on the use of the plural and its location), and Śatapathabrāhmaṇa (4.5.4.6; 10.6.4.1; 12.9.1.3: it is related to Varuṇa). See on the kloman in Vedic ritual: J. Schwab (1886): 127–128. The Buddhist literature is acquainted with it too (see the Pali dictionaries s.v. kilomaka). See also: K. Achaiah (1927); G.D. Apte (1929); S. Dasgupta (1975): II, 288; J. Filliozat (1975): 148; V.W. Karambelkar (1961): 90–92; W. Kirfel (1951): 21; G.J. Meulenbeld (1974): 457–458; R.F.G. Müller (1935d), (1955), (1961): 93 and 118; V.M. Nanal (1989); Rasayogasāgara I, upodghāta 76 and 96–101; S.C. Srivastava (1979): 206–207.

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32 Compare Ca.Sū.30.8: the ten great vessels attached to the heart transport ojas.

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33 See Cakra's remarks.

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34 Cakra remarks that asthi is transported in a soluble (dravarūpa) form.

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35 See on the treatment of prāṇavahasrotoduṣṭi: Damodar and P. Vasanth (1978).

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36 See Ca.Sū.28.

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37 A variant reads sthūlāntra (colon) and guda (rectum).

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38 Cf. Ca.Sū.18.37–38.

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39 Diseases arising from the āmāśaya are caused by pitta and kapha, those arising from the pakvāśaya by vāta (see Cakra).

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40 Cakra says that the secondary doṣa is impelled (īrita) by the primary one and becomes excited at the periods of time which are characteristic of the latter. Compare Ca.Sū.19.7 (on the anubandha in āgantu disorders); Ni.4.4 and 7.18; Cakra and Ḍalhaṇa ad Su.Sū.21.38.

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41 Cf. Su.Sū.35.24–28; Bhela Vi.3.1–6.

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42 This view is ascribed to tantrāntarīyaḥ, i.e., those adhering to another treatise (probably the Suśrutasaṃhitā).

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⁴³ Compare Vi.8.95–100, where the vātala, pittala and śleṣmala constitutions (prakṛti) are accepted and described again. See also Ca.Sū.7.39–41; Bhela Vi.4.16–26; Su.Śā.4.62–80; A.h.Śā.3.85–104ab; A.s.Śā.8.6–15; Hārita VI.1; Candraṭa ad Cikitsākalikā 16; Agnipuraṇa 280.36–39 and 369.37–39; Śivatattvaratnākara VII.10.170–176; Svapnacintāmaṇi 1.9–14; Ṭoḍara II: 2.203–229. See on the constitutions: C. Beena (1990); Bhagwan Dash

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(1978): 41–49; H.M. Chandola, S.N. Tripathi and K.N. Udupa (1985): 143–144, (1988); P.V. Chandrasekaran et al. (1971); G.P. Dubey and R.H. Singh *(1967), *(1968), (1970); *A.A.M. Esser (1935); Gulabkunverba I, 545–551 and 602–610; S.P. Gupta (1977): 271–356; T. Gurunatham et al. (1967a), (1967b); L. Hilgenberg (1935); K. Kant (1990); S. Lienhard (1959); R.F.G. Müller (1964b); R.K. Pandit and G.C. Prasad (1992b); M.M. Pandya (1982); H.C. Shukla (1972), (1973); R.H. Singh (1978b); R.H. Singh and G.P. Dubey (1969); S. Venkataraghavan et al. (1977); S. Venkataraghavan et al. (1987); M. Weiss (1977). See on the history of the concept of constitution and temperament in non-Indian medicine: Th.H. Schlichting (1935).

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44 See on treatment: A. Kumar (1994): 283–284.

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45 Compare Ca.Vi.7.9 and Su.U.54.7, 7.10–13 and Su.U.54.3–6ab and 15–16, 7.11 and Su. U.54.19cd–20ab, 7.14–28 and Su.U.54.25cd–34.

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46 Compare Ca.Sū.19.4: audumbara pro audumbara, udarāveṣṭa pro udarāda, hṛdayāda pro hṛdayacara. Noteworthy is the absence of a dantāda (see kṛmidanta). See on these parasites: A. Kumar (1994): 281–283; G.J. Meulenbeld (1974): 622–625; G. Mukerji (1928), (1929); R.F.G. Müller (1964); *P.V. Sharma and C. Chaturvedi (1965a); N.N. Sircar (1991). See also: I.B. Horner (1963): I, 139 (references to the commentary on the Khuddakapāṭha, which mentions thirty-two kinds, and to the Visuddhimagga, which mentions numbers of thirty-two and eighty); Jyotir Mitra (1974): 57–60 (references to the Divyāvadāna and Kuṇalāvadāna). See on parasites in the Atharvaveda: *V. Henry (1988): 187–190; V.W. Karambelkar (1961): 153–154; R.R. Kashyap (1935/36); A. Kuhn (1864); G.N. Mukerjee (1927a), (1928); K.G.Zysk (1985): 64–69, 188–195. See on a kṛmi called Alarka, mentioned in the Mahābhārata: M.A. Mehendale (1993): 3–4. See on the numerous worms mentioned in the Chinese version of the Vimuttimagga: P.V. Bapat (1933–34). See on parasites in India, disorders caused by them, and the treatment of these disorders: V.K. Agrawal (1975); A.P.G. Amarsinghe et al. (1993); A.C. Chandler (1925), (1926a–e), (1927a–g), (1928); M.K. Chattopadhyaya and R.L. Khare (1969); G.N. Chaturvedi et al. (1982); 12; G.N. Chaudhari, C.K. Kokate and A.Y. Nimbkar (1981); N. Chevers (1886): 26–41; A.B. Chowdhury, G.A. Schad and E.L. Schiller (1968); A.B. Chowdhury and E.L. Schiller (1968); M.L. Dhar et al. (1968); S.K. Dikshit and O.P. Lalit (1970); R. Dutt (1972); K.N. Gaind and R.D. Budhiraja (1967); S.C. Garg and N. Siddiqui (1992); P.D. Gupta (1984); L.V. Guru and D.N. Mishra *(1964), *(1965), (1966); E. Hinz (1972); W.P. Jacocks, J.F. Kendrick and W.C. Sweet (1935); H.K. Kakrani and G.A. Kalyani (1983); V.K. Kochar et al. (1976); V.T. Korke (1926); S.W. Kulkarni et al. (1978); P.A. Maplestone and N.V. Bhaduri (1937); K.S. Mhaskar (1924); R.P. Misra (1970): 141–142; A.K. Mukerji and N.V. Bhaduri (1947); S. Nakhare and S.C. Garg (1991); S.H. Nanavutty (1924); I. Pal and H.S. Mathur (1986); R.P. Patel et al. (1964); C.K. Rao, A.K. Krishnaswami and H. Biswas (1971); N.C. Shah and L.D. Kapoor (1974); *P.V. Sharma (1964b); P.V. Sharma and C. Chaturvedi *(1964), *(1965a), *(1965b), (1968); R.D. Sharma, C. Chaturvedi and P.V. Tewari (1985); B.P. Shaw, A.K. Jain and R.M. Choudhry (1982); J.B. Shrivastav (1953); H.E. Sigerist (1961): 133; L. Singh (1973); Shiv Pal Singh (1991); N.N. Sircar (1991); M.C. Srivastava et al. (1967); M.C. Srivastava and S.W. Singh (1967); M.C. Srivastava, S.W. Singh and J.P. Tewari (1967); The International Health Board (1922); V.P. Trivedi, S. Nesamany and V.K. Sharma (1978); R.K. Tyagi et al. (1978); *K.M. Veeranan (1977). See on parasitic worms found in India: WIRM VII, 249–263. See on the history of human parasites and disorders caused by them: H. Vierordt (1903c).

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47 See on Ca.Vi.8.3–14: H.R. Zimmer (1948): 75–86. See on the so-called 'oath' of initiation: Gulabkunverba I, 162–168; G. Liétard (1897a); I.A. Menon and H.F. Haberman (1970). See on the qualities required in a student: Gulabkunverba I, 168–170. Cf. Su.Sū.2. See on initiation (upanayana) in general and in āyurveda: *B. Barua (1994); N.N. Bhattacharyya (1996): 133–158; M. Eliade (1959): 113–120, 219–227; H. Falk (1986): 66–68; J. Gonda (1965a): 320–322; A. Hillebrandt (1897): 50–53; J. Jolly (1914b); P.V. Kane II.1, 268–415; R.C. Majumdar (1974): 445–446; R.K. Mookerji (1960): 174–195; R.B. Pandey (1969): 111–140; Mrs. S. Stevenson (1971): 27–45. See on the importance of the relationship between guru and pupil: H.W. Gensichen (1969); S. Kakar (1991): 41–63; R. Lannoy (1975): 341–372; J.S. Neki (1973), (1974); R.M. Steinmann (1986). See on the history of medical education in India: P. Cordier (1902); N.H. Keswani (1970); R.K. Mookerji (1960): 345–349, 468–472; Th. Puschmann (1966): 7–18. Compare the literature on the Hippocratic oath: K. Deichgräber (1933), (1972); L. Edelstein (1943); G. Harig and J. Kollesch (1978); *W.H.S. Jones (1924); F. Kudlien (1970), (1978); Ch. Lichtenthaeler (1984); É. Littré (1978): IV, 610–633; S. Nittis (1939); Ch. Triebel-Schubert (1985). Compare the literature on the history of medical education in classical antiquity and in general: I.E. Drabkin (1944); F. Hartmann (1978); C.D. O'Malley (1970); Th. Puschmann (1966).

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48 See on this subject: G. Oberhammer, E. Prets and J. Prandstetter (1996): 109; V. Shekhawat (1984); Y.K. Tripāṭhī (1987): 40–51. See on verbal contests, debates, and similar meetings in India: *T. Elizarenkova (1987); F.B.J. Kuiper (1960); R.K. Mookerji (1960): 82–83, 133–138, 219–223, 245 (pariṣad); E.A. Solomon (1976); G. Tucci (1976): XXV–XXVI. See on the meaning of pariṣad and types of pariṣad: J.D.M. Derrett (1978); Jyotir Mitra (1985): 185–194; M. Müller (1859): 128–132; G. Oberhammer, E. Prets and J. Prandstetter (1996): 159–161. Compare on medical meetings in classical antiquity: V. Nutton (1995).

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49 See G. Oberhammer (1991): 61.

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50 See E.A. Solomon (1976): 74–75.

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51 See E.A. Solomon (1976): 75–77. Ca.Vi.8.3–25 was already translated into German in 1872 by R. Roth.

v2.c30.48

52 See on these terms: S. Dasgupta (1975): II, 377–388; Jyotir Mitra (1982); G. Oberhammer (1991); G. Oberhammer, E. Prets and J. Prandstetter (1996); E.A. Solomon (1976): 78–86; Y.K. Tripāṭhī (1987); G. Tucci (1976); S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971). See on vāda manuals for philosophical discussions: G. Tucci (1976): XXV–XXVI. See on the use of logic in medical discussions: A. Roṣu (1978): 77.

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53 Compare Nyāyasūtra 1.2.1 (vāda), 2 (jalpa), 3 (vitaṇḍā). See S. Dasgupta (1975): II, 377–378; B.K. Matilal (1986): 128–130; G. Oberhammer, E. Prets and J. Prandstetter (1996): 151–153 (s.v. pakṣa); E.A. Solomon (1976): 100–134; Y.K. Tripāṭhī (1987): 88–92; S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 23, 31, 51, 52, 62–63. See on jalpa: G. Oberhammer, E. Ernst and J. Prandstetter (1996): 95–97.

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54 Ślokasthāna = Sūtrasthāna (see Ca.Sū.1.).

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⁵⁵ Compare Nyāyasūtra 1.1.33. See S. Dasgupta (1975): II, 379; S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 27, 32, 60.

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⁵⁶ See Cakra's comments on this term. See also S. Dasgupta (1975): II, 379; Jyotir Mitra (1982): 57; P.V. Sharma (1985): 337; S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 42, 51.

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⁵⁷ Compare Nyāyasūtra 1.1.32. See S. Dasgupta (1975): II, 379.

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⁵⁸ See S. Dasgupta (1975): II, 379; Jyotir Mitra (1982): 67–70; P.V. Sharma (1985): 337; S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 27, 32. S. Dasgupta (1975): I, 302: absent from the Nyāyasūtra.

v2.c30.55

59 Compare Nyāyasūtra 1.1.34. See S. Dasgupta (1975): II, 379–380; Y.K. Tripāṭhī (1987): 84–85; S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 27, 28, 32, 60–61.

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60 See on anupalabdhi: G. Oberhammer (1991): 37–40. See on aitihya: E.W. Hopkins (1969): 51; G. Oberhammer, E. Prets and J. Prandstetter (1996): 63–65; E. Sieg (1969): 19, n.1.

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61 Ca.Vi.8.33. Compare Ca.Sū.11.26–33; Vi.4. See Ca.Vi.8.39–42 for their definitions.

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62 Ca.Vi.8.34: the Sāmkhya philosophy (sāmkhyajñāna) is referred to. Compare Nyāyasūtra 1.1.36; Upāyahrdaya 5 (see G. Tucci, 1976: Notes 15). See G. Oberhammer, E. Prets and J. Prandstetter (1996): 120–122; S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 27, 32, 52, 59.

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63 See Y.K. Tripāṭhī (1987): 86; S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 27, 32, 60. Compare G. Oberhammer, E. Prets and J. Prandstetter (1996): 36–39.

v2.c30.60

64 See G. Oberhammer, E. Prets and J. Prandstetter (1996): 126–129; Y.K. Tripāṭhī (1987): 86–87; S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 27, 32, 60–61.

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65 The same as jāti in the Nyāyasūtra (1.2.18; 2.1.70–71). See S. Dasgupta (1975): II, 380–383; Jyotir Mitra (1982): 73–74; G. Oberhammer, E. Prets and J. Prandstetter (1996): 20–21; P.V. Sharma (1985e): 338; E.A. Solomon (1976): 144–199; S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 27, 32, 51. See on jāti: G. Oberhammer, E. Prets and J. Prandstetter (1996): 97–105.

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66 See G. Oberhammer (1991): 27–28. Compare Upāyahrdaya 6 (see G. Tucci, 1976: Notes 15).

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67 Compare Nyāyasūtra 1.1.26 and 28–31. See S. Dasgupta (1975): II, 383; Jyotir Mitra (1982): 74–76; Y.K. Tripāṭhī (1987): 80–83; S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 27, 33, 52, 59–60. See G. Oberhammer (1991): 82–84.

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68 Dṛṣṭārtha and adṛṣṭārtha are also mentioned in the Nyāyasūtra, where śabda = āptopadeśa (1.1.8).

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69 Compare Nyāyasūtra 1.1.4.

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70 Compare Nyāyasūtra 1.1.5.

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71 See Jyotir Mitra (1982): 79; S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 33, 50–51. Compare Cakra's comments. Compare Nyāyasūtra 2.2.2 and Vātsyāyana's Bhāṣya.

v2.c30.68

72 See Ca.Vi.8.39–42. Compare Ca.Vi.8.33. Compare on aupamya: Nyāyasūtra 1.1.6 (upamāna). See also Jyotir Mitra (1982): 79–80; G. Oberhammer, E. Prets and J. Prandstetter (1996): 43–49, 69–70; S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 33, 50–51.

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73 Compare Nyāyasūtra 1.1.23. See S. Dasgupta (1975): II, 383; Jyotir Mitra (1982): 80; Y.K. Tripāṭhī (1987): 77–79; S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 23, 33, 52, 58–59.

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74 Compare Nyāyasūtra 1.1.24. See S. Dasgupta (1975): II, 383–384; Jyotir Mitra (1982): 81; Y.K. Tripāṭhī (1987): 79; S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 23, 33, 52, 59.

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75 Compare Nyāyasūtra 1.2.5. See S. Dasgupta (1975): II, 384; Jyotir Mitra (1982): 81; L. Suali (1913): 379–383; S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 33, 63–64.

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76 Not mentioned in the Nyāyasūtra. See S. Dasgupta (1975), I, 302; Jyotir Mitra (1982): 81–82; G. Oberhammer, E. Prets and J. Prandstetter (1996): 106–108; S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 33.

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77 Also called niścaya (Vi.8.47). Compare Nyāyasūtra 1.1.41 (nirṇaya). See S. Dasgupta (1975): I, 302: vyavasāya is absent from the Nyāyasūtra; Y.K. Tripāṭhī (1987): 88; S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 33.

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78 The same as arthāpatti according to Cakra. Compare Nyāyasūtra 2.2.3–6 (arthāpatti). Arthāprāpti is not a separate pramāṇa according to Cakra (ad Ca.Vi.8.48), being included in anumāna. Compare Nyāyasūtra 2.2.2. See S. Dasgupta (1975): I, 302, and II, 384; Jyotir Mitra (1982): 82. See G. Oberhammer (1991): 85–86.

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79 Saṃbhava belongs to anumāna in the Nyāyasūtra (2.2.2). See Jyotir Mitra (1982): 82–83; S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 56. Cakra explains saṃbhava along Sāmkhya lines. See P.V. Sharma's critical notes (1985e: 340).

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80 Compare S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 33 (censurable). See G. Oberhammer (1991): 60–61.

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81 Compare S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 33 (non-censurable). Cf. Nyāyasūtra 5.2.22 (niranuyojya). See G. Oberhammer (1991): 30.

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82 Compare S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 33 (interrogation). See S. Dasgupta (1975): II, 384; G. Oberhammer (1991): 60.

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83 Compare S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 33 (re-interrogation).

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84 S. Dasgupta (1975): I, 302: absent from the Nyāyasūtra.

v2.c30.81

85 See S. Dasgupta (1975): II, 384–385; G. Oberhammer, E. Prets and J. Prandstetter (1996): 149–150.

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86 See S. Dasgupta (1975): II, 385; G. Oberhammer (1991): 25–26.

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87 See G. Oberhammer (1991): 31.

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88 See G. Oberhammer (1991): 74.

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⁸⁹ Compare S. Dasgupta (1975): II, 385; Y.K. Tripāṭhī (1987): 123, 124–127; S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 34. The Nyāyasūtra (5.2.1) adds punarukta (repetition) and omits viruddha (see on viruddha: Nyāyasūtra 1.2.4; adhika includes punarukta in the Carakasamhitā (Vi.8.54); punarukta is, however, separately mentioned at Ca.Vi.8.65. See Jyotir Mitra (1982): 84–85. See G. Oberhammer (1991): 84–85 (arthapunarukta); G. Oberhammer, E. Prets and J. Prandstetter (1996): 165–166 (punarukta). Viruddha is of three types: dṛṣṭānta-, siddhānta- and samayaviruddha (see S. Dasgupta, 1975: II, 385). Dṛṣṭānta and siddhānta have already been dealt with. Samaya (context) is of three kinds: āyurvedaidika (medical), yājñika (pertaining to sacrificial ritual) and mokṣaśāstra (relating to final emancipation). See on samaya: Jyotir Mitra (1982): 86–97.

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⁹⁰ Compare S. Dasgupta (1975): II, 385; S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 34 (excellence of speech). S. Dasgupta (1975): I, 302: absent from the Nyāyasūtra.

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⁹¹ Compare Nyāyasūtra 1.2.10–17. The Carakasamhitā distinguishes vākchala and sāmānyacchala; Cakra says that vākchala includes the upacāracchala of the Nyāyasūtra. See S. Dasgupta (1975): II, 385–386; Jyotir Mitra (1982): 87–89; E.A. Solomon (1976): 135–144; Y.K. Tripāṭhī (1987): 99–105; S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 23, 24, 52, 65 (quibble). See on upacāracchala: G. Oberhammer, E. Prets and J. Prandstetter (1996): 31–33, on chala: the same, 92–94.

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⁹² See S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 34–35, 51 (fallacy). See G. Oberhammer (1991): 108–109.

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⁹³ Compare the five types of hetvābhāsa (fallacy) of the Nyāyasūtra: savyabhicāra, viruddha, prakaraṇasama, sādhyasama and kālātīta (1.2.4–9). The Carakasamhitā employs the term hetvābhāsa as a synonym of ahetu (Vi.8.59). See also the twenty-four jātis of the Nyāyasūtra (5.1.1); prakaraṇasama of the Nyāyasūtra (5.1.16) differs from Caraka's prakaraṇasama; saṃśayasama of the Nyāyasūtra (5.1.14) is not identical with Caraka's use of the term; varṇyasama is similar to sādhyasama of the Nyāyasūtra (5.1.4). See S. Dasgupta (1975): II, 386–388; Jyotir Mitra (1982): 89–92; E.A. Solomon (1976): 271–306; Y.K. Tripāṭhī (1987): 92–99 and 105–115; S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 34–35, 51.

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⁹⁴ See S. Dasgupta (1975): II, 388; Jyotir Mitra (1982): 92; S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 35 (mistimed). Compare G. Oberhammer (1991): 24.

v2.c30.91

95 See Jyotir Mitra (1982): 93; G. Oberhammer, E. Prets and J. Prandstetter (1996): 52–54; S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 35. S. Dasgupta (1975: I, 302) and Jyotir Mitra (1982): 93: not mentioned in the Nyāyasūtra. See Vātsyāyana ad Nyāyasūtra 1.1.41.

v2.c30.92

96 See Jyotir Mitra (1982): 93; G. Oberhammer, E. Prets and J. Prandstetter (1996): 161; S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 35 (avoidance of defeat). S. Dasgupta (1975: I, 302) and Jyotir Mitra (1982): 93: not mentioned in the Nyāyasūtra.

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97 Compare Nyāyasūtra 5.2.2. See Jyotir Mitra (1982): 93–95: Caraka's pratijñāhāni includes pratijñāhāni, pratijñāntara, pratijñāvirodha and pratijñāsamnyāsa of the Nyāyasūtra; these belong to the twenty-two kinds of nigrahasthāna (5.2.1–5). Compare E.R. Solomon (1980–1981) (violating the proposition); Y.K. Tripāṭhī (1987): 115–135; S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 34, 44, 84–85 (hurting the proposition).

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98 Comparable to matānuijñā of the Nyāyasūtra (5.1.42). See S. Dasgupta (1975): II, 388; Jyotir Mitra (1982): 95; P.V. Sharma (1985): 341; Y.K. Tripāṭhī (1987): 129; S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 35 (admission). See G. Oberhammer (1991): 82.

v2.c30.95

99 Compare Nyāyasūtra 5.2.6. Hetvantara of Caraka differs from hetvantara of the Nyāyasūtra: S. Dasgupta (1975): II, 388; Jyotir Mitra (1982): 96; S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 84, 86 (shifting the reason).

v2.c30.96

100 Compare Nyāyasūtra 5.2.7. See S. Dasgupta (1975): II, 388; Jyotir Mitra (1982): 96; S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 35, 84, 86–87 (shifting the topic). See G. Oberhammer (1991): 88.

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101 Described (Ca.Vi.8.65) as a situation in which a statement, though thrice repeated, is not understood by the opponent, or questioning when this is not appropriate (ananuyojyasyanuyogah; see G. Oberhammer, 1991: 30), or not questioning when the situation requires this (anuyojyasyānanuyogah; see G. Oberhammer, 1991: 61); Caraka's nigrahasthāna includes pratijñāhāni, abhyanujñā, kālātīta (see G. Oberhammer, E. Prets and J. Prandstetter, 1996: 80–82), ahetu, nyūna, adhika, anarthaka, vyartha (= apārthaka), punarukta, viruddha, hetvantara, and antaratara. The Nyāyasūtra (5.2.1) distinguishes twenty-two varieties of nigrahasthāna. See S. Dasgupta (1975): II, 388; Jyotir Mitra (1982): 97; G. Oberhammer, E. Prets and J. Prandstetter (1996): 129–132; P.V. Sharma (1985): 341; K.H. Potter (1977); E.A. Solomon (1976): 209–270; Y.K. Tripāṭhī (1987): 115–135; S.Ch. Vidyabhusana (1971): 35, 51, 52, 66–67, 269 (a point of defeat or an occasion of rebuke).

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102 Synonyms are kriyā, karman, yatna, kāryasamārambha.

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109 Compare Ca.Vi.6.13, where the existence of the prakṛtis as constitutional types, not to be regarded as morbid states, is denied. Cf. Su.Śā.4.62–77.

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110 Compare the tvaksāra type of Samudra's Sāmudrikaśāstra (2.7).

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111 Compare the raktasāra type of the Bṛhatsamhitā (67.97) and Sāmudrikaśāstra (2.8).

v2.c30.102

112 Compare the māmsasāra type of the Bṛhatsamhitā (67.100ab) and Sāmudrikaśāstra (2.9).

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113 Compare the medahsāra type of the Bṛhatsamhitā (67.98cd) and Sāmudrikaśāstra (2.10ab).

v2.c30.104

114 Compare the asthisāra type of the Bṛhatsamhitā (67.99ab) and Sāmudrikaśāstra (2.10cd).

v2.c30.105

115 Compare the majjāsāra type of the Bṛhatsamhitā (67.98cd) and Sāmudrikaśāstra (2.11).

v2.c30.106

116 Compare the śukrasāra type of the Sāmudrikaśāstra (2.12ab).

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118 Compare Ṭoḍara II: 3.378–381ab; Kāśyapasamhitā, Śārīrasthāna. See on samhanana: W. Schubring (1962): 143–144. A related term, samghāta (explained as samhati by Bhaṭṭotpala), is found in the Bṛhatsamhitā (67.100cd).

v2.c30.108

119 Compare the measures given in Samudra's Sāmudrikaśāstra (2.26–28, 39–52). Compare also the measures found in works on iconography (see, for example, T.A. Gopinatha Rao, 1971: II, 273–576).

v2.c30.109

120 See the tables in the Caraka translation by R.K. Sharma and Bhagwan Dash and in H.C. Shukla (1970). Cakra points to the disagreement between Caraka and Suśruta on this subject; the total length of the body is 84 aṅgula according to Caraka, 120 aṅgula according to Suśruta. Cakra explains this by assuming that Suśruta's unit is longer than the one adopted by Caraka. Cf. Su.Sū.35.12. Compare on the length of the human body: A.M. Shastri (1969): 343–344; S. Srinivasan (1979): 19. See on the aṅgula: Ādhamalla ad Śārṅgadharasamhitā I.1.35cd–36ab; Bṛhatsamhitā 57.1–2 and 4 (with Bhaṭṭotpala's comments); Śivatattvaratnākara VII.12.59cd. See also: J.N. Banerjea (1956): 315–321; R.F.G. Müller (1961): 75; R. Shamasastry (1913); A.M. Shastri (1969): 342–343; H.C. Shukla (1970); S. Srinivasan (1979): 8–11; F.R.S. Edward Thomas (1970): 29–32. Compare on the measure called hasta: Cakra ad Ca.Sū.14.46; Ḍalhaṇa ad Su.Sū.35.12; Bhoja's Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra, hastalakṣaṇa (9); see also: A.M. Shastri (1969): 343; S. Srinivasan (1979): 13–14.

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125 Related terms (mahāsattva and alpasattva) occur in the Mokṣadharma part of the Śāntiparvan of the Mahābhārata (see J.A.B. van Buitenen, 1957b: 106; A. Roṣu, 1978: 193).

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¹³⁰ See on these groups: P.V. Sharma (1985g). Cf. Su.Sū.42.11. Compare on the madhura-skandha: Cakra ad Ca.Śā.8.4, on the amlaskandha: Ca.Ci.24.151 (pañcāmlaka), on the titaskandha: Ca.Si.8.8–9ab (pañcatikta). Compare the six groups of medicinal herbs to be laid in stock by a king in his fortresses (see H. Losch, 1959: 74–75).

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Śārīrasthāna

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1 See on chapter one: R.F.G. Müller (1952), (1956a). Cf. Su.Śā.1. 2 Compare the theory of Hiraṇyākṣa at Ca.Sū.25.14–15. See P.V. Sharma (1989a): 18–20, 23–24. The human being is also called ṣaḍdhātu, i.e., composed of the five mahābhūtas and the vijñāna, in some Buddhist texts, for example the Garbhāvakrāntisūtra (see A. Roṣu, 1978: 160). 3 See P.V. Sharma (1989a): 22–23. 4 The five buddhīndriyas and the five karmendriyas. The senses (manas included) are six at Ca.Sū.26.43; they are five at Ca.Sū.8.3, while the manas is a separate entity, being ‘beyond the senses’ (atīndriya) (Ca.Sū.8.4). See Cakra’s comments ad Ca.Sū.8.3–4. See also A. Comba (1987): 49. 5 See Ca.Śā.1.63. Puruṣa is not separately mentioned in this list; it is included in avyakta, one of the eight dhātus of prakṛti, according to Cakra. S. Dasgupta (1975: I, 214) supposes that the tanmātras of Sāṃkhya, never mentioned in the Carakasaṃhitā, are one of the eight dhātus of prakṛti. Cakra lists these eight dhātus as: the five mahābhūtas (or tanmātras), buddhi, avyakta and ahaṃkāra, in agreement with Ca.Śā.1.63. See on this eightfold prakṛti: E.H. Johnston (1974): 25–29; (1978): LVII and 168. See also on Ca.Śā.1.17: A. Roṣu (1978): 135. 6 Ca.Śā.1.18 is very close to Vaiśeṣikasūtra 3.2.1 (see A. Comba, 1987: 47); the existence of the manas is inferred from the fact that, even when there is contact between ātman, the senses and the objects of the senses, sometimes knowledge is produced and sometimes not. The Carakasaṃhitā attributes to the manas aṇutva (minuteness ) and ekatva (oneness), as does the Vaiśeṣikasūtra (3.2.3; 8.1.30); see A. Comba (1987): 47–48. Compare on manas: Nyāyasūtra 1.1.16. See also: R.N. Dandekar (1938): 40–59. See on manas in the Carakasaṃhitā: R.N. Dandekar (1941); J. Filliozat (1972); S.P. Gupta (1977): 91–101; Jyotir Mitra (1982): 238–247; R.F.G. Müller (1935e), (1952a); A. Roṣu (1978). 7 The characterization of buddhi in these verses is based on Vaiśeṣika views; the buddhis are not only many, but they differ according to the organ by the contact of which they arise (see A. Comba, 1987: 53–54). 8 See Cakra’s comments. 9 See on rāśi: K.B. Ramakrishna Rao (1962). 10 See on Ca.Śā.1.36: E.H. Johnston (1974): 35; P.V. Sharma (1989a): 24–25. Compare Buddhacarita 7.53. 11 See on the ātman in the Carakasaṃhitā: Jyotir Mitra (1982): 229–237. See on the bhūtātman (Ca.Śā.1.57): E.W. Hopkins (1969): 39–41; E.H. Johnston (1974): 49–50; A. Roṣu (1978): 131, 146–147, 149, 176–177. See on Ca.Śā.1.37–62: A. Roṣu (1978): 123, 129, 131–132, 136, 190–191. See on the term bhāva (1.47, 48, 50): F. Zimmermann (1995): 94–95. 12 The five tanmātras according to Cakra. 13 The same as mahat (in Sāṃkhya thought) according to Cakra. 14 Cf. Ca.Śā.1.17.

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15 See on the number sixteen in Indian culture: G. Eichinger Ferro-Luzzi (1974): 146–147; J. Gonda (1965a); D.G. White (1996): 36–44. See on quaternary numeration in general in India: G. Tucci (1963). 16 The organism, imagined as a field. 17 See P.V. Sharma (1989a): 24–25. 18 Caraka’s list agrees partly with the one from the Vaiśeṣikasūtras (3.2.4), partly with another one, found in the Yājñavalkyasmṛti (3.174–175). Cf. Su.Śā.1.17. See on the ātmaliṅgas: A. Comba (1987): 54–57; B. Faddegon (1969): 247–259; A. Roṣu (1978): 130–131. Atrideva claims (ABI 169) that Caraka’s ātmaliṅgas completely agree with those of the Vaiśeṣikasūtras. 19 See on Ca.Śā.1.75–76: A. Roṣu (1978): 150. See on the ātman in Ca.Śā.1.78: E.H. Johnston (1974): 54. See on prāṇāḥ in the sense of sattva in Ca.Śā.1.77: P.V. Sharma (1989a): 7. 20 See on this subject: A. Comba (1987): 50–53, who is convinced that the verses on the kartṛtva of the ātman reflect a Vaiśeṣika orientation. See on the kartṛtva of the ātman: E. Frauwallner (1956; see index s.v. Seele). 21 See on Ca.Śā.1.86–156: E. Woltz-Gottwald and J. Schmitt (1986). 22 Interpreted as tṛṣṇā (thirst, desire) by Cakra. 23 Caraka’s upādha resembles the same concept as found in the Vaiśeṣikasūtras (6.2.3–4); see A. Comba (1987): 57–58. S. Dasgupta (1975: II, 415–416) is in favour of interpreting it as the Buddhist upādāna, ‘grasping’ (see S. Dasgupta, 1975: I, 85, 90, 92; II, 415–416). P.V. Sharma (1992d: 183) appears to accept Dasgupta’s view. 24 See on dhī: J. Gonda (1963b). 25 Cf. Ca.Sū.1.54; 11.37; Ni.1.3. See A. Roṣu (1978): 109. 26 Cf. Ca.Sū.7.51–53; 11.41 and 43; Ni.1.3; Vi.6.6. 27 Cf. Ca.Sū.10.5; Ni.7.10, 19–21; Vi.3; see also Cakra’s comments on these passages. 28 See Cakra’s comments. 29 See the Carakasaṃhitā and Yoga: Jyotir Mitra (1982): 349–359; A. Roṣu (1978): 159 and 192. 30 Compare Dalhaṇa ad Su.Ci.29.13 and U.60.20. See also the powers acquired by the use of soma plants (Su.Ci.29.10–13). The extraordinary powers acquired by Yoga are described in the Pātañjalayogasūtra (3.16–53); they are also found, for instance, in the Upāyahr̥daya, where they are called aiśvarya (see G. Tucci, 1976: retranslation 7), and in the Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa (see G. Tucci, 1976: notes to the Upāyahr̥daya, 16). See on these powers, usually called siddhi: M. Bloomfield (1917); H. Brunner-Lachaux (1975): 432–434; M. Burnouf (1973): 291–292, 820–824; E.W. Hopkins (1901), (1905); S. Lindquist (1935); J. Moussaieff Masson (1980): 125–141; N.M. Penzer (1925c); A. Roṣu (1997b): 428; R. Schmidt (1921); *F.O. Schrader (1937); L. de la Vallée Poussin (1931); D.G. White (1996): 371–372. 31 See on the concept of mokṣa in the Carakasaṃhitā: A. Comba (1987): 58–61; Jyotir Mitra (1982): 353–354; P.V. Sharma (1989a): 24–26. 32 Cf. Bhela Śā.3. See on midwifery in ancient India: G. Mukerji (1929, 1930, 1931); J. Roberton (1846). 33 See on the age of marriage in ancient India: G. Mukerji (1929): 132–140. Cf. A.s.Śā.1.3; A.h.Śā.1.8–9a. 34 Cf. Su.Ci.24.122. The rule is formulated, for example, in the Viṣṇusmṛti (36.7) and Yājñavalkyasmṛti (3.231). See J. Gonda (1951): 60. See on the gotra system and its development: J. Brough (1946), (1947), *(1953); R. Fick (1913), (1931); G.S. Ghurye (1972); *S.V. Karandikar (1929); D.D. Kosambi (1950), (1951), (1953); J.E. Mitchiner (1982; see index); R.K. Mookerji (1947): 83–84, 242–243; M. Müller (1859): 380–388; V.G. Rahurkar (1973); H. Zimmer (1914). Several treatises on the gotras are known (see NCC; H. Zimmer, 1914: 6); the Gotrapravaramanjarī of Purusottama has been edited (by P. Chentsalrao in his Gotrapravaranibandhakadamba, Mysore 1900) and *translated into English (J. Brough, 1953); Kamalākarabhatta's Pravaradarpana also has been edited (by P. Chentsalrao in the mentioned collection of texts). The messenger sent to the physician by the patient or his relatives should preferably be of the same gotra (Su.Sū.29.24).

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35 See Ca.Śā.2.48. Kaviratna reads twenty-six and argues why his number is the correct one.

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36 See on many of these subjects: Bhagwan Dash (1975a).

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37 The mahābhūta called ākāśa does not take part in the formation of śukra; equal parts of the remaining four are present in it (Cakra).

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38 See on a Buddhist text mentioning many factors preventing conception: F. Huebotter (1932): 7–8.

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39 This disorder resembles raktagulma (see Ca.Ni.3 and Ci.5). Bhela (Śā.3.7) describes a disorder of pregnancy called vātodara.

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40 See about bhūtas and disorders of pregnancy: Th. Blanchet (1987): 50–55, 74–75.

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41 See on bhūta: E. Arbman (1922): 167–221. See on ojohara yakṣas: G.H. Sutherland (1991): 125.

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42 The nature of this rakta is a matter of discussion; it is often translated by ovum (R.K. Sharma and Bhagwan Dash; P.V. Sharma), which credits Caraka with modern knowledge he did not possess. The usual meaning of rakta is blood, but a female procreational fluid, resembling blood, which is transformed into the menstrual discharge (called purāṇarudhira in the Bhelasamhitā, Śā.5.5) when conception does not take place, is meant here. See on sexual fluids in Indian thought: W.D. O'Flaherty (1980): 17–61, (1980c): 331–346, (1981): 17–61.

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43 Cf. Bhela Śā.3.8ab; Su.Śā.3.5. The subject is dealt with in many non-medical treatises; see, for example, Brhatsamhitā 75.1. See on the same subject in ancient Iranian culture: B. Lincoln (1988). Theories of conception in the Graeco-Roman world are dealt with in many works; see, for instance: H. Balss (1936); J. Blayney (1986); L.A. Dean-Jones (1996); H. Fasbender (1897): 81–92.

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44 Cf. Bhela Śā.3.9, where Kṛṣṇatreya is referred to as an authority; see also Bhela Śā.3.10. Cf. Su.Śā.2.37 (and Dalhaṇa's reference to Gayadāsa's interpretation). See also Atharvaveda 3.28. See on twins in Indian culture: J. Gonda (1974): 33–34; I. Fischer (1922): 36; J.J. Meyer (1937): II, 165–166; J. von Negelein (1902), (1912): 249. See on the meaning of twins in various cultures and on heavenly twins: U. Bianchi (1987); J.R. Harris (1906); E.S. Hartland (1921); D. Ward (1968); G. Zeller (1990): 15–22.

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45 Cf. Bhela Śā.3.11. See on multiple births: A.A. Ayer and A. Girija (1963).

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46 Translated as hermaphrodite (Gulabkunverba; R.K. Sharma and Bhagwan Dash; P.V. Sharma). The dviretas is described as possessing both male and female characteristics (strīpumsa-lingin); Cakrapāṇi is uncertain about the meaning of this term and offers two different explanations, which have in common that the secondary sexual characteristics do not develop in a dviretas when the male and female contributions to the bīja are equal, because they only manifest themselves at puberty when there was either an excess of śukra or rakta in the bīja.

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47 The term bīja often denotes those parts of the embryo which are the origin of later organs or organ systems; it appears to correspond here to the earliest stages of the development of the embryo, unknown in āyurveda for obvious reasons. See Cakra's comments on the term bīja (ad Ca.Śā.2.31–36).

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48 Cf. Bhela Śā.3.8cd.

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49 A dviretas with damage (upatāpa) to the bīja differs from the first-mentioned type according to Cakra, who is again in doubt about the correct interpretation. Compare the types of hermaphrodite mentioned in Pali literature (see Jyotir Mitra, 1985: 292).

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50 Cakra says that indriya is a synonym of śukra; a pavanendriya ejaculates air (pavana) instead of sperm during intercourse. Cf. A.s.Śā.2.22.

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51 Cakra is of the opinion that the sexual abnormalities described by Suśruta under the names of āsekya, saugandhika and kumbhīka belong to the type called samskāravāha in the Carakasamhitā. The term samskāravāha is not explained by Cakra. Cf. A.s.Śā.2.23.

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52 Impotence (Gulabkunverba); sterility (R.K. Sharma and Bhagwan Dash; P.V. Sharma). Cakra equates the klība with the ṣaṇḍa of Suśruta.

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53 A male with hypospadia (Gulabkunverba; R.K. Sharma and Bhagwan Dash); a man with a curved member (P.V. Sharma; Yogindranātha). Kaviratna agrees with Gaṅgādhara in considering a vakrin to be the same as āsekya; he remarks that some regard a vakrin as identical with Suśruta's kumbhīka. However, the meaning of vakra is not clear at all in this context; Cakra says that the sperm of a vakrin does not reach the uterus.

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54 Cakra interprets pratigha (resistance) as aversion to intercourse or an abnormal position of the female partner.

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55 Cakra equates the īrṣyārati with Suśruta's īrṣyaka, who can only produce an erection when looking at the intercourse of another couple. Cf. A.s.Śā.2.27.

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56 See on perversions in Indian literature: W. Gampert (1939): 149–151; J.J. Meyer (1952): 242. See on eunuchs, transvestism, homosexuality, etc., in India: N.J. Bradford (1983); W.N. Brown (1927); G.M. Carstairs (1956), (1957); W. Doniger (1997); R.P. Goldman (1993); S. Nanda (1990); W.D. O'Flaherty (1980); N.M. Penzer (1925b); *A.H. Prasad (1991); L.W. Preston (1987); *S.K. Sharma (1989); K. Shetty (1990); E. Thurston (1975): 396–397; M.D. Vyas and Y. Shingala (1987). See on androgyny in Indian culture: J.J. Meyer (1937; see index); W.D. O'Flaherty (1980): 297–334.

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57 Cf. Su.Śā.2.38–43; A.s.Śā.2.28.

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58 The child may be female, male, or neither male nor female (the tṛtīyā prakṛtiḥ or napumsaka). Cf. Su.Śā.3.34. See on napumsaka: M. Angot (1993–94); R.P. Goldman (1993); 395; R.F.G. Müller (1963d). A male child was thought to reside in the right side of the womb, a female child in the left side; this opinion was also common among Greek physicians (see H. Oertel, 1905: 188–190). See on the symbolic meanings of left and right and their connection with anything female, respectively male: V. Das (1977): 95–104; J. Gonda (1972), (1975): II, 225; J. von Negelein (1928); H. von Stietencron (1972): 113–127.

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59 Compare Ca.Śā.2.23 and Su.Śā.3.13.

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60 Ākāśa is absent (see Cakra ad Ca.Śā.2.31). Compare Śā.1 and 4, where the five mahābhūtas take part in the formation of the embryo.

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61 The transmigrating ātman, choosing the foetus as its new abode. Cf. Ca.Śā.2.31–38.

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62 In particular its type of sattva.

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63 Ca.Śā.2.36 adds rajas and tamas. Cf. Bhela Śā.3.17–20.

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64 Four very subtle (susūkṣma) bhūtas (the tanmātras of Sāmkhya) are among these entities.

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Cakra refers to the transmigrating ātivāhikaśarīra of Sāmkhya; see on the ātivāhikaśarīra: W.D. O'Flaherty (1980b): 16–17. 65 See Kaviratna's notes on these verses. 66 Daiva and pauruṣa are defined (Ca.Vi.2.44ab). Cf. Ca.Vi.3.29–35. Pravṛtti and nivṛtti are defined too (Ca.Vi.2.44cd); see Cakra's remarks on their interpretation; see on pravṛtti and nivṛtti: G. Bailey (1983): 42–57; O. Strauss (1911). 67 Compare Bhela Śa.6; Su.Sā.3; the garbhāvakrānti chapter of the Śārīrasthāna of the Kāśyapasamhitā. See on the term garbhāvakrānti, its uses and meanings: A. Roṣu (1978): 163, 171, 172, 189; E. Windisch (1908): 31–33. See also R.F.G. Müller (1963c) and Kaviratna's remarks. 68 See on jīva in the Carakasamhitā: E. Windisch (1908): 52–56. 69 Cakra emphasizes (ad Ca.Vi.3.25) that this Bharadvāja is not the one who is mentioned in Ca.Sū.1 as Ātreya's teacher. 70 See on these six factors: A. Roṣu (1978): 172; M. Sinha and P.V. Tewari (1992); E. Windisch (1908): 52. The same set of six bhāvas is known to the Samgītaratnākara (1.2.44). Sattva is mentioned as an associated factor (aupapāduka), a term recurring at Ca.Vi.3.13 and 14; Cakra explains it as the factor producing the link between the ātman and a body. E. Windisch (1908): 52 was struck by the juxtaposition of ātman and sattva; he regarded the latter as a term of Buddhist origin. The Bhelasamhitā (Śa.6.1) employs aupapāduka in the same meaning as Caraka's aupapāduka; sattva is called aupapāduka in the Kāśyapasamhitā (73). See on aupapāduka and related terms (aupapāduka in Buddhist hybrid Sanskrit; opapātika in Pali; uvavāiya in Jain Prakrit): E. Hultzsch (1919); A. Roṣu (1978): 180–193; J. Takakusu (1966): 3; E. Windisch (1908): 184–194. 71 Tvac replaces the more usual rasa in this list. See S.W. Jamison (1986). 72 The Vedic term for the large intestine is vaniṣṭhu (see J. Filliozat, 1975: 126; J. Schwab, 1886: 128–129). 73 Cakra remarks that the vapāvahana is called tailavartikā (compare Cakra ad Ca.Śa.7.10 and Vi.5.8). Compare Mahābhārata, Śāntiparvan 305.6 (ed. Poona); Agnipurāṇa 369.31–32ab and 370.20ab; Samgītaratnākara 1.2.45. See on the vapā in Vedic literature: J. Filliozat (1975): 126; J. Schwab (1886): 111–121. 74 Compare Mahābhārata, Śāntiparvan 305.5 (ed. Poona); Agnipurāṇa 369.32cd and 370.19cd; Samgītaratnākara 1.2.46. 75 See on this concept of the ātman: E. Windisch (1908): 53. 76 See on the technical meaning of this term: G. Oberhammer (1991): 112–115. See also: M. Biardeau (1964). 77 Compare Samgītaratnākara 1.2.48. 78 Compare Samgītaratnākara 1.2.56ab. 79 Compare Samgītaratnākara 1.2.47. 80 Ca.Śa.3.13 uses the rare term spṛkśarīra (see A. Roṣu, 1978: 180). Compare Ca.Śa.3–13 and Su.Śa.3.3. 81 The four classes of organisms are mentioned: jarāyuja (placentalia), aṇḍaja (oviparous animals), svedaja (organisms generated from moisture) and udbhijja (organisms generated from the earth). See Cakra's comments on this classification, already known to the Aitareyopaniṣad (3.3), and also found in the Manusmṛti (1.4–46) and many other works; a less common threefold scheme (aṇḍaja, jīvaja, ubbhijja) occurs in the Chāndogyopaniṣad (6.3.1). Cf. Su.Sū.1.22; Bhela Śa.4.4 and 5.2. The four classes

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correspond to the four yonis of Buddhist literature (see, for instance: Milindapañha in I.B. Horner, 1963: I, 177–179), with this difference that the fourth class is called opapātika in Pali, (a)upapāduka in Sanskrit texts. See on the classifications of living beings: S.Ch. Banerji (1972): 14–17, (1991): 73–77; J.L. Bhaduri, K.K. Tiwari, Biswamoy Biswas (1971): 425–434; F. Edgerton's Buddhist hybrid Sanskrit dictionary (s.vv. upapāduka and aupapāduka); the Pali dictionaries (s.v. opapātika and yoni); E. Frauwallner (1956): 267; W. Halbfass (1980): 292–295, (1991): 317–320; E. Hultzsch (1919): 224–226; R.F.G. Müller (1935); H.S. Rao (1957); P. Rolland (1972): 130–131; A. Roṣu (1978): 181–182; B. Seal in B.K. Sarkar (1974): I, 318–328; B. Seal (1985): 177–201; A.M. Shastri (1969): 292–293; B.K. Smith (1991); S. Sundara Rajan (1988); Vishnu-Mittre (1970); Wilson's translation of the Viṣṇupurāṇa 31, n.5; E. Windisch (1908): 191–192; H.Zimmer (1879): 74–77. See for the Jaina terminology: C. Caillat (1965): 298; P.S. Jaini (1980): 222–224; H.S. Rao (1957): 258–259, 279; B. Seal (1985); W. Schubring (1962): 139–142; S. Stevenson (1970): 99–101. See also Bhāgavatapurāṇa 3.10 (Sanyal's translation I, 173–174). 82 The embryo, as an assemblage of various parts, is compared to a kūṭāgāra and a chariot (3.14). See Cakra on different interpretations of kūṭāgāra. The cire-perdue method of casting images is referred to at 3.16; beeswax moulds are called madhūcchiṣṭavigraha.

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Beeswax (madhūcchiṣṭa, madhuśeṣa, sikthaka) is repeatedly employed in āyurveda (see, for example: Ca.Sū.3.22, 5.25, Ci.7.121, 11.7; A.h.Ci.3.75, 19.78 and 84). See on the uses of wax in India: P.K. Gode (1952c). See on cire-perdue casting in India: M.V. Krishnan (1976); A. Michaelis (1986); M.K. Pal (1978): 55–61, 206–219. 83 Cf. Su.Śā.3. See on Indian embryology, dealt with in many non-medical texts as well: R. Barkhuis (1995): I, 171–173; Bhagwan Dash (1975a); C. Caillat (1974); J. Jolly (1901): 53–55 (C.G. Kashikar 66–68); Jyotir Mitra (1985): 296–298; N.H. Keswani (1963); F.B.J. Kuiper (1970); R.F.G. Müller (1928): 248–249 and (1955a); P. Rolland (1972); W. Schubring (1962): 141–142; E. Windisch (1908): 87–89. See also H. Fasbender (1897): 41–48. Non-medical texts dealing with embryology are, for example: the Garbhopaniṣad, Piṇḍopaniṣad, Mahābhārata (see J.J. Meyer, 1952: 367–371), Agnipurāṇa, Pretakalpa of the Garuḍapurāṇa. A Buddhist text discussing embryology is the Garbhasūtra (see F. Huebotter, 1932). 84 Cf. Ca.Śā.1. Four mahābhūtas are mentioned at Ca.Śā.2.26. Cf. Su.Śā.3.3. 85 I.e., the ātman; numerous synonyms are listed. See A. Roṣu (1978): 161. 86 Guṇa means guṇin (= mahābhūta) here according to Cakra. 87 Compare Ca.Śā.4.5–8 and Su.Śā.3.4. 88 The Samgītaratnākara of Śārṅgadeva (adhyāya 1, piṇḍotpattiprakaraṇa 23ab) calls it a kalala, because it is still a fluid mass. Cf. Su.Śā.3.18. 89 See on piṇḍa: W.D. O'Flaherty (1980b): 6–9; C. Suneson (1991).

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90 Ghana means that it is like a granthi (a kind of tumour); it may be elongated like a peśī or globular like an arbuda (a kind of tumour) (see Cakra). See on the terms for stages of the development of the embryo in Pali literature: I.B. Horner (1963): I, 55, n.1; C. Suneson (1991). The Samgītaratnākara of Śārṅgadeva (adhyāya 1, piṇḍotpattiprakaraṇa 23cd) employs the terms ghana piṇḍa, peśī and iṣadghana arbuda; one of its commentaries, the Kalānidhi of Kallinātha, explains arbuda as a structure resembling the bud (mukula) of a śālmalī flower. See for the stages of embryonal development and the terms designating them found in the pariśiṣṭa of Yāska's Nirukta, the Mahābhārata, Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa (11. 2–3), Vāyupurāṇa, Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa (II.114.1–5), Śrīdharī's commentary on the Bhāgavatapurāṇa, Sureśvara's Taittirīyopaniṣadbhāṣyavārttika, and Vaidyarāja's Sukhabodha: C. Suneson (1991). 91 See Bhagwan Dash (1975a): 7–8. 92 Cf. Su.Śā.3.18. Compare also Saṃgītaratnākara 1.2.24cd–26ab. See Bhagwan Dash (1975a): 8–9. 93 Laghu is usually a property of vāta (see Ca.Sū.1.59). 94 Compare Ca.Śā.3.10, where preraṇa is ātmaja. 95 Cf. Ca.Śā.5.5 and 7.16. Compare Ca.Śā.4.12 and Su.Śā.1.19. 96 The cravings of a pregnant woman are usually called dohada. See on dohada: M. Bloomfield (1920); O. Böhtlingk (1901a); J.C. Jain (1947): 149–150; H. Lüders (1898): 2–5; G. Obeyesekere (1963); K.A. Padhye (1924); N.M. Penzer (1924c): I, 221–228.

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A particular dohada was regarded as a sign pointing to the future character of the child; see on this subject: M. Bloomfield (1920): 6–7; Thusa Jātaka (No. 338). Dohada is a phenomenon also occurring in trees; see M. Bloomfield (1920); J. Gonda (1963): 260; R. Krishnamurthy (1995): 337–338; J.J. Meyer (1937): I, 237, Anm. 1, and III, 222; N.M. Penzer (1924): I, 221; K.R. Pisharoti (1935a); R. Syed (1990): 83. See on the longings of pregnant women in Graeco-Roman medicine: E.D. Baumann (1934a): 256–257; P. Diepgen (1937): 158–159. 97 Cf. Su.Śā.3.18–21. See on Indian attitudes towards the cravings: N. Rizvi (1986): 235–236. 98 Cf. Su.Śā.3.14–15. 99 Cf. Su.Śā.3.16. 100 See Bhagwan Dash (1975a): 9. 101 Cf. Su.Śā.3.30. See also Saṃgītaratnākara 1.2.36cd–38ab. 102 See on the duration of pregnancy in the Indian tradition: R.F.G. Müller (1928): 237–238. 103 Cf. Ca.Śā.6.23; Su.Śā.3.31. 104 A macerated child (pūtiprajā) is born in such a case. 105 A vārttā is a child with largely female characteristics without being fully female. Cakra did no longer understand the precise meaning of the term. 106 A tṛṇaputrika is a predominantly, but not fully, male child. 107 Cf. Su.Śā.1.18. Compare the classification of Manusmṛti 12.40–51. 108 The Bṛhatsaṃhitā describes a surasattva (67.111cd). 109 A related type, called niśācarasattva, is described in the Bṛhatsaṃhitā (67.113ab). 110 A piśācasattva is described in the Bṛhatsaṃhitā (67.113cd).

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111 A related type, called tiraścinasattva, is described in the Bṛhatsaṃhitā (67.114ab). 112 Cf. Su.Śā.4.81–98ab; Saṃgītaratnākara 1.2.72–74. See on the sattva typology: K.C. Dube, A. Kumar and S. Dube (1983); S.P. Gupta (1977): 330–340; S. Lienhard (1959): 86–90; G.J. Meulenbeld (1997): 197–199; R.F.G. Müller (1964b); R.K. Sen (1954); M.G. Weiss (1980): 107–108. Compare the descriptions of persons with a surasabhāva, narasabhāva, ndharvapakṛti, yakṣapakṛti, rākṣasasabhāva, piśācapakṛti, narasabhāva, kapipakṛti, ahisabhāva, kharapakṛti, bīḍālasabhāva, and siṃhapakṛti (5.33–44). Compare also the sāttvika, rājasa and tāmasa types of beings in L. Rocher (1980): 66–67. 113 Vibhūti is rendered as greatness (Gulabkunverba; P.V. Sharma) and potentiality (R.K. Sharma and Bhagwan Dash). 114 Cakra says that Dakṣa, one of the Prajāpatis, which, in itself, is not unusual (see A. Holtzmann, 1884, 232). See on the mind-born sons of Brahmā, called the Prajāpatis: G.

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Bailey (1983): 61–62; A. Holtzmann (1884): 207; J.E. Mitchiner (1982); H.H. Wilson's translation of the Viṣṇupurāṇa (42–43). 115 This statement may be remarkable, because Brahmā is often identified with the ahaṃkāra (see G. Bailey, 1983). See on ahaṃkāra: M. Biardeau (1965); J.A.B. van Buitenen (1957a). See on ahaṃkāra in the Carakasamhitā: A. Roṣu (1978). 116 The solar deity in this context. 117 Compare Ca.Sū.6.4–8; ādāna is the characteristic of the half of the year in which the sun courses northwards (udagayana, uttarāyaṇa). Cakra explains ādāna by grahaṇa (grasping). 118 See on these deities, usually eight in number, for example: Dowson; A.T. Gopinatha Rao (1971): II, 2, 550–553; Hopkins; M. and J. Stutley (1977). 119 See on these deities: H.W. Bodewitz (1973): 88–89; L. Renou (1963). 120 See on Ca.Śā.5.5: A. Roṣu (1978): 133–134. Compare the adhyātmadevatās of the Bhelasaṃhitā (Śā.7.8). 121 See on the meaning of loka in this context: A. Roṣu (1978): 136. 122 Sarvaloko 'ham iti viditvā. 123 Compare Ca.Śā.2.44cd on these terms. 124 Compare Buddhacarita 12.24 (and the notes in E.H. Johnston's translation). 125 Compare Cakra ad Ca.Sū.1.49. 126 These secretions are not called mala when they serve to lubricate body canals (srotas), says Cakra. 127 Excessive pāka occurs when the transforming fires are too great in intensity. Cakra remarks that some read aparipakva, which would mean that dhātus loaded with too much immature matter (āma) are included into the malas. 128 Cakra says that excitation denotes both increase and decrease; this meaning of (pra)kopa would be very unusual. 129 Cakra remarks that faeces, etc., if not exceeding their proper measure, should be included. 130 Or the guda in the vicinity of the pakvāśaya, i.e., the uttaraguda (Cakra). 131 One of these is the ojas (Cakra). 132 Cf. Bhela Śā.4.30; Su.Śā.3.32. 133 Cf. Bhela Śā.4.32. 134 Explained as niṣyanda (oozing out) by Cakra; he characterizes it as dhātuniṣyanda in his comments ad Ca.Śā.4.27. The term upasneha is used in the same context in the Suśrutasaṃhitā (Śā.3.31) and Aṣṭāṅgasaṃgraha (Śā.2.16, 17). It also occurs at Su.Ni. 7.6cd–7ab, where Gayadāsa and Ḍalhaṇa regard it as the transudation, the leakage of fluids, from a new pitcher. Compare the Madhukośa ad Mādhavanidāna 35.21–24, where upasneha elucidates the pathological processes in parisrāvyudara and dakodara. 135 The term is used in the same context at Ca.Śā.4.27, where Cakra compares it with the hatching of eggs. Compare A.S.Śā.2.16. 136 Cakra says that it is called amarā in the vernacular; compare Cakra ad Ca.Śā.3.6, where he equates jarāyu with amarā (incorrectly, according to P.V. Sharma's critical notes). Compare also Ḍalhaṇa ad Su.Śā.4.24 (aparā = amalā or amarā) and Ci.15.17 (aparā = jarāyu = āvala); Aruṇa ad A.h.Śā.1.84 (jarāyu = aparā) and 2.39 (aparā = jarāyu); glosses ad Bhāvaprakāśa, cikitsā 3.206 (aparā = śrīvara) and 70.131 (aparā = ǎmbara). 137 Cf. Ca.Śā.4.27; Su.Śā.3.31. 138 Cf. Ca.Vi.3.38. 139 Cf. Bhela Śā.7; Su.Śā.7.

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