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The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus c4.s6: The Nyáya-Vaiseshika Chemical Theory: A Brief Summary

The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus c4.s6

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The Nyáya-Vaiseshika Chemical Theory: A Brief Summary

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I must content myself here with a brief and rapid sketch of the chemistry of the Nyáya-Vaiseshika, which I shall elaborate in connection with the mechanics and physics of the ancient Hindus in a separate paper.

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The relation of the specific characters of molecules (and higher aggregates) to the original atomic qualities is reduced in the Nyáya-Vaiseshika to the following canons: (*a*) कार्य्यगुणं कारणगुणपूर्वकम्। (*b*) समानजातीयसंयोगः द्रव्यारम्भकः न विजातीयसंयोगः (here द्रव्य is used in a narrow technical sense, so as to exclude the quasi-compound substances); (*c*) अपाकजरूपरसगन्धस्पर्शपरिमाणैकत्वैकपृथक्त्वगुरुत्वद्रवत्वस्नेहवेगाः कारणगुणपूर्व्वकाः। (*d*) रूपरसगन्धानुष्णास्पर्शशब्द-परिमाणैकत्वैक- पृथक्वस्नेहाः समानजात्यारम्भकाः । No separate explanation is necessary, as the canons are embodied in the following exposition.

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*Theory of Atomic Combination.*—Atoms are eternal, ultimate, indivisible, and infinitesimal.

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The four kinds of Atoms are Earth, Ap, Tejas, and Váyu atoms, possessed of characteristic mass, numerical unit, weight, fluidity (or its opposite), viscosity (or its opposite), velocity (or quantity of impressed motion—Vega); also characteristic potential colour, taste, smell, or touch, not produced by the chemical operation of heat (अपाकजरूपरसगन्धस्पर्शपरिमाणैकत्वैकपृथक्त्वगुरुत्वद्रवत्वस्नेहवेगाः). Ákása has no atomic structure (निरवयव), and is absolutely inert (निष्क्रिय), being posited only as the substratum of sound, which is supposed to travel wave-like in the manifesting medium or vehicle of Váyu (air). Only the other four Bhútas unite (or disunite) in atomic or molecular forms. The orthodox view is that the presence of Earth-atoms is necessary whenever chemical transformation under the operation of heat (पाकजोत्पत्ति) takes place.

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Atoms cannot exist in an uncombined state in creation (Síváditya, Sapta-padárthí, *vide* commentary), where, however, it is noted that still atmospheric air is believed to be monatomic in structure, *i.e.* to consist of masses of atoms in a loose uncombined state (स्तिमितवायुस्तु परमाणुसमूह एव अनारब्धद्रव्यः).

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The atoms may combine in one or other of the following ways:—

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I. One Earth-atom, by an original tendency, unites with another to form a binary molecule (द्वयणुक). In the same way binary molecules of the other Bhútas are formed. The atoms are possessed of an inherent Parispanda (rotary or vibratory motion), and when they unite in pairs, *so long as there is no chemical operation under the action of heat-corpuscles*, the original qualities of the atoms produce homogeneous qualities in the binary molecules.

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The question as to the existence of a triad, a tetrad, a pentad, etc., of atoms is one of the moot points of the Nyáya-Vaisesnika. The orthodox view is that the primordial infinitesimal particles (atoms) start with an incessant vibratory motion (अनवरतपरिस्पन्दमानापरिमितपवनादिपरमाणवः, Raghunátha Siromani ; गतिशीलत्वात् पतन्नव्यपदेशाः पतन्तीति, Udayana, Kusumáñjali) and an inherent impulse that drives them to unite in pairs—a sort of "monovalency," as it were, exhausted with the formation of a binary molecule. The binary molecules now combine by threes, fours, fives, etc., to form larger aggregates as well as the variety of elementary substances, the particular collocation in any case being not only determined by physical causes, but also serving to satisfy the ends of the moral law in creation (अदृष्ट, कम्म). (द्वयगुकैर्बहुभिरारभ्यते इत्यपि नियमो, न द्वाभ्यां । बहुत्वनियमः । कदाचित् त्रिभिरारभ्यते इति त्र्यणुकमित्युच्यते, कदाचिच्चतुर्भिरारभ्यते कदाचित् पञ्चभिरिति यथेष्टं कल्पना । अदृष्टवशात् तथा तथा तेषां व्यूहो यथा यथा तदारब्धेषु अपरजातयो व्यज्यन्ते । अदृष्टकारिता सर्व्वभावानां सृष्टिः ।—Srídhara, Nyáya-Kandalí, पृथिवीनिरूपणम् । *Cf.* Váchaspati's report, Bhámatí, Chap. II., Pada II., Sutra 2. यदा चतुरणुकमारभते चतुर्णी द्वयणुकानामारम्भकत्वात्।) Prasastapáda appears to have originated this view (परमाणुद्वयणुकेषु बहुत्वसंख्या—तैरारब्धे त्र्यणुकादिलक्षणे—Prasastapáda, परिमाणनिरूपणम्) ; but that another view was also maintained in the Vaiseshika school is evident from the brief summary of Kanáda's system given in Utpala's commentary on the Vrihatsamhitá, and this indeed also follows from Śrídhara's admissions in the Kandalí. On this view, also, atoms have an inherent tendency to unite; but some unite in pairs, others in triads, others in tetrads, etc. This may happen in two ways—either by the atoms falling into groups of threes, fours, etc., direct, or by the successive addition of one atom to each preceding aggregate.

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A triad (Tryanuka), then, holds together three atoms (Anus), not three binary molecules (Dvyanukas), as on the orthodox hypothesis. Similarly with tetrads, pentads, etc. (चतुर्विधाः परमाणवः क्षितिजलाग्निवारूनाम् । द्वाभ्यां परमाणुभ्यां द्व्यणुकमारभ्यते त्रिभिः परमाणुभिस्त्र्यणुकमारभ्यते इति क्रमेण स्थूलकार्यद्रव्यस्योत्पत्तिः ।—Utpala, Chap. I., Śloka 7; *cf.* also Śrídhara's admission, अथवा यदि परमाणवो द्व्यणुकमारभ्य तत्सहिता- स्तत्र्यणुकमारभन्ते त्र्यणुकसहितास्तु द्रव्यान्तरम् तथापि कुतो विष्वस्य व्यवहणम्). Śaṅkara seems to speak of two binary molecules in the Vaiseshika as forming a tetrad (यदापि द्वे द्व्यणुके चतुरणुकमारेभेते—Śáríraka-Bháshya, Chap. II., Pada XX., Sutra 2, where the Bhámati gives a forced interpretation).

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In Prasastapáda's view, these binary molecules are grouped by threes, fours, fives, etc. (त्र्यणुक, चतुरणुक) to form different isomeric modifications. The variety of Earth substances is due to differences in the arrangements of the molecules (*e.g.* their greater or less density, and, above all, their grouping or col-location, व्यूह, अवयवसनिवेश), which account for the specific characters (अपरजाति) manifested by these isomeric substances. सा (पृथिवी) च स्थैर्य्याद्यवयवसनिवेशविशिष्टा

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अपरजातिबहुत्वोपेता । — Prasastapáda, पृथिवीनिम्पणम् । स्थैर्ध्यं निविड़त्वम् । आदिशब्दात् प्रशिथिलत्वादिपरिग्रहः । परमाण्वादिषु अपरजात्यभावेऽपि अदृष्टवशात् तथा तथा तेषां व्यूहः यथा यथा तदारब्धेषु अपरजातयो व्यज्यन्ते ।—Śrídhara, Kandalí, *ibid.*

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स्थैर्यं स्थिरता चिरकालानावस्थायित्वमिति यावत् । आदिय्रहणाद्विष्टम्भकत्वं जलादिव्यूहविरोधित्वश्च । अवयवसनिवेशाः तत्तत्सामान्यविशेषामिव्यञ्जकसंस्थानविशेषाः । न हि एतद्द्रव्यान्तरे सम्भवति । जलादीनां यत्किश्चित्स्पर्शवद्द्रवे गवद्द्रव्योपनिपातमात्रेणैव भङ्गुरत्वात् ।—Udayana, Kiranávali, *ibid.*

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These original differences in molecular grouping, leading to distinctions of genera and species, however mechanically or physically explained, come also under the operation of moral and metaphysical causes (अदृष्ट, कर्म्म), *i.e.* of ideal ends in the moral government of the Universe, which are superimposed upon the physical order, but which do not come within the scope of Natural Philosophy. An elementary substance thus produced by primary atomic combination may, however, suffer qualitative change under the influence of heat (पाकजोत्पत्ति). The process is as follows :—(1) The impact of heat-corpuscles decomposes the binary (tertiary, or quaternary) molecules into homogeneous atoms possessing only the generic characters of the Bhúta concerned ; (2) the impacts of heat-particles continue, and transform the characters of the atoms, determining them all in the same way ; (3) the heat-particles continue to impinge, and reunite the atoms so transformed to form binary (or other) molecules, in different orders or arrangements, which account for the specific characters or qualities finally produced. The Vaiseshika holds that there is decomposition into homogeneous atoms, transformation of atomic qualities, and finally re-combination, all under the influence of heat (पिलुपाक). The Nyáya, on the other hand, thinks that the molecules and larger aggregates assume the new characters under the influence of heat without decomposition into homogeneous atoms or change of atomic characters (पिठरपाक).

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तेषामनुमानेन विनाशः परिकल्प्यते। सर्व्वावयवेषु अन्तर्व्वहिच पाकपूर्व्वकपूर्व्वरूपादिविलक्षणगुणोपलब्धेरन्तःप्रवेशः कृशानोरनुमीयते तेन वेगवता वह्निद्रव्येण नोदनात् अभिघातात् वा नूनं घटारम्भकेषु अवयवेषु क्रिया जायते क्रियातो विभागः विभागात् द्रव्यारम्भकसंयोगविनाशः। तद्विनाशात् द्रव्यविनाशः। पश्चाच्च श्यामादिगुणानवजहतः रक्तादिगुणान्तरयोगमनुभवन्तः—अदृष्टप्रेर्थ्यमाणाः परस्परं संयुज्य द्व्यणुकादिक्रमेण तादृशमेव घटादिकार्य्यमारभन्ते। एवं तपनातपदृश्यमानेषु चाम्रादिफलेषु एष एव न्यायः। शरीरे अपि उदर्येण तेजसा पच्यमानेषु अन्नपानादिषु रसमलधातुभावेन परिणाममुपगच्छत्सु प्रायेण प्रतिक्षणमुत्पादविनाशौ संभवत इति। (Jayanta, Nyáyamañjarí, भूतचतन्य-पूर्व्वपक्ष.) This is the Vaiseshika view, but Jayanta himself inclines to the opposite view: प्रकृतिसुस्थिरतयैव कार्य्यद्रव्यस्य घटादेः आरम्भात् अन्तस्तेजःकणानुपवेशकृतपाकोपपत्तेः अलं विनाशकल्पनया। पिठरपाकपक्ष एव पेषलः। *ibid.* The Nyáya view: ये वीजायवयवास्ते पूर्व्वव्यूहपरित्यागेन व्यूहान्तरमापद्यन्ते व्यूहान्तरापत्तौ च पृथिवीधातुरब्धातुना संगृहीत आन्तरेण तेजसा पच्यमानो रसद्रव्यं निर्वर्त्तयति स रसः पूर्व्वावयवसहितोऽङ्कुरादिभावमापद्यते। परमाण्ववस्थानि वीजानि भवन्तीत्येतन्न प्रतिपद्यामहे। यस्माच्चात्यादिवोजमुच्छूनावस्थामादिं कृत्वा यावदुपान्त्यं शालिवीजकार्य्यं तावन्न कदाचित् परमाण्ववस्थं भवति। यदि तु स्यात् कदाचित् नोपलभ्येत।—Udyotakara, Chap. III., Áhnika 1, Sutra 4.

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II. *Chemical Combination* (सम्भूयक्रिया, संहतक्रिया).—Chemical combination takes place either between two or more substances which are isomeric modifications of the same Bhúta, or between substances which are modes of different Bhútas.

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A. *Mono-Bhautic Compounds.*—The simplest compounds are mono-Bhautic compounds, *i.e.* compounds of different substances which are isomeric modes of the same Bhúta.

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(a) Mono-Bhautic compounds of the first order. Under the impact or impulse (अभिघात or नोदन) of heat-corpuscles, the substances in chemical contact (आरम्भक संयोग) break up into their atoms. These atoms are homogeneous, possessing only the original physical and chemical characters of the Bhúta concerned. As the specific differences between isomeric substances arise from the arrangement or collocation of the atoms, the substances lose their distinctive marks on decomposition into the latter. (न च परमाणुषु अपरजातिभेदो विद्यते न च यववीजशालिवीजपरमाणूनां कश्चिद्विशेषः।—Udyotakara, Chap. III., Áhnika 1, Sutra 4. न च शुक्रशोणितपरमाणूनां कश्चिद्विशेषः पार्थिवत्वाविशेषात्।—Śrídhara, Nyáya-Kandalí, पृथिवीनिरूपणम्।) Under the continued impact (or, it may be, impulse) of heat-particles (वेगवता वह्निद्रव्येण नादनात् अभिघातात् वा—Jayanta), these atoms take on new characters. It is heat, and heat alone, that can cause this transformation of the colours, tastes, smells, etc., in these original Bhúta-atoms. What particular colours, tastes, smells, or physical characters will be produced in the atoms depends (1) on the colours, etc., of the constituent substances in contact; (2) the intensity or degree of the heat (खर, मृदु, or मध्यम पाक); and (3) the species of Tejas-corpuscles that impinge on the atoms, or the nature of the impact (विलक्षणतेजःसंयोग). (न ब्रूमोऽग्निसंयोगात् कस्मात् रूपाद्य इति अपि तु पूर्वरूपादिविशेषापेक्षात् । यद्द्रव्यं पच्यते अग्निसंयोगेन तस्य ये पूर्वरूपाद्यस्तेषां यः स्वगतो विशेषस्तमपेक्षमाणः अग्निसंयोगः उत्तरान् रूपादीन् विशिष्टानारभते । *Vide* also Udyotakara, III., 2, Sutra 14. *Cf.* also Váchaspati, I., 1, Sutra 4. अस्माकमभेदे अपि उपादानस्य पिठरस्य ओष्यापराख्यस्य च वह्निःसंयोगस्य पूर्वरूपादिप्रध्वंसानां कारणानां भेदात् भिन्नजातीया जायन्ते गन्धरूपरसस्पर्शा इति सिद्धान्तः ।)

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Now when the atoms have all been determined in the same way, they begin to re-combine again under the impact (or impulse) of the heat-particles in binary molecules (or tertiary, etc.), and these in higher aggregates. It seems to be generally held that at the final step one or more atoms of one constituent substance unite with one or more atoms of the other constituent substance or substances to form a molecule of the compound; but the question is not of much significance for mono-Bhautic compounds of the first order, as in these cases the atoms have before this all lost their distinctive characters and become homogeneously transformed. The compound so produced will possess the new characters of the transformed atoms, so far as taste, colour, smell, etc., are concerned, but as the molecular arrangement or structure (व्यूह, अवयवसनिवेश) may vary, different compound substances may result from the same components.

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(*b*) Mono-Bhautic compounds of higher orders. Again, mono-Bhautic compounds of the first order may chemically combine to form higher compounds, and as the ultimate Bhúta substratum is the same, the process of decomposition and re-composition will be essentially the same as before. The only doubtful point is whether in this case the component compound substances are broken up only into their constituent molecules, or into the original homogeneous Bhúta-atoms. Some of the later Vaiseshika scholiasts hold that the latter happens in every case of chemical composition, however complex, but the earlier Vaiseshika conceived that in the case of compounds of compounds the decomposition does not proceed so far as the original Bhúta-atoms, but that it is the specifically determined atoms constituting the molecules of the component compounds that are transformed under the impact of the heat-corpuscles; and then one such transformed atom (one or more according to another version) from the molecule of one component unites with one similarly transformed atom (one or more according to the other version) from the molecule of the other component. Prasastapáda, the great Vaiseshika doctor, holds this view. When, for example, in the fertilised ovum, the germ and the sperm substances, which, in the Vaiseshika view, are both isomeric modes of Earth (with accompaniments of other Bhútas), unite, both are broken up into homogeneous Earth-atoms, and it is these that chemically combine under the animal heat (and biomotor Enery, वायु) to form the germ-plasm (कलल). But, next, when the germ-plasm develops, deriving its nutrition from the chyle (blood) of the mother, the animal heat breaks up the molecules of the germ-plasm into its constituent atoms (कललारम्भकपरमाणवः), *i.e.* into atoms specifically determined, which by their grouping formed the germ-plasm, and then these germ-plasm atoms as radicles chemically combine with the atoms of the food-constituents, and thus produce cells and tissues. (समुत्पन्नपाकजैः कललारम्भकपरमाणुभिः अदृष्टवशात् उपजातक्रियैः आहारपरमाणुभिः सह सम्भूय शरीरान्तरमारभ्यते इत्येषा कल्पना। पितुः शुक्रं मातुः शोणितं तयोः सन्निपातानन्तरं

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जठरानलसम्बन्धात् शुक्रशोणितारम्भकेषु परमाणुषु पूर्वरूपादिविनाशे सति समानगुणान्तरोत्पत्तौ द्व्यणुकादिप्रक्रमेण कललशरीरोत्पत्तिः। ... तत्र मातुराहाररसः मायया संक्रामति अदृष्टवशात् तत्र पुनर्जठरानलसम्बन्धात् कललारम्भकपरमाणुषु क्रियाविभागादिन्यायेन कललशरीरे नष्टे समुत्पन्नपाकजैः कललारम्भकपरमाणुभिः अदृष्टवशात् उपजातक्रियैः आहारपरमाणुभिः सह सम्भूय शरीरान्तरमारभ्यते इत्येषा कल्पना।—Śrídhara, Kandalí, पृथिवीनिरूपणम्।) In this hypothesis (कल्पना) it is assumed that the atoms are similarly transformed, *i.e.* become endowed with the colour, taste, smell, etc., of the product (the cell or tissue) the moment before the chemical combination takes place. Similarly, when milk is transformed into curd, one view is that the transformation takes place (under internal heat) in the constituent atoms of the milk-molecules, atoms specifically determined as milk, and not in the original atoms of the Bhúta (or Bhútas) entering into the composition of milk. (*Cf.* एवं महादुग्धारम्भकैः परमाणुभिरेव दध्यारभ्यते। एकमहिषेव दध्यारम्भकैरेव परमाणुभिर्नवनीतारम्भः इति दिक्। Nyáyabodhiní, on Annam Bhatta's Tarkasangraha. *Cf.* Dinakarí—द्व्यणुक रूपदुग्धध्वंसजन्यत्वेऽपि तस्य (दध्नः)।) In these cases the atomic contact is called constituent contact (आरम्भकसंयोग), and all the atoms are equally regarded as material causes (उपादानकारण or समवायिकारण) of the compound.

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B. *Hetero-Bhautic “Quasi-compounds.”*—The Nyáya-Vaiseshika maintains that in the case of bi-Bhautic (or poly-Bhautic) compounds, which are only quasi-compounds, there is another kind of contact between the heterogeneous atoms of the different Bhútas, which may be called dynamic contact, and is distinguished in its operations as Upashtambha, Vishtambha, or Avashtambha (उपष्टम्भ, विष्टम्भ, or अवष्टम्भ). In some cases it so happens that the atoms of different isomeric modes of the same Bhúta do not chemically combine under the mere application of heat; they require to be surrounded (and “excited,” “energized”) by atoms of different Bhútas. For example, in the case of the oils and fats, as well as of plant saps and fruit juices, the Earth-atoms must be dissolved in water (Ap), and it is only when the water-atoms (Ap-atoms) congregate round the former that dynamic intra-atomic forces are set up, and the Earth-atoms (with the water-atoms in dynamic contact) now take on peculiar infra-sensible characters (colours, tastes, smells) under the impact of the heat-corpuscles, and then, under further impact, fall into groupings or collocations (of a very peculiar nature, to be presently explained) which determine the nature of the composite substance thus produced. Here it is the water-atoms that are dynamic (उपष्टम्भक), and excite the Earth-atoms, and these substances, oils and fats (तैलवर्ग and घृतवर्ग), as well as acids (अम्लवर्ग) are, because of the Earth-radicles, regarded as Earth compounds (or Earth substances). (पाकज-तथाविधगन्धरसरूपादिमद्भिः परमाणुभिर्द्व्यणुकादिक्रमेण घृतादिद्रव्यमारभ्यते । तत्र च उपष्टम्भकतया निमित्ततामापन्नाः पानीयावयवाः । तेषां संयुक्तसमवायेन स्नेहस्तत्रोपलभ्यते । तैलक्षीरादिषु पार्थिवत्वसिद्धिः । तैलस्य भौमानलेन्धनत्वात् घृतवत्।—Udayana.) In the above instances, Ap (water) acts as dynamic (Upashtambhaka, उपष्टम्भक), but Tejas and Váyu can also act in the same way on Earth-particles. Conversely, Earth-particles may act dynamically on the atoms of the other Bhútas. For example, in the case of mercury and the metals which are conceived in the Nyáya-Vaiseshika to be igneous bodies (in fact, they are supposed to be formed under the subterranean heat, चाकरज), the Tejas-corpuscles are believed to form the radicles, and the Earth-particles are dynamic (उपष्टम्भक). (सुवर्णादि निरन्तरं ध्मायमानमपि न पूर्वरूपं जहाति । तेनैव द्रव्यान्ररेण प्रतिबङ्घत्वात् उपष्टम्भकोऽपि पार्थिवभागः सदृशरूप एवानुवर्त्तते, यत्तु पुटपाकादिना रक्तसारता दृश्यते तन्मिश्रीभूताभिभावकतत्तद्द्रव्योपगमात् । एतेन पारदादि व्याख्यातम् ।—Udayana, Kiraṇávalí, तेजोनिरूपणम् । *Cf.* also योऽपि तैजसमिच्छति सुवर्णं तेनाप्यत्र पार्थिवोभाग उपष्टम्भक दृष्टव्यः ।)

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It may be here noted that Gaṅgeśa, the author of the Tattvachintámaṇi, conjectures that even gold can be evaporated or made to disappear by the application of intense heat: अथ द्रुतद्रुततरादेः क्रमशः प्रतीतेः प्रबलानलसंयोगेन सुवर्णनाशात् तद्द्रवता नश्यति । But Mathuránátha notes here : भस्मप्राक्कालोच्छेदसमये । (सन्निकर्षवादरहस्य).

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But while every Bhúta can act dynamically as उपष्टम्भक, "energizer," "exciter," it is the Earth Bhúta alone which is capable of exercising (1) the power of arrest or inhibition of molecular motion, or the motion of particles due to gravity as in fluids (Vishtambha, विष्टम्भ) ; or (2) the power of counteracting the tendency in a given set of atoms to fall into a peculiar order or group (व्यूहविरोधित्वम्). (न च पार्थिववत् अम्भो द्रव्यान्तरं गन्धद्रिङ्ग्ङधाति पूर्वव्यूहं वा विरुणद्धि।—Udayana, Kiranávalí, पृथिवी-निरूपणम्। विष्टम्भकत्वं स्वाभाविकगुरुत्वाश्रयद्रव्यान्तरगतिप्रतिबन्ध-कत्वम्। व्यूहविरोधित्वं च स्वाभाविकगुरुत्ववत्पतनप्रतिबन्धकत्वम्।—Vardhamána, Kiranávalíprakása, *ibid.*)

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*Oils, Fats, Milks.*—Bi-Bhautic quasi-compounds, with Ap as energizer: Oleaginous substances (आज्यतैलादयः स्नेहाः) are divided by Udayana into (1) oils derived from vegetables, (2) butters derived from milk, and (3) fats derived from animals. The medical schools, as we have seen, recognise animal oils as distinguished from vegetable oils. Vegetable fats (*e.g.* विङ्कघृत) are also mentioned. Váchaspati and Udayana contend that among oils, fats, milks, etc., differences in flavour and odour imply differences in kind (जाति) and in molecular structure, since it is only a variation in such structure that constitutes a variation in natural kind (अवयव-सन्निवेशः—तत्तत्सामान्यविशेषाभिव्यञ्जकसंस्थानविशेषाः—Udayana, Kiranávalí). Mustard-oil, for example, has not the flavour and smell characteristic of sesamum-oil (Taila), and is classed with the latter only by reason of similarity of specific qualities and structure. Judged by the flavour test, Ámikshá (the casein substance formed by mixing milk curd with hot boiled milk) is to be classed with milk substances. So also Takra, whey; but Vájina, the thin fluid that is left after the Ámikshá (casein substance) is separated, cannot be classed as milk. It may be added that the milks and curds, as well as oils and fats derived from different species of vegetables or animals, are supposed to differ in their ultimate structural arrangement, and therefore in kind; but Vallabha thinks that the ghees (clarified butters) prepared from different kinds of milk are of the same kind; in other words, the milks and curds are "polymeric," the ghees (clarified butters) "isomeric," using these terms, as before, in a loose general sense. (. . . . तैलघृतवसानां बीजक्षीरमांसयोनित्वात् । अतएव नारिके-लस्नेहस्यापि तैलत्वं रसादिसारूप्यादपि तु घृतव्यपदेशश्च।—Udayana, Kiranávalí, पृथिवीनिम्पणम् । Vallabha notes that ghees do not differ in kind as milks (and curds) do: अता माहिषगव्यादिदुग्धेषु दधितवत् घृतादिषु जातिभेदस्यास्त्वमिति चेन्न।—Vallabha, Lílávatí. Compare Váchaspati, II., 2, 65: आज्यतैलादीनां जातिस्तु गन्धेन वा रसेन वा व्यज्यते। अतएव न सार्षपादीनां तैलत्वमस्ति । तद्व्यञ्जकयोर्गन्धरसयोरभावात् । भाक्तस्तु तैलशब्द-योगः। क्षीरजातिरपि रसव्यङ्ग्यैव। अतएवामिक्षायाः क्षीरत्वम्। न तु वाजिनस्य तद्व्यञ्जकस्य रसभेदस्य वाजिने ऽभावात् आमिक्षायां च भावात्।)

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III. *Mixtures like Solutions, etc.*—A solution (of an Earth substance in Ap or water) is a physical mixture of a peculiar kind, from which evaporation (or precipitation) ordinarily sets the water free. Udyotakara notices gruels, baths, and lyes (alkaline solutions) as mixtures of this class (एतेन पाककाथिक्कविवेकावक्षारादयः प्रयुक्ताः—Udyotakara). A soup is also a physical mixture. When meat is boiled in water there is the application of heat with chemical changes in the meat, but the combination of meat particles and water particles in the soup is only physical combination and not a chemical one. It is, of course, not a true compound, neither is it a quasi-compound like milk (in which the water particles are “energizers” of the Earth particles). Milk, for example, retains its milky substance when it coagulates or becomes solid (this, of course, is also the case with mono-Bhautic substances whether elementary or compound, *e.g.* water, which becomes ice), but the substance we call a soup or solution ceases to be a soup or solution the moment it solidifies. (यूषो हि नाम उत्पन्नपाकजानां द्रव्याणां कालविशेषानुग्रहे सति द्रव्यान्रसंपृक्तानां पाकजोत्पत्तौ यः संयोगः स यूष इति । एतेन पाकजास्त्रिकविवेकावक्षारादयः प्रयुक्ताः।—Udyotakara, Vártika, Chap. I., Áhnika 1, Sutra 14. *Vide* also Váchaspati's comment: उत्पन्नपाकजानां तैले सर्पिषि वा पिष्टमांसपिण्डावयवानां द्रव्यानरेण तोयेन संयुक्तानां पाकजोत्पत्तौ सत्यां न चासौ सहसा इत्युक्तं कालविशेषानुग्रहे सतीति । स च संयोगभेदएव तोयमांसयोर्नतु अवयवी विजातीययोरनारम्भकत्वात् । नापि यूषजातीयं तोयसंयोगि द्रव्यं क्षीरजातीयमिवेति युक्तम् । तोयविरहे काठिन्येऽपि क्षीरबुद्धिव्यपदेशयोस्तादवस्थ्यात् । इह तु काठिन्ये न यूषबुद्धिव्यपदेशौ इति सम्बन्धभेद एव तोयमांसयोर्यूष इति न्याय्यम् । स च अनुभवसिद्धः संयोगिव्यतिरिक्तः।—Váchaspati, Tátparyyatíká, *ibid.* For earthy salts in sea-water, *vide* Kiranávalí: यत् पुनरम्बुधिसिन्धुभेदेन क्षारादिरपि रसः पायसे उपलभ्यते स दशमूलकषायस्येव पार्थिवद्रव्योपाधिकः । कथमम्यथा तस्यैव घनपीतमुक्तस्य रसो मधुर एव ।—Udayana, Kiranávalí, जलनिरूपणम् ।)

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*Chemical Action and Heat.*—The operation of heat is of course universally implied in chemical combinations. Where the application of external heat is wanting, Vátsyáyana, the great doctor of the Nyáya, points to the operation of internal heat (*e.g.* पृथिवीधातुः अब्धातुना संगृहीतः आन्तरेण तेजसा पच्यमानः रसद्रव्यं निर्वर्त्तयति।—Vátsyáyana-Bháshya, Chap. IV., Áhnika 1, Sutra 47). In the case of combustion we have seen Vijñánabhikshu explain the heat as latent in the Earth substance, the fuel, from which it breaks forth. Udayana points out that the solar heat is the source of all the stores of heat required for chemical change in the world. The change of colours in grasses, for example, is due to Tejas in the form of latent (invisible) heat, not in the form of Agni; and the cold in winter cannot take away this store derived from the sun. (तृणादिविकारो हि यदि रूपादिपरावृत्तिमात्रहेतुः स नूनमौष्ण्यापेक्षेण तेजसा कर्त्तव्यः। तादृश च पाके ऽनिमित्तं हिममिति। न किञ्चिदनिष्टमापद्यते। न हि सौरस्य तेजसः त्रैलोक्यपाकहेतोर्हिमादपगमः क्षमते। अथ विकारो भस्मादिरूपो विवक्षितः सोऽसिद्ध एव हिमहतेषु तृणादिषु क्व विरोधो बाधो वा। अथ रूपादिपरावृत्तिमात्रेणैव अग्निः साध्यते तदशक्यम्।

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तस्य दर्शनस्पर्शन-ग्राह्यस्य योग्यानुपलम्भबाधितत्वात् अतादृशस्य तेजोमात्रस्य निवृत्तेरशक्यत्वात् अनिष्टत्वात् च।—Udayana, Kiranávalí, सृष्टिसंहारविधिनिरूपणम्।) Similarly it is under this solar heat that the unripe mango ripens, *i.e.* changes colour, taste, smell, etc., showing that there is chemical transformation or subtile decomposition and recomposition going on; and this is also the case with the rusting of the metals, which is a combustion due to the solar heat (सूर्य्यपाक) even as the conversion of food into chyle and of chyle into blood are instances of chemical action due to the internal animal heat (जठरानल or औदर्य्यं तेजः). But the kind of contact with heat-corpuscles, in other words, the kind of chemical action (पाक) which transforms colours, is supposed to differ from that which transforms flavour (विलक्षणतेजःसंयोग and पाक), and this last from that which produces a change of smell, or tactile quality. (पाको नाम विजातीयतेजःसंयोगः। स च नानाजातीयः। रूपजनको विजातीयतेजःसंयोगस्तदपेक्षया रसजनको विजातीयः। एवं स्पर्शदौ अपि तथा। एवंप्रकारेण भिन्नभिन्नजातीयाः पाकाः कार्य्यवैलक्षण्येन कल्पनीयाः। तथाहि तृणपुञ्जनिक्षिप्ताम्रादौ उष्णालक्षणविजातीयतेजःसंयोगात् पूर्वेहरितरूपनाश रूपान्तरस्य पीतादेरुत्पत्तिः पूर्वरसस्य चाम्लस्यैवानुभवात्। क्वचित् पूर्वेहरितरूपसत्त्वेऽपि रसपरावृत्तिर्दृश्यते विजातीयतेजःसंयोगरूपपाकवशात् पूर्वेतनार्सरसनाशे मधुररसस्यानुभवात्।

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तस्माद्रूपजनकापेक्षया रसजनको विलक्षण एवं गन्धजनको विलक्षण एवाङ्गीकार्य्यः रूपरसयोरपरावृत्तौ अपि पूर्व्वगन्धनाशे विजातीयपाकवशात् सुरभिगन्धोपलम्भेः। एवं स्पर्शजनकोऽपि पाकवशात् कठिनस्पर्शनाशे मृदुस्पर्शनुभवात्। अतएव पार्थिवपरमाणूनामेकजातीयत्वेऽपि पाकमहिम्ना विजातीयद्रव्यान्तरानुभवः। यथा गोभुक्ततृणादीनां आपरमाण्वन्तं भङ्गे तृणारम्भकपरमाणुषु विजातीयतेजःसंयोगवशात् पूर्वरूपादिश्चतुष्टयनाशे तदनन्तरं दुग्धे यादृशं रूपादिकं वर्तते तादृशरूपरसगन्धस्पर्शजनकास्तेजःसंयोगा जायन्ते। तदनन्तरं तादृशरूपादय उत्पद्यन्ते। तादृशरूपादिविशिष्टपरमाणुभिर्दुग्धद्व्यणुकमारभ्यते। ततः त्र्यणुकादिक्रमेण महादुग्धारम्भइति।—Nyáyabodhiní on Annam Bhatta’s Tarkasangraha.) Heat- and light-rays are supposed to consist of indefinitely small particles which dart forth or radiate in all directions rectilineally with a sort of conical dispersion and with inconceivable velocity. They may either (1) penetrate through inter-atomic (or inter-molecular) spaces as in cases of conduction of heat, which when applied under the pot boils the water or fries the paddy, where there is no chemical action in the pot, no decomposition and recomposition of its atoms, no change in the molecular collocation;

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or, as with light-rays in cases of translucency or transparency (स्वच्छता), penetrate through the inter-atomic spaces with Parispanda of the nature of deflection or refraction (तिर्य्यग्गमन, Udyotakara), in the same way as when fluids penetrate through porous bodies (तत्र परिस्पन्दः तिर्य्यग्गमनं परिस्रवः पात इति—Udyotakara, commenting on Vátsyáyana's परिस्पन्दपरिस्रवौ, Sutra 47, Áhnika 1, Chap. III.); or (2) impinge on the atoms, and rebound back—which explains reflection (मूर्च्छेन, किरणविघट्टन—Varáhamihira, रश्मिपरावर्त्तन—Vátsyáyana), or otherwise be obstructed by the atoms in their path, which would explain degrees of opacity, the casting of shadows, etc., all these operations being also physical, and unattended by decomposition and recomposition or alteration of molecular grouping; or (3) lastly, strike the atoms in a peculiar way, so as to break up their grouping, transform the physico-chemical characters of the atoms, and again recombine them, all by means of continual impact with inconceivable velocity, an operation which explains all cases of chemical combination. (अचिन्त्यो हि तेजसो लाघवातिशयेन वेगातिशयः यत् प्राचीनाचलचूड़ावलम्बिनि एव भगवति मयूखमालिनि भवनोदरेषु आलोकइत्यभिमानो लौकिकानाम्।—Udayana, Kiranávalí, तेजोनिंरूपणम्, taken from Váchaspati, Tátparyyatíká, प्रत्यक्षलक्षणसूत्रम्। *Cf.* also चाक्षुषं तेजः वेगवता सावित्रेण तेजसा न प्रतिहन्यते।—Váchaspati. वर्त्तिदेशे पिण्डितमपि तेजः प्रसर्पत् प्रासादोदरं व्याप्नोति। तत् कस्य हेतोः पृथुयत्वात्।

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स्वभावतः प्रसरदपि न स्वपरिमाणानुविधायिनं प्रत्ययमाधत्ते किं तु विषयभेदानुविधायिनम्।—*ibid.* *Cf.* स्फटिकाद्यन्तरितोपलब्धिरपि प्रसादस्वभावतया स्फटिकादीनां तेजोगतेरप्रतिबन्धकतया प्रदीपप्रभावादेवोपपन्ना।—Udayana, तेजोनिंरूपणम्, in reply to the objection: यदि हि प्राप्य गृह्णीयात् प्रतिघातिना स्फटिकद्रव्येण विष्टम्भादप्राप्तं प्रसर्पत्तृणादिकं नाददीत तस्मादप्राप्यकारि ततो न तैजसम्।—Udayana, *ibid.* Definition of स्वच्छता—द्रव्यान्तरासम्युक्तरूपसमवायः स्वच्छता। दृष्टश्चाप्रतीघातः काचाभ्रपटलस्फटिकाद्यन्तरितोपलब्धेः। . . . . . स्थाल्यादिषु च पाचकस्य तेजसोऽप्रतीघातात्।—Udyotakara, Chap. III., Áhnika 1, Sutra 38. **चादित्यरश्मेः स्फटिकान्तरितेऽपि दाह्येऽविघातात् ।**—Sutra 47, where Udyotakara notes: **कोऽयमविघातः—यस्य द्रव्यस्यावयवा न व्यूह्यन्ते तस्य अन्त्तरावयवैः अव्यूह्यमानस्य योऽभिसम्बन्धः सोऽविघात इति ।** Váchaspati explains **यस्य द्रव्यस्य भर्ज्जनकपालादेः अवयवा न व्यूह्यन्ते पूर्व्वोत्पन्नद्रव्यारम्भकसंयोगनाशेन द्रव्यान्तरजनकसंयोगोत्पादनं व्यूहनं तन्न क्रियन्ते तस्य द्रव्यस्य भर्ज्जनकपालादेरव्यूह्यमानस्य अन्त्तरावयवैर्योगेऽभिसम्बन्धो वह्नेः सोऽप्रतिघातः ।** *Cf.* Vátsyáyana on Sutra 47, Áhnika 1, Chap. III. On the other hand, in chemical combination, **अन्तःप्रवेशः कृशानोरनुमीयते । जेन वेगवता वह्निद्रव्येण नोदनात् अभिघातात् वा अवयवेषु क्रिया, क्रियातो विभागः, विभागात् आरम्भकसंयोगविनाशः** etc.—Jayanta, Mañjarí, **भूतचैतन्यपूर्व्वपक्ष ।** For opacity, shadows, etc., *vide* **छाया तु तेजःपरमाणोरावरणात् मूर्त्तिमत्ता परमाणुना तेजःपरमाणुराव्रियते । यत्र च यस्य आवरखं तत्र छायेति ।

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विरलतेजःसम्बन्धीनि द्रव्यगुणकर्म्माणि छाया इत्यभिधीयते । सङ्गेतो व्यावृत्ततेजःसम्बन्धीनि तु तानि तमःसंज्ञकानि ।**—Udyotakara, Chap. IV., Áhnika 2, Sutra 25. For reflection and its laws, I quote passages in my Paper on Hindu Physics, to which the student of the history of Optics is referred.)

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*Arrangement of Atoms in Space.*—The Nyáya conceives atomic magnitudes as Párimándalya, a term which indicates a spherical shape. (**नित्यं परिमण्डलम्—परिमण्डलमेव पारिमाण्डल्यम्** — Sankararnisra). To conceive position in space, Váchaspati takes three axes, one proceeding from the point of sunrise in the horizon to that of sunset, on any particular day (roughly speaking, from the east to the west); a second bisecting this line at right angles on the horizontal plane (roughly speaking, from the north to the south); and the third proceeding from the point of their section up to the meridian position of the sun on that day (roughly speaking, up and down). The position of any point in space, relatively to another point, may now be given by measuring distances along these three directions, *i.e.* by arranging in a numerical series the intervening points of contact, the less magnitude or distance being that which comes earlier in this series, and the greater that which comes later. The position of any single atom in space with reference to another may be indicated in this way with reference to the three axes. But this gives only a geometrical analysis of the conception of three-dimensioned Space, though it must be admitted in all fairness that by dint of clear thinking it anticipates in a rudimentary manner the foundations of solid (co-ordinate) geometry. (एकत्वेऽपि दिशः आदित्योदयदेशप्रत्यासन्नदेशसंयुक्तो यः स इतरस्माद्विप्रकृष्टप्रदेशसंयोगात् परमाणोः पूर्व्वः एवमादित्यास्तमयदेशप्रत्यासन्नदेशसंयुक्तो यः स इतरस्माद्विप्रकृष्टदेशसंयोगात् परमाणोः पश्चिमः तौ च पूर्ब्वपश्चिमौ परमाणू अपेक्ष्य यः सूर्य्योदयास्तमयदेशविप्रकृष्टदेशसंयोगः स मध्यवर्ती। एवमेतयोर्यौ तिर्य्यग्देशसम्बन्धिनौ मध्यस्य च चार्जवेन व्यवस्थितौ पार्श्ववर्त्तिनौ तौ दक्षिणोत्तरौ परमाणू। एवं मध्यन्दिनवर्त्तिसूर्य्यसन्निकर्षविप्रकर्षौ अपेक्ष्य उपर्य्यधोभावो द्रष्टव्यः। संयुक्तसंयोगाल्पत्वभूयस्त्वे च सन्निकर्षविप्रकर्षौ पूर्ब्वसंख्यावच्छिन्नत्वं च अल्पत्वं परसंख्यावच्छिन्नत्वं च भूयस्त्वम्।—Váchaspati, Tátparyyatíká, Chap. IV., Áhnika 2, Sutra 25.)

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The original physical arrangement of atoms is also given. Each (spherical) atom is in contact with six other atoms. एवं दिशोऽपि एकस्या अपि संयोगा एव भागाः सोऽयं परमाणोः षट्केन युगपद्योगो मूर्त्तत्वमात्रप्रयुक्तः न सावयवत्वप्रयुक्तः।—*ibid.* *Cf.* also the objection in the Buddhist Káriká, षट्केन युगपद्य्रोगे परमाणोः षडंशता। षण्णां समानदेशत्वे पिण्डः स्यादणुमात्रकः॥ This is the typical primordial arrangement, and variations in the collocation of atoms and molecules (व्यूह, अवयवसन्निवेश), as we have seen, were conceived to account for the variety of isomeric modes of the same Bhúta, as well as of mono-Bhautic and poly-Bhautic compounds.

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The molecular arrangement in the case of bi-Bhautic compounds is very peculiar. Two substances, say Earth and Ap (water), form a quasi-compound first, and each substance breaks up into atoms ; one atom of Earth comes into contact with one of Ap. But the two do not form a binary molecule. Instead, this contact of heterogeneous atoms leads to a curious result. The atom of Earth combines with a neighbouring atom of its own class, and forms a binary molecule. Simultaneously the atom of Ap combines with another Ap-atom, and forms a binary molecule. Now the first binary molecule links on to the atom of Ap, and similarly the second binary molecule links on to the atom of Earth. The moment after, the two binary molecules take on the physico-chemical characters of Earth and Ap respectively, and simultaneously with the assumption of these physico-chemical characters, the binary molecules enter into complex contact (संयोगजसंयोग). In all this process work is done only in the first instant, in the contact of an atom of Earth with one of Ap ; the resulting contacts, of atom with binary molecule and of the binary molecules with each other, involve no further expenditure of Energy. Thus we get a particle holding two binary molecules (of Earth and Ap respectively) in complex contact, and such particles continue to be formed. In this way the particles of the two substances arrange themselves, and the peculiarity of this molecular arrangement explains the resulting mixed or compound qualities of this class of quasi-compounds. (संयोगजस्तु (संयोगः) उत्पन्नमात्रस्य चिरोत्पन्नस्य वा निष्क्रियस्य कारणसंयोगिकारणाः कारण-कारणसंयोगपूर्वकः कार्य्याकार्य्यगतः संयोगः। . . . एकस्माच्च द्वयोरुत्पत्तिः। कथम्। यदा पार्थिवाप्ययोरण्वोः सं‌योगे सति अन्येन पार्थिवेन पार्थिवस्य अन्येन चाप्येन च चाप्यस्य युगपत्संयोगो भवतस्तदा ताभ्यां संयोगाभ्यां पार्थिवाप्येद्व्यणुके युगपदारभ्येते। ततो यस्मिन् काले द्व्यणुकयोः कारणगुणपूर्व्वक्रमेण रूपानुत्पत्तिः तस्मिन्नेव काले इतरेतरकारणाकारणगतात् संयोगात् इतरेतरकार्य्याकार्य्यगतौ संयोगौ युगपदुत्पद्येते। किं कारणम्। कारणसंयोगिना हि अकारणेन कार्य्यं अवश्यं संयुज्यते इति न्यायः। अतः पार्थिवं द्व्यणुकं कारणसंयोगिना आप्येन अणुना सम्बध्यते। आप्यमपि द्व्यणुकं कारणसंयोगिना पार्थिवेनेति—Prasastapáda-Bháshya, गुणग्रन्थे संयोगनिरूपणम्।)

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The whole process may be graphically represented as follows :—

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[Figure: MOLECULES OF A BI-BHAUTIC QUASI-COMPOUND : GRAPHIC FORMULA OF COMPLEX CONTACT. E = an atom of Earth. W = an atom of water (Ap). E / ↓ / W = a binary molecule of / Earth. W / ↓ / W = a binary molecule of / water (Ap).]

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I will conclude this account of ancient (and mediæval) Hindu chemistry with a note on the conception of molecular (atomic) motion, Parispanda, and the different varieties of such motion which were conceived to account for the physical phenomena of sound, light, and heat. Any attempt to differentiate rigidly between Mechanics and Physics on the one hand and Chemistry on the other at this primitive stage would be an idle affectation. My Paper on Hindu Mechanics and Physics will give a detailed exposition in a separate treatise.

Parispaṇda:—Resolution of All Physical Action into Motion

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Parispanda sometimes stands for motion molar as well as molecular, but more often for the subtile motion of atoms or molecules. The radical meaning of the term is whirling or rotary motion, a circling motion, but it may also include simple harmonic motion (*e.g.* vibration). All action, operation, work (क्रिया, व्यापार) is ultimately traced to this form of subtile motion lodged in the atoms or in the matter-stuff. The Vedánta, for example, speaks of a cosmic vibratory motion (सर्व्वलोकपरिस्पन्दनम्—Saṅkara). Ákása, in the Vedánta, as we have seen, is the first stadium in the evolution of Matter, which gives off Váyu, which gives off Tejas, and so on; but Ákása (ether) itself passes through two stages before the emanation of the Súkshma-bhúta Váyu: (1) the motionless ubiquitous primordial matter-stuff (answering to the Sáṅkhya Bhútádi) called Puráṇam Kham (पुराणं खं); and (2) a subtile integration, the pure un-quintuplicated Súkshma Bhúta called Váyuram Kham (वायुरं खं), answering to the Sáṅkhya Tanmátra stage. It is this subtile Ákása, in its Tanmátric integration, *i.e.* in the derivative form, which is subject to an incessant Parispanda. The gaseous stage of matter (the Vedántic Váyu) is indeed matter in a state of Parispandic motion (वायोः परिस्यन्दा-त्मकत्वात् — Śaṅkara). So also the biomotor and sensori-motor principles apart from the directive intelligence of the Self (प्राणस्य परिस्यन्दात्मकत्वादेव—यद्द्वैतं स्थूलं सूक्ष्मञ्च तत्सर्व्वं मनःस्पन्दितमात्रम् — Śaṅkara).

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The Sáṅkhya also conceives this Parispanda to characterise every process and phenomenon of cosmic evolution (व्यक्तं सक्रियं परिस्पन्दवत् — Váchaspati, Kaumudí). Bhútas, organisms, mental organs, as modes of Prakriti (considered apart from the Intelligence of Purusha) are all subject to this Pari-spanda (बुध्यादयो देहं त्यजन्ते देहान्तरं उपाददते इति तेषां परिस्पन्दः। शरीरपृथिव्यादीनां च परिस्पन्दः प्रसिद्ध एव। — Váchaspati on Ká-riká 10). On the other hand, *Prakriti* as the Avyakta, the a-cosmic, the un-manifest ground, with resolution only of like to like (सदृशपरिणाम), is devoid of all Pari-spandic motion (यद्यपि अव्यक्तस्यापि परिणामलक्षणा क्रिया, तथापि परिस्पन्दो नास्ति। — *ibid.* on Káriká 10). The Nyáya-Vaise-shika finds Parispanda in all forms of matter, except Ákása, which in that system is non-atomic and in-capable of any change or activity (निष्क्रिय). But all atoms, from those of Váyu downwards, are in incessant motion. The world at bottom is an infinitude of con-tinually whirling (or vibratory) particles (अनवरतपरिस्पन्द-मानापरिमितपवनादिपरमाणवः — Raghunátha; compare also Udayana-Kusumáñjali, Stavaka V. — परमाणवः हि गतिशी-लत्वात् पतन्त्रव्यपदेशाः पतन्तीति।). All physical action consists in motion. The Nyáya-Vaiseshika rejects force, power, operation (शक्ति) except as modes of motion. Jayanta, indeed, states: We do not acknowledge any mysterious power or operation which the senses do not and cannot report to us.

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But this denial of Force (शक्ति) and of unperceived and unperceivable operation (अतीन्द्रियव्यापार) is put forward as a philosophical (epistemological and metaphysical) proposition to justify the Nyáya analysis of the causal *nexus* into mere invariable and unconditional antecedence among phenomena without productive power or efficiency (अन्यथासिद्धिशन्यस्य नियतपूर्व्ववर्त्तिता—Bháshá-Parichchheda). It is not, of course, intended to question the existence of Parispanda, which is of the nature of motion, and which, though subtile and therefore infra-sensible (सूक्ष्म and अनुद्भूतरूप, not अतीन्द्रिय), is the ultimate form of all physical activity. (परिस्पन्द एव भौतिको व्यापारः करोत्यर्थः। अतीन्द्रियस्तु व्यापारः नास्तीति ब्रूमहे। ... तस्मात् कारकचक्रेण चलता जन्यते फलम्। न पुनश्चलनादन्यो व्यापार उपलभ्यते।—Jayanta, Nyáyamañjarí, Áhnika 1.) The effect (no less than the action) is, in all cases of material causation, the resultant of the combined motions of the various (material and efficient) causes involved (*e.g.* in the case of पाक, समुदितदेवदत्तादिसकलकारकनिकरपरिस्पन्द एव विशिष्टफलावच्छिन्नः पाक इत्युच्यते। ... अथ व्यापार एवैषः सर्वैः संभूय साध्यते। किं फलेनापराद्धं वः तद्धि संभूय साध्यताम्।—Jayanta, Nyáyamañjarí, Áhnika 1.)

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But, in the Nyáya-Vaiseshika, though all action of matter on matter is thus resolved into motion, conscious activity is sharply distinguished from all forms of motion, as against the Sánkhya-Vedánta, which, as we have seen, considered everything other than Intelligence, the Purusha or the transcendental Self, to arise in the course of cosmic evolution, and therefore to be subject to Parispandic motion. (क्रियाविशेष एवायं व्यापारो ज्ञातुरान्तरः। स्पन्दात्मकबहिर्भूतक्रियालक्षणविलक्षणः।—Quoted in Jayanta's Nyáyamañjarí, Áhnika 4.)

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