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The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus c9: Chapter VI. Hindu Physiology and Biology

The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus c9

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Chapter VI. Hindu Physiology and Biology

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METABOLISM.

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The food that we eat contains five classes of organic compounds. From their radicles or predominant elements, the substances are named Earth-compounds, Ap-compounds, Tejas-compounds, Vâyu-compounds, and Âkâśa-compounds. The Earth-compounds supply the hard, formed matter of the body, the Tejas-compounds give the animal heat (or the metabolic heat), the Vâyu-compounds are the sources of the motor-force in the organism, the Ap-compounds furnish the watery parts of the organic fluids, and the Âkâśa-compounds contribute to the finer etheric essence which is the vehicle of the conscious life

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Roughly speaking, the Earth-compounds answer to the nitrogen compounds in the food, the Tejas-compounds to the hydro-carbons (heating-producing), and the Vâyu-compounds to the carbo-hydrates (dynamic). The Ap-compounds are the watery parts of food and drink. The flesh, for example, is a tissue composed principally of the Earth-compounds; the fat, of the Earth- and Ap-compounds; the bones, of Earth-, Vâyu-, and Tejas-compounds. Different operations of the metabolic heat (perhaps different digestive fluids are also meant) are required to digest the different substances in the food.

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The course of metabolism is described as follows. The entire alimentary canal is called the Mahâsrotas (the great channel).

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The food goes down the gullet by the action of the bio-motor force, the *Prâṇa Vâyu*.

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In the stomach (आमाशय) the food becomes mixed up, first with a gelatinous mucus (फेणीभूतं कफं) which has a saccharine taste, and then gets acidulated by the further chemical action of a digestive juice (विदाहादमलतां गतः, evidently the gastric juice is meant). Then the bio-motor force, the *Samâna Vâyu*, begins to act, and drives down the chyme, by means of the *Grahaṇî Nâdî*, to the *Pittâśaya* (duodenum, *lit.* bile-receptacle), and thence to the small intestines (the आमपक्वाशय). In these, the bile (or rather the digestive substance in the bile, as opposed to the colouring element) acts on the chyme and converts the latter into chyle (रस), which has at first a *kaṭu* taste (pungency). This chyle contains in a decomposed and metamorphosed condition all the organic compounds, viz. tissue-producing Earth-compounds, water-parts or Ap-compounds, heat-producing Tejas-compounds, force-producing Vâyu-compounds, and lastly, finer etheric constituents which serve as the vehicle of consciousness. The essence of chyle (सूक्ष्मभाग) from the small intestines is driven by the bio-motor force, the *Prâṇa Vâyu*, along a Dhamanî trunk (*cf.* the thoracic duct), first to the heart (which is a great receptacle of chyle), and thence to the liver (and the spleen); and in the liver the colouring substance in the bile acts on the essence of chyle, especially on the Tejas-substance therein, and imparts to it a red pigment, transforming it into blood; but the grosser part of chyle (स्थूलभाग) proceeds along the Dhamanîs, being driven by the bio-motor force, the *Vyâna Vâyu*, all over the body.

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When the blood has been formed, the essence of chyle in the blood, acted on by *Vâyu* (bio-motor force) and Mâmsâgni (the flesh-forming metabolic heat), forms the flesh-tissue, the Earth-compound of the food-substance especially contributing to this tissue. Of the flesh-tissue thus formed, the grosser part goes to feed or replenish the flesh-tissue all over the body. The finer essence of flesh in the blood in the chyle, acted on again by *Vâyu* (bio-motor current) and the fat-forming metabolic heat (मेदोऽग्नि) in the menstruum of lymph (कफं समाश्रित्य), receives viscosity and whiteness, and produces the fatty tissue, the Earth-compounds and Ap-compounds of the food specially contributing to the product. This fat in the chyle (or blood), or rather the grosser part of it, replenishes the fatty tissue of the body, but the finer essence of fat *in* the flesh *in* the blood *in* the chyle, acted on by *Vâyu* (bio-motor current) and the marrow-forming metabolic heat, in the menstruum of lymph (श्लेष्माश्रित), becomes hard (crystalline) and forms bone, the Earth-, Vâyu-, and Tejas-compounds contributing principally to the product. The essence of the fat fills the hollow channels of the bones, and acted on again by bio-motor *Vâyu* and metabolic heat, becomes transformed into marrow. The marrow is similarly transformed into the semen, which is conveyed down by means of a pair of *Dhamanîs* or ducts (द्वे शुक्रवहे), lodged in its receptacles (शुक्रधरा—वृषणौ), and discharged by means of another pair of ducts (द्वेविसर्गाय). The semen, or rather all the elements in their finer essence, give off *ojas*, which returns to the heart, the receptacle of chyle and blood, and again floods the body and sustains the tissues, thus completing the wheel or self-returning circle of metabolism (परिवृत्तिस्तु चक्रवत्, *cf.* Charaka and Vâgbhata).

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It is to be noted that, throughout, the fluid in the chyle or blood acts as the menstruum, though occasionally the lymph, which is itself a derivative from the chyle, is added, as in the case of the fatty tissue and the bones; and that each preceding element or constituent of the body (धातु—शरीरारम्भक धातु) takes up the proper organic compounds from the food chyle to form the next element or tissue. Throughout, also, the chemical changes are due to the metabolic heat which breaks up the compounds and recombines, but the operations, and even the vehicles perhaps, of this heat are different. For example, these heat-corpuscles in the biliary ducts produce the bile, but the bile-secretion is supposed to contain two distinct substances: (1) a digestive fluid in the duodenum (पित्ताशय), which acts on the chyme to produce the chyle (अन्नस्य पक्तृ पाचकाख्यं पित्तं); and (2) a colouring bile-substance in the liver, which adds a red pigment to the chyle and transforms it into blood (रञ्जकाख्यं पित्तं). Besides, there are three other biles, of which the aqueous humour in the eye is supposed to be one (आलोचकं पित्तं), helping in the formation of visual images (रुपग्राहर्क). This is the view of Dhanvantari and his school, but Âtreya holds there is no evidence that the bile really performs the first (digestive) function, for this can be accounted for by the animal heat arising from the working of the whole bodily machine.

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There are three different hypotheses regarding the course of metabolism and the successive transformations of the chyle (क्षीरदधिन्याय—केदारीकुल्यान्याय—खलेकपोतन्यायेति त्रिधा धातुपोषणक्रम:—Chakrapâṇi, Bhânumatî, Sûtrasthâna, XIV., 10; also his commentary on Charaka, Sûtrasthâna, XXVIII.), but my account is based on the second hypothesis, which has the preference of Chakrapâṇi (स्वरस:). It may be added as a curiosity that each element of the body (धातु) under the metabolic heat is supposed to give off a finer essence (सूक्ष्मभाग), which serves as the material of the next succeeding element, and a dross (मल), which forms some of the excreta in the body (including the nails, the hair, etc.), besides retaining its own substance (the gross or main part), which is driven along by the *Vâyus* (bio-motor or vital currents), or by the *Śrotas*, to its destination in the body.

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Some idea of *circulation* appears to have been entertained, for the heart which receives, and then sends down the chyle through the *Dhamanîs*, gets it back transformed into blood, and the *ojas* also proceeds from the heart and returns to it along with the chyle and the blood.

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(*Cf.* Vâgbhata, ता: हृत्स्था: शिरा: रसात्मकं ओज: अभिवहन्त्य:) । पञ्चभूतात्मके देहे आहार: पाञ्चभौतिक: । विपक्क: पञ्चधा सम्यग् गुणान् स्वानभिवर्द्धयेत् ।—Suśruta, *Sûtrasthâna*, Ch. XLVI.; *cf.* also वियत्पवनजाताभ्यां वृद्धिमाप्नोति मारुत:। आग्नेयमेव यद्द्रव्यं तेन पित्तमुदीर्य्यते ।—*Ibid.*, Ch. XLI. भौमाप्याग्नेयवायव्या: पञ्चोष्माण: सनाभसा: । पञ्चाहा- रगुणान् खान् खान् पार्थिवादीन् पचन्त्यनु । यथास्वं ते च पुष्यन्ति पञ्चा भूतगुणान् पृथक् । पार्थिवाः पार्थिवानेव शेषाः शेषांश्च देहगान् । अतिरिक्ता गुणा रक्ते वह्नर्मींसे तु पार्थिवाः । मदस्यपां भुवश्चास्थ्नि पृथिव्यनिलतेजसां ।—Charaka quoted by Dalvaṇa. आदौ षड्रसमप्यन्नं मधुरीभूतमीरयेत्, फेणीभूतं कफे यातं विदाहादम्लतां गतः । वायुना समानाख्येन ग्रहणीमभिनीयते । षष्ठी पित्तधरा नाम या कला परिकीर्त्तिता । आमपक्वाशयान्तस्था ग्रहणी साऽभिधीयते । अग्न्यधिष्ठानमन्नस्य ग्रहणाद् ग्रहणी मता । भुक्तमामाशये रुद्ध्वा सा विपाच्य नयत्यधः । बलवत्यबला त्वन्नमाममेव विमुञ्चति । ... अन्नस्य पक्तृ पित्तन्तु पाचकख्यं पुरेरितम् । दोषधातुमलादीनामुष्मेत्यात्रेयशासनम् । . . . तेजोरसानां सर्वेषामम्बुजानां यदुच्यते, पित्तोष्मणा सरागेण रसो रक्तत्वमृच्छति । वाय्वग्नितोजसा युक्तं रक्तं मांसत्वमृच्छति । श्लेष्माणं च समाश्रित्य मांसं वाय्वग्निसंयुतम्, स्थिरतां प्राप्य शौक्ल्यं च मेदो देहेऽभिजायते । पृथिव्यग्न्यनिलादीनां सङ्घातः श्लेष्मणावृतः, खरत्वं प्रकरोत्यस्य जायतेऽस्थि ततो नृणाम् । करोति तत्र सौषिर्य्यमस्थ्नां मध्ये समीरणः । मेदसा तानि पूर्य्यन्ते स्नेहो मज्जा ततः स्मृतः । तस्मान्मज्जज्ञ्च यः स्नेहः शुक्रं संजायते ततः ।—Charaka-Driḍhavala Saṃhitâ quoted by Aruṇa in his commentary on Vâgbhaṭa.)

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यथा केदारनिषक्तं कुल्याजलं प्रत्यासन्नां केदारीमाप्तावयति । तथा रस एव प्रथमं रक्तं प्लावयति । तत्र रक्तस्थानसम्बन्धात् रक्तसादृश्यं रक्तव्यपदेशंच अनुभवति । रक्तं च रक्तसमानेन स्तोकेनांशेन स्वस्वं पोषयति । ततो रक्तमाप्लाव्प मांसमाप्लावयति, एवमुत्तरोत्तरधातून् रसएव प्लावयति । (Chakradatta, Bhânumatî). This passage shows that the "venous blood" was conceived to be chyle-essence mixed with blood, and that the circulation of the chyle, so far as it was held to contribute its quota to the constituent elements and tissues of the body, was really supposed to be identical with the circulation of the blood (ततो रक्तमाप्ताव्य मांसमाप्लावयति). This will be abundantly clear from the following account of the course of the chyle and the blood:—

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ततः सारभूतस्याहाररसस्य द्वौ भागौ भवतः । स्थूलः सूक्ष्मश्च . . . ततः

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सूक्ष्मोभागः प्राणवायुनाप्रेरितो धमनीमार्गेण शरीरारम्भकस्य रक्तस्य स्थानं यकृत्-प्लीहरूपं गत्वा तेन सह मिलितोभवति । ततः प्राक्तनरक्तघातो एव तिष्ठति । ... ततः सारभूतस्य आहाररसस्य द्वौ भागौ भवतः । स्थूलः सूक्ष्मश्च । स्थूलो भागो रञ्जकाख्येन पित्तेन रक्तीकृतः शरीरारम्भकं रक्तं पोषयन् व्यान-वायुना प्रेरितोधमनीभिः सञ्चरन् सकलशरीरगतानि रुधिराणि पुष्णाति । ततः सूक्ष्मोभागः व्यानवायुनाप्रेरितो धमनीभिः शिराभिश्च शरीरारम्भकाणि मांसानि याति । *et seq.*

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This finer essence of chyle which nourishes the flesh is also carried in the blood, on the irrigation channel hypothesis (केदारी-कुल्यान्याय).

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THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.

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The standing puzzle of Hindu anatomy and physiology is the classification of the *Śirâs*, *Dhamanîs*, and *Śrotas*, the channels, passages, and ducts in the body including the arteries, veins, nerves, lymphatic vessels, etc. The difficulty was felt by the ancient observers themselves. Some were of opinion that the *Dhamanîs* and *Śrotas* are only modifications of the *Śirâs*, and that the division is artificial. Suśruta, however, contends that they are distinct, because they can be traced to different roots and have different functions; they are apt to be confounded only because they are minute, juxtaposed, and similar in function (Suśruta, *Śârîrasthâna*, Chapter IX.). Charaka also accepts the established division, but points out that the numbers as estimated are conjectural (अनिर्देश्यमतःपरं तर्क्यमेव, *Śârîrasthâna*, Chapter VII.).

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The *Śirâs*, *Dhamanîs*, and *Śrotas* form networks (जालानि) of cords, fibres, passages, which in the fœtus take their rise from the umbilical cord, and proceed upwards to the heart and head, downwards to the kidneys and rectum, and outwards to the trunk and limbs. These three classes comprise all the vehicles or conductors of the fluids, secretions, and currents in the bodily system.

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The *Śrotas* (currents). This is a peculiarity of Hindu physiology. The chyle, the blood, the *Vâyu*, the metabolic fluid (पित्त), the lymph, the fat, the marrow, in every part of the body, is supposed to be connected by means of subtle currents (*Śrotas*) with the same kind of fluid (or tissue) in every other part. Without supposing such special connections, many pathological phenomena cannot be explained.

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The *Śirâs* are divided into four groups: (1) the arteries for conducting the blood, (2) the lymphatics for conducting the lymph, (3) a class of bile-ducts, and (4) a class of ducts for the *Vâyus*, the currents which work the automatic and reflex machinery of the living organism. In each group there are 10 trunk *Śirâs*, which sub-divide into 175 cords, and further ramify minutely all over the body, even as a network of minute fibrils covers the leaf of a tree.

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The functions of the different groups of *Śirâs* are to conduct or transmit the (arterial) blood, the lymph, the bile, and the (vital) *Vâyu* currents respectively to the different parts of the body. The *Śirâs* are compared to the conduits of the flowing water in a pleasure-house (a garden), or the channels of irrigation that flood a field. The conduction (or transmission) of the fluids and currents is effected by an alternate dilation and contraction of the vessels, the systolic movement differing according to the nature of the fluid propelled:

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सप्त शिराशतानि भवन्ति याभिरिदं शरीरमाराम इव जलहारिणीभिः केदारइव च कुल्याभिरुपस्निह्यते अनुगृह्यते च आकुञ्चनप्रसारणादिभिर्विशेषैः। द्रुमपत्रसेवनीनामिव तासां प्रतानाः। तासां नाभिर्मूलं ततश्च प्रसरत्यूर्द्ध्व मधस्तिर्य्यक् च। तासां मूलशिराश्चत्वारिंशत्। तासां वातवाहिन्यो दश पित्तवाहिन्यो दश कफवाहिन्यो दश दश रक्तवाहिन्यः—Suśruta, *Sârîrasthâna*, Chap. VII.

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The *Dhamanîs* in the fœtus take their rise from the umbilical cord, thus bringing nourishment from the mother. They are divided into three groups: (*a*) ten trunks or cords going up to the heart, and thence to the head, (*b*) ten going down to the intestines, kidneys, and rectum, and (*c*) four branching obliquely or sidewise, and ramifying over the whole body. In a general way, it may be stated that the *Dhamanîs* comprise (1) the veins, (2) the nerves (including the sympathetic system), (3) the chyle-ducts (including the thoracic duct?) as distinguished from the other lymphatics, which are mostly classed as *Śirâs*, (4) the ducts for urine, sweat, and other secretions, and (5) lastly, certain classes of bile-ducts and conductors of *Vâyu* currents, possibly those connected with the venous system and the chyle-ducts.

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The first group of *Dhamanîs*:—Special features: Each of the ten ascending *Dhamanîs*, on reaching the heart, trifurcates, and proceeds to the head. Of these fibres, one pair is engaged in conducting each of the four sensory currents (those of sound, colour, taste, and smell) *from the sense-organs, as Charaka and Suśruta* *must have supposed, to the heart, which is for them the seat of consciousness* (हृदयं विशेषेण चेतनास्थानम्, Suśruta, *Śârîrasthâna*, Chap. IV.; हृदयं चेतनाधिष्ठानमेकम्, Charaka, *Śârîrasthâna*, Chap. VIII.). Other *Dhamanîs*, also in pairs, are engaged in conducting automatic (or voluntary) motor currents (*e.g.* the currents concerned in respiration, yawning, sleeping and waking), or the secretions of the lachrymal and mammary glands.

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The second group of *Dhamanîs* :—Special functions : The descending *Dhamanîs* go down to the intestines, kidneys, bladder, and rectum, and their special function is to convey, in pairs as before, urine and other secretions and excreta. They also convey the chyle from the small intestines to the ascending as well as the ramifying *Dhamanîs*. In addition, some of them convey sweat to the ramifying *Dhamanîs*.

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The third group :—Special functions : The remaining four *Dhamanîs* ramify obliquely over the body into millions of fibres and fibrillæ, which terminate in the pores of the skin. From all parts of the periphery they conduct the sensory currents of touch to the central organ of the heart (including the internal organic sensations). Being connected with the pores of the skin, they conduct sweat outwards, and the influences of baths, embrocations, and fomentations inwards.

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Other *Dhamanîs* serving as chyle-ducts and as (venous) blood-vessels.—Besides the special functions performed by the three groups, there are two characteristic functions common to certain classes of *Dhamanîs* which are found in all the three groups, viz. the conduction of chyle and of (venous) blood, *i.e.* of impure blood before it gets its red pigment from the liver. It may also be added that the three principal elements of the body—*Vâyu* (vital current), *Pitta* (bile, or rather the fluid animal heat which produces metabolism, पाक, and flows to all the parts of the body by means of connective passages), and *Kapha* (lymph)—make use of the *Dhamanîs* as well as the *Śirâs* and *Śrotas*, *i.e.* of all manner of conductors in the organism (*cf.* Charaka, **वातपित्तश्लेष्मणां पुनः सर्व्वशरीरचराणां सर्वाणि स्रोतांसि अयनभूतानि—** *Vimânasthâna*, Chapter V.).

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The functions of the *Śirâs* may therefore be stated as follows:—

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(1) The conduction of blood from the liver and spleen, red blood (what may be called the arterial blood of this system of physiology), to the heart, head, trunk, limbs, etc.

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(2) Common functions of all connective passages, viz. the conduction of *Vâyu* (vital current), *Pitta* (metabolic fluid), and *Kapha* (lymph).

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The different classes of *Dhamanîs*, with their functions, are :—

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(1) The nerves: (*a*) eight sensory (central) nerves for the four special senses other than touch; (*b*) twelve motor nerves partly for voluntary and partly for automatic movements; and (*c*) the nerves of touch and organic sensation, including the sympathetic nerves.

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(2) and (3) The chyle-ducts and the conductors of (venous) blood before it is transformed into blood in the liver (and the spleen).

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(4) The classes of *Dhamanîs*, which, in common with the *Sirâs* and *Śrotas*, conduct *Vâyu*, *Pitta*, and *Kapha*, the prime movers of the organic life.

The Vascular System

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The anatomical arrangement of the *Śirâs* and *Dhamanîs* in Charaka and Suśruta is so obscure that only a rough outline of its general features can be attempted. In fact, Charaka contents himself with giving the number of *Śirâ* cords as 700, and of *Dhamanî* cords as 200. He also estimates the ramifications as numbering 3,056,900.

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The carriage of the blood and the lymph is accomplished by two sets of vessels, *Śirâs* and *Dhamanîs*, the first standing for “arteries” (with capillaries) and lymphatics (other than chyle-ducts), and the second for “veins” and chyle-ducts (as well as certain passages for sweat, etc.).

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The navel in the fœtus is taken to be the source and origin of the entire vascular system, whether for the blood or the lymph. Vâgbhata takes the heart to be the origin of the *Śirâs*.

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From this central alimentary tract two sets of vessels (*Śirâs* and *Dhamanîs*—*Rasavâhinyah*) issue for the flow of the chyle and other lymph, and two sets (*Śirâs* and *Dhamanîs*, “arteries” and “veins”—*Raktavâhinyah*) for the flow of the blood.

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The Lymph (and Chyle): Distribution.—The chyle is conducted by the chyle-bearing *Dhamanîs* (*Rasavâhinyah*), and the lymph (other than chyle) by the lymph-bearing *Śirâs* and *Dhamanîs* (*Kaphavâhinyah*).

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The lymph-bearing *Śirâs* comprise 10 branches at the origin, and ramify into 175—viz., 25 in each leg, 25 in each arm, 8 in the pelvic cavity, coccyx, penis, etc., 2 in each side, 6 in the back, 6 in the abdomen, 10 in the breast, 14 in the neck, 2 in the ears, 9 in the tongue, 6 in the nose, and 10 in the eyes.

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The chyle is carried by another system of vessels (*Rasavâhinyah Dhamanyah*). The chyle-ducts issue from the Navî (possibly the receptaculum chyli in this case). A *Dhamanî* trunk descends to the small intestine, and, taking up the chyle, proceeds upwards towards the heart (thoracic duct?). Two chyle-ducts as well as two lymph-ducts (*Dhamanîs*—*Rasavâhinyah* and *Kaphavâhinyah*) proceed from the heart, and ramify over the head and trunk. Similarly two chyle-ducts and two lymph-ducts proceed from the intestinal tract and ramify over the pelvic region. Four obliquely branching *Dhamanîs* (bearing chyle, sweat, and internal secretions) also spread from the central tract, and ramify in numberless minute channels over the limbs and the body.

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The Blood-vascular System.—There are two classes of blood conductors: (1) *Śirâs*, which break up into capillaries (*Pratân*) and distribute "pure" blood from the liver (and spleen) to the heart, and from the heart to the rest of the body (*asrigvahâscha rohinyah śirâh nâtyuṣnaśîtalâh*,—Suśruta, Sarîrasthâna, Chap. VII.; *cf.* Vâgbhata: *daśa mûlaśîrâh hritsthâh*, Chap. III., Sârîrasthâna), and (2) *Dhamanîs* (*Raktavâhinyah*), which proceed, two from the intestinal tract (portal vein and inferior vena cava), and two from the heart (superior vena cava and pulmonary artery?).

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The “venous” blood (chyle-mixed blood) proceeds from the alimentary tract (gastric and intestinal vessels), along a *Dhamanî* trunk (portal vein?) to the liver (and spleen), where the chyle gets a red pigment and is turned into (pure) blood. From the liver and spleen, *Śirâs* (“arteries”) proceed to the heart. The liver (and spleen, a minor blood-vascular gland) and the heart are the centres of origin of the *Śirâs* (“arteries”), and distribute pure blood by their means over the entire body.

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Arrangement of the blood-bearing *Śirâs* and *Dhamanîs*. — Two blood-bearing *Dhamanî* trunks (“veins”) proceed from the heart (superior vena cava and pulmonary artery?), and two proceed from different regions of the alimentary tract (portal vein and inferior vena cava?). Ten *Śirâs* bearing pure blood proceed from the alimentary tract to the liver and spleen, which are joined on to the heart by means of both *Śirâs* and *Dhamanîs*. The ten *Śirâs* are subdivided into 175 branches, which are distributed over the body in the same way as the lymph-bearing *Śirâs* (*vide supra*).

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It is clear that Charaka and Suśruta had no idea of the part played by the lungs in the purification of the blood. The liver converts the “venous” blood in this system into true (“arterial”) blood, and along with the spleen serves as a basis of discrimination between a *Śirâ* and a *Dhamanî*, thus illustrating Suśruta’s statement that the distinction between these two kinds of blood-vessels must be accepted as real, inasmuch as they have different sources and different functions.

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तासामु नाभिप्रभवानां धमनीनामूद्धर्ध्वगा दश दश चाधोगामिन्यश्चतस्रस्तिर्य्यगाः ऊर्द्धर्ध्वगास्तु हृदयमभिप्रपन्ना स्त्रिधा जायन्ते । अधोगामास्तु पित्ताशय-मभिप्रतिपन्नास्तत्रस्थमेवान्नपानरसं विपक्कं चोर्ध्वमाहू विरेचयन्त्यः अभिवहन्त्यः शरीरं तर्पयन्ति चोर्द्धर्ध्वगतानां तिर्य्यग्गतानां रसस्थानमभिपूरयन्ति (Suśruta, Śârîrasthâna, Chap. IX.). तत्र पांचभौतिकस्य आहारस्य सम्यक् परिणतस्य यस्तेजोभूतः सारः परमसूक्ष्मः स रस इष्यते । तस्य च हृदयं स्थानम् । स हृदयाच्चतुर्विंशतीः धमनीरनुप्रविश्य ऊर्द्धर्ध्वगा दश दश चाधोगामिन्यश्चतस्रस्तिर्य्यगाः कृत्स्नं शरीरं अहरहस्तर्पयति । तस्य शरीरमनुधावतोऽनुमानाद् गतिरुपलक्षयितव्या । स खल्वाप्योरसः यकृत्प्लीहानौ प्राप्य रागमुपैति । (*Ibid.*, Chap. IV.). रंजितास्तेजसास्त्वापः शरीरस्थेन देहिनां रक्तमित्यभिधीयते । (*Ibid.*, Sutrasthâna, Chap. XIV.). सप्तशिराशतानि भवन्ति । याभिरिदं शरीरम् आराम इव जलहारिणीभिः केदार इव कुल्याभिरुपस्निह्यते आकुंचनप्रसारणादिभिर्विशेषैः । नाभ्यां सर्वा निवद्धास्ताः प्रतन्वन्ति समन्ततः । तासां मूलशिराः चत्वारिं शत्तासां वातवाहिन्यो दश पित्तवाहिन्यो दश कफवाहिन्यो दश दश च रक्तवाहिन्यः । तासामु वातवाहिनीनां वात स्थानगतानां पञ्चसप्ततिशतं भवति । रक्तवाहिन्यश्च यकृत्प्लीह्नोरेव । तत्र वातवाहिन्यः शिराः एकस्मिन् सक्थि पञ्चविंशतिः । एतेन इतरसक्थिबाहू च व्याख्यातौ । विशेषतस्तु क्रोडे पृष्ठे चोदरे वक्षसि जत्रुशः ऊर्द्धर्ध्वं । एवं रक्तवहाः कफवहाश्च । धातूनां पूरणं वर्णो स्पर्शज्ञानमसंशयम् । खाः शिराः सञ्चरद्रक्तं कुर्य्योच्चान्यान् गुणानपि (Śârîrasthâna, Chap. VIII.). द्वितीया (कला) रक्तधरा नाम । तस्यां शोणितं विशेषतस्तु शिरासु यकृत प्लीहोश्च भवति (*Ibid.*, Chap. IV.). षष्ठी (कला) पित्तधरा नाम । चतुर्विधमन्नपानमुपयुक्तमामाशयात् प्रच्युतं पक्वाशयोपस्थितं धारयति । स्रोतस्त्विह विज्ञेयं शिराधमनीवर्ज्जितं । … तानि (स्रोतांसि) प्राणाम्बोदकरसरक्तमांसमेदोमूत्रपुरीषशुक्रार्त्तववहानि । तत्र प्राणवहे द्वे । तयोर्मूलं हृदयं रसवाहिन्यश्च धमन्यः । उदकवहे द्वे । तयोर्मूलं तालु क्लोम (*Kloma*, gall-bladder) च । तत्र विद्धस्य पिपासा । अन्नवहे द्वे । तयोर्मूलं आमाशयः अन्नवाहिन्यश्चधमन्यः । रसवहे द्वे । तयोर्मूलं हृदयं रसवाहिन्यश्च धमन्यः । रक्तवहे द्वे । तयोर्मूलं यकृत्प्लीहानौ रक्तवाहिन्यश्च धमन्यः । मांसवहे द्वे । तयोर्मूलं स्नायुत्वचं रक्तवाहिन्यश्च धमन्यः ।

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THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN CHARAKA.

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The Nerves.—*Dhamanîs* as nerves : The anatomy of the nervous system in Charaka and Suśruta can be more clearly and confidently restored. The *Dhamanîs* that ascend from the heart divide into thirty cords, of which twenty, *i.e.* ten pairs, are cranial nerves, and the other ten, or five pairs, are engaged in conveying vital currents, metabolic fluid, lymph, blood, and chyle.

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The cranial nerves are : (1) four pairs of sensory nerves carrying sensory impulses from the sense-organs to the heart, viz. the optic, auditory, olfactory, and gustatory nerves, and (2) six pairs of motor (or mixed nerves), *e.g.* three pairs of motor nerves for the eye (Motores oculorum, Pathetic and Abducentes) working the Levator Palpebræ and other muscles of the orbit; one pair of motor nerves for articulation (the Hypoglossal); one pair of motor nerves for the larynx (the Pneumo-gastric), and another pair connected with mammæ and (in the case of the male) the seminal duct. It is further stated that other motor or sensori-motor impulses are carried by some of these cranial nerves, viz. those which produce sighs and sobs, yawning, laughter, and hunger. Evidently some of the functions of the pneumogastric and the spinal accessory nerves are intended, as also of the phrenic and other nerves of the cervical plexus.

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Of the thirty descending *Dhamanîs*, ten (or five pairs) are conductors of blood, chyle, vital current, metabolic fluid, and lymph, and the remaining twenty are spinal nerves (specially the nerves of the sacro-coccygeal and sacral plexuses, if not also of the lumbar plexus). The obliquely branching *Dhamanîs*, so far as they are nerves, comprise the brachial and the lumbar plexus, and divide and sub-divide hundred-fold, thousand-fold, till they ramify into fibrillæ round the pores of the skin. They carry to the heart cutaneous sensations, external as well as internal. A fibril (सूक्ष्मनाड़ी) is said to be as minute as the thousandth part of a hair (लोम्नः सहस्रभागेन तुल्यासु प्रचरत्यणुः—*Panchadasî*).

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ऊर्द्धगाः शब्दरूपरसगन्धप्रश्वासोच्छ्वासविजृम्भितक्षुद्धसितकथितरुदितादीन्-विशेषान् अभिवहन्त्यः शरीरं धारयन्ति । तास्तु हृदयमभिप्रतिपन्नास्त्रिधा जायन्ते तास्त्रिंशत् । तासान्तु वातपित्तकफशोणितरसान् द्वे द्वे वहतस्ता दश । शब्दरूपरसगन्धान् षड्भिर्गृह्णीते । द्वाभ्यां भाषते । द्वाभ्यां घोषं करोति । द्वाभ्यां स्वपिति । द्वाभ्यां प्रतिबुध्यते । द्वे च अश्रुवाहिन्यौ । द्वे स्तनसंश्रिते । ते एव शुक्रं नरस्य स्तनाभ्यां अभिवहतः ।
तिर्य्यग्गतानान्तु चतसृणां धमनीनां एकैका शतधा सहस्रधा चोत्तरोत्तरं विभज्यन्ते तास्त्वसंख्येयाः ।
ताभिरिदं शरीरं गवाक्षितं तासां मुखानि रोमकूपप्रतिबद्धानि । यैः स्वेदमभिवहन्ति रसञ्चापि सन्तर्पयन्ति अन्तर्बहिश्च । तैरेव चाभ्यङ्गपरिषेकावगाहालेपनवीर्य्याणि अन्तःशरीरमभिप्रतिपद्यन्ते । त्वचि विपक्वानि तैरेव स्पर्शसुखमसुलं वा गृह्णाति । तास्तु एताश्चतस्रोधमन्यः सर्वाङ्गगताः सविभागा व्याख्याताः । (Suśruta, Śârîrasthâna, Chap. IX.).

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THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AFTER THE TANTRAS—PSYCHO-PHYSIOLOGY.

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In Charaka and Suśruta (as in Aristotle) the heart is the central organ and seat of consciousness; but in the Tantric writings (as in Galen) the seat of consciousness is transferred to the brain or rather the cerebro-spinal system. The soul (the *Jîva*) has its special seat within the *Brahmarandhra* above the foramen of Monro and the middle commissure, but traverses the whole cerebro-spinal axis, up and down, along the *Suṣumna* (the central passage of the spinal cord). The *Brahma-daṇḍa* (vertebral column) contains the *Suṣumna*, the *Brahma Nâḍî*, and the *Manovahâ Nâḍî*. The cerebro-spinal axis with the connected sympathetic system contains a number of ganglionic centres and plexuses (*Chakras*, *Padmas*) from which nerves (*Nâḍîs*, *Śirâs*, and *Dhamanîs*)¹ radiate over the head, trunk, and limbs.

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¹ The writers of the Yoga and Tantra schools use the term *Nâdî*, by preference, for nerves. They also mean cranial nerves when they speak of *Sirâs*, never using the latter term for arteries, as in the older medical literature.

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GANGLIONIC CENTRES AND PLEXUSES (SYMPATHETIC-SPINAL SYSTEM).

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Beginning with the lower extremity, the centres and plexuses of the connected spinal and sympathetic systems may be described as follows:—

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(1) The *Adhâra Chakra*, the sacro-coccygeal plexus, with four branches, eleven *angulis* (about nine inches) below the solar plexus (*Kanda*, *Brahmagranthi*); the source of a massive pleasurable æsthesia, voluminous organic sensations of repose. An inch and a half above it, and the same distance below the membrum virile (*Mehana*), is a minor centre called the *Agni-sikhâ*.

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(2) The *Svâdhisthâna Chakra*, the sacral plexus with six branches (पत्राणि, दलानि—leaves), concerned in the excitation of sexual feelings with the accompaniments of lassitude, stupor, cruelty, suspicion, contempt.

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(3) The *Nâvikanda* (corresponding to the solar plexus, *Bhânubhavanam*), which forms the great junction of the right and left sympathetic chains (*Pingalâ* and *Iḍâ*) with the cerebro-spinal axis.

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Connected with this is the *Maṇipuraka*, the lumbar plexus with connected sympathetic nerves, the ten branches of which are concerned in the production of sleep and thirst, and the expressions of passions like jealousy, shame, fear, stupefaction.

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(4) The *Anâhata Chakra*, the cardiac plexus of the sympathetic chain, with twelve branches, connected with the heart, the seat of the egoistic sentiments, hope, anxiety, doubt, remorse, conceit, egoism, etc.

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(5) The *Bhâratîsthâna*, the junction of the spinal cord with the medulla oblongata, which, by means of nerves like the pneumo-gastric, etc., regulates the larynx and other organs of articulation. This also comprises the laryngeal and pharyngeal plexuses.

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(6) The *Lalanâ Chakra*, opposite the uvula, which has twelve leaves (or lobes), supposed to be the tract affected in the production of ego-altruistic sentiments and affections like self-regard, pride, affection, grief, regret, respect, reverence, contentment, etc.

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(7) The sensori-motor tract, comprising two Chakras, (*a*) the *Âjñâ Chakra*, *lit.* the circle of command (over movements), with its two lobes, and (*b*) the *Manaschakra*, the sensorium, with its six lobes (five special sensory for peripherally initiated sensations, and one common sensory for centrally initiated sensations, as in dreams and hallucinations).

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The *Âjñâvahâ Nâḍîs*, efferent or motor nerves, communicate motor impulses to the periphery from this *Âjñâ Chakra*, this centre of command over movements; and the afferent or sensory nerves of the special senses, in pairs, the *Gandhavahâ Nâḍî* (olfactory sensory), the *Rupavahâ Nâḍî* (optic), the *Śavdavahâ Nâḍî* (auditory), the *Rasavahâ Nâḍî* (gustatory), and the *Sparaśavahâ Nâḍî* (tactile), come from the periphery (the peripheral organs of the special senses) to this *Manaschakra*, the sensory tract at the base of the brain. The *Manas-chakra* also receives the *Manovahâ Nâḍî*, a generic name for the channels along which centrally initiated presentations (as in dreaming or hallucination) come to the sixth lobe of the *Manaschakra*.

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(8) The *Somachakra*, a sixteen-lobed ganglion, comprising the centres in the middle of the cerebrum, above the sensorium; the seat of the altruistic sentiments and volitional control, *e.g.* compassion, gentleness, patience, renunciation, meditativeness, gravity, earnestness, resolution, determination, magnanimity, etc.; and lastly

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(9) The *Sahasrâra Chakra*, thousand-lobed, the upper cerebrum with its lobes and convolutions, the special and highest seat of the *Jîva*, the soul.

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गुदलिङ्गान्तरे चक्रमाधाराख्यं चतुर्दलम् । परमः सहजः . . . आनन्दः . . . स्यादैशानादिदले फलं । स्वाधिष्ठानं लिङ्गमूले षट्पत्रं चक्रमस्यच । पूर्वादिषु दलेषु फलानि एतानि प्रश्रयः क्रूरता . . . मूर्च्छा . . . अवज्ञा स्यादविश्वासः

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कामशक्ते रिदं गृहम्। नाभौ दशदलं चक्रं मणिपुरसंज्ञं। सुषुप्तिरत्र तृष्णा स्यादीर्षा ... लज्जा भयं घृणा मोहः ... क्रमात् पूर्बादि दलेषु स्यात् भानुभवनञ्च तत्।

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हृदये अनाहतं चक्रं। दलैर्द्वादशभिर्युतं। लौल्यं कापट्यं वितर्कोऽप्यनुतापिता आशा ... चिन्ता ... दम्भोवैकल्यं विवेकोऽहंकृतिस्तथा फलान्येतानि। कण्ठोऽस्ति भारतीस्थानं षोडशच्छदं तत्र प्रणव उद्गीथः सप्त स्वरा षड्जादयः। ललनाख्यं घटिकायां चक्रं द्वादशपत्रकं। दमोमानस्ततः स्नेहः शोकः खेदश्च सम्भ्रमश्लोभिर्मैः श्रद्धा तोषोऽपराधिता फलानि ललनाचक्रे। भ्रूमध्ये द्विदलं चक्रं आज्ञासंज्ञं फलानि च आविर्भावाः सत्वरजस्तमसां। तत्र चास्ति मनश्चक्रं षड्दलं तत्फलानि तु स्वप्नो रसपयोगश्च घ्राणं रूपोपलम्भनं स्पर्शनं शब्दबोधश्च पूर्बादिषु दलेषु। ततोऽपि षोडशदलं सोमचक्रं। दलेषु षोडश तस्य कलाः षोडश संस्थिताः। कृपाच मार्द्दवं धैय्यं वैराग्यं धृतिसम्पदौ हास्यं रोमाञ्चं विनयो ध्यानं सुस्थिरता ततः। गाम्भीर्य्यमुद्यमोग्झोभमौदार्य्यैकाग्रहे क्रमात्। फलान्युक्तानि जीवस्य पूर्बादिदलगामिनः। चक्रं सहस्रपत्रन्तु ब्रह्मरन्ध्रे। सुषुम्नया ब्रह्मरन्ध्रमारोहत्यवरोहति। जीवः प्राणसमारूढो रज्ज्वा कोलाटिको यथा। ब्रह्मरन्ध्रे स्थितो जीवः सुधया संप्लृतः। ... आधाराद्द्वाङ्गुलार्द्धे मेहनाद्द्वाङ्गलादधः अग्निशिखा (चक्रं) चक्रात् तस्मात् नवाङ्गुलः देहस्य कन्दोऽस्ति। उत्सेधायामाभ्यां चतुरङ्गुलः ब्रह्मग्रन्थिरितिप्रोक्तः। (संगीतत्नाकर as summarised in Dâmodara's Sangitadarpaṇa; *vide* Sangîta-ratnâkara, पिण्डोत्पत्तिप्रकरणं, verses 116–144) दीर्घास्थिमूर्द्धपर्य्यन्तं ब्रह्मदण्डेति कथ्यते तस्यान्ते सुषिरं सूक्ष्मं ब्रह्मनाड़ीति सूरिभिः (उत्तरगीता)-तत् कर्णिकायां विश्वव्यापिशाखासहस्रवत्या मनोवहनाड्या मूलं तिष्ठति। तस्या अलातुलतिकायाइव ऊर्द्धमूलै एकाशाखा सुषुम्ना इति गीयते। स वैमनोवहा नाड़ी चित्तस्थानं भवति (विज्ञानभिक्षु, योगवार्त्तिक) सुषुम्ना चोर्द्धगामिनी ज्ञाननाड़ी भवेत् (*Jnâna Sankalinî Tantra*). For functions of *Âjnâvahâ Nâḍî* and *Manovahâ Nâḍî*, also see Śankara Miśra's *Upaskâra*.

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The cerebro-spinal axis and the heart: their respective relations to the conscious life.—Vijnânabhikshu, in the passage just quoted, identifies the *Manovahâ Nâḍî* (vehicle of consciousness, चित्तस्थान) with the cerebro-spinal axis and its ramifications, and compares the figure to an inverted gourd with a thousand-branched stem hanging down. The *Suṣumna*, the central passage of the spinal cord, is the stem of this gourd (or a single branch). The writers on the Yoga (including the authors of the various Tantric systems) use the term somewhat differently. On this view, the *Manovahâ Nâḍî* is the channel of the communication of the *Jîva* (soul) with the *Manaschakra* (sensorium) at the base of the brain. It has been stated that the sensory currents are brought to the sensory ganglia along afferent nerves of the special senses. But this is not sufficient for them to rise to the level of discriminative consciousness (सविकल्पकज्ञानम्). A communication must now be established between the *Jîva* (in the *Sahasrâra Chakra*, upper cerebrum) and the sensory currents received at the sensorium, and this is done by means of the *Manovahâ Nâḍî*. When sensations are centrally initiated, as in dreams and hallucinations, a special *Nâḍî* (*Svapnavahâ Nâḍî*), which appears to be only a branch of the *Manovahâ Nâḍî*, serves as the channel of communication from the *Jîva* (soul) to the sensorium. In the same way, the *Âjnâvahâ Nâḍî* brings down the messages of the soul from the *Sahasrâra* (upper cerebrum) to the *Âjnâ Chakra* (motor tract at the base of the brain), messages which are thence carried farther down, along efferent nerves, to various parts of the periphery. I may add that the special sensory nerves, together with the *Manovahâ Nâḍî*, are sometimes generally termed *Jnânavahâ Nâḍî*, *lit.* channel of presentative knowledge. There is no difficulty so far. The *Manovahâ Nâdî* and the *Âjnâvahâ Nâdî* connect the sensori-motor tract at the base of the brain (*Mânaschakra* and *Âjnâchakra*) with the highest (and special) seat of the soul (*Jîva*) in the upper cerebrum (*Sahasrâra*), the one being the channel for carrying up the sensory, and the other for bringing down the motor messages. But efforts of the will (*Âjnâ*, *Prayatna*) are conscious presentations, and the *Manovahâ Nâdî* must therefore co-operate with the *Âjnâvahâ* in producing the consciousness of effort. Indeed, attention, the characteristic function of *Manas*, by which it raises sense-presentations to the level of discriminative consciousness, implies effort (*Prayatna*) on the part of the soul (*Âtman*, *Jîva*), an effort of which we are conscious through the channel of the *Manovahâ Nâdî*. But how to explain the presentation of effort in the motor nerves? Śaṅkara Miśra, the author of the *Upaskâra* on *Kanâda's Sûtras*, argues that the *Nâdîs* (even the volitional or motor nerves) are themselves sensitive, and their affections are conveyed to the sensorium by means of the nerves of the (inner) sense of touch (which are interspersed in minute fibrillæ among them). The consciousness of effort, then, in any motor nerve, whether *Âjnâvahâ* (volitional-motor) or *Prâṇavahâ* (automatic-motor), depends on the tactile nerves (or nerves of organic sensation) mixed up with it. Thus the assimilation of food and drink by the automatic activity of the *Prâṇas* implies an (automatic) effort (जीवनयोनिप्रयत्न) accompanied by a vague organic consciousness, which is due to the fact that minute fibres of the inner touch-sense are interspersed with the machinery of the automatic nerves (the *Prâṇavahâ Nâḍîs*).

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यद्यपीन्द्रियं मनो न साक्षात् प्रयत्नविषयः तथापि मनोवहनाडीगोचरेण प्रयत्नेन मनसि कर्म द्रष्टव्यं । नाड्यास्तु त्वगिन्द्रियग्राह्यत्वमङ्गीकर्त्तव्यं । अन्यथा प्राणवहनाडीगोचरेण प्रयत्नेन अशितपीताद्यभ्यवहरणमपि न सम्भवेत् । त्वगिन्द्रियप्रदेशेन मनःसंयोगमन्तरेण सुखदुःखे न स्यातामेव । यदि मनसि कर्म न भवेत् न भवेच्च पादे मे सुखं शिरसि मे वेदना इत्याद्याकारोऽनुभवः । (*Śaṅkara Miśra's Upaskâra*, on Sûtras 14, 15, Âhnika 2, Chap. V.).

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*The Heart.* The heart in the older schools is considered to be the seat of waking consciousness; for the heart expands during waking life and contracts during sleep.

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Sleep (स्वाप) again is of two kinds, (1) dreaming sleep (*swapna*, *supti*), when the external senses are withdrawn into the heart, but the representative-presentative faculty (मनः, चित्तं) wakes, and (2) dreamless sleep (*suṣupti*), when this last faculty is likewise merged in the mere automatic activity of life.

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हृदयं पङ्कजाकृति । सुषिरं स्यादधोवक्त्रं शतञ्च चेतनाव्यानं । निमीलति स्वपित्यात्मा जागर्त्ति विकसत्यपि । द्वेधा स्वप्नसुषुप्तिभ्यां स्वापः । बाह्येन्द्रियाणि चेत् लीयन्ते हृदि जागर्त्ति चित्तं सुप्तिस्तदोच्यते । मनश्चेत् लीयते प्राणे सुषुप्तिः स्यात्तदात्मनः—(*Saṅgîta-ratnâkara*).

Section 6. Nerve-Cords and Fibres (Sympathetic-Spinal System)

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Nerve-cords and fibres—Cranial and spinal nerves, and the connected sympathetic nerves.—With the writers on the Yoga, all the *Śirâs*, and such of the *Dhamanîs* as are not vehicles of vital current, metabolic fluid, lymph, chyle or blood, are cranial nerves, and proceed from the heart through the spinal cord to the cranium. These cranial nerves include pairs for the larynx and the tongue, for the understanding and use of speech, for the raising and lowering of the eyelids, for weeping, for the sensations of the special senses, etc.—a confused and unintelligent reproduction of Suśruta's classification. But the enumeration of the spinal nerves with the connected sympathetic chain and ganglia, is a distinct improvement on the old anatomists. The following plan attempts to give a rough idea of the relative position of the principal nerves of the sympathetic-spinal system.

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The *Suṣumnâ* is the central cord in the vertebral column (ब्रह्मदण्ड, मेरु). The two chains of sympathetic ganglia on the left and the right are named *Iḍâ* and *Piṅgalâ* respectively. The sympathetic nerves have their main connection with *Suṣumnâ* at the solar plexus (भानुभवन, नाभिचक्र in the कन्द, नाभिकन्द or ब्रह्मग्रन्थि). Of the seven hundred nerve-cords of the sympathetic-spinal system (भूरितरा: Sangîta-ratnâkara), the fourteen most important are :—

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(1) *Suṣumnâ*, in the central channel of the spinal cord.

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(2) *Iḍâ*, the left sympathetic chain stretching from under the left nostril to below the left kidney, in the form of a bent bow.

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(3) *Pingalâ*, the corresponding chain on the right.

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(4) *Kuhu*, the pudic nerve of the sacral plexus, to the left of the spinal cord.

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(5) *Gândhârî*, to the back of the left sympathetic chain, supposed to stretch from below the corner of the left eye to the left leg. It was evidently supposed that some nerves of the cervical plexus came down through the spinal cord and joined on to the great sciatic nerve of the sacral plexus.

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(6) *Hastijihvâ*, to the front of the left sympathetic chain, stretching from below the corner of the left eye to the great toe of the left foot, on the same supposition as before. Pathological facts were believed to point to a special nerve connection between the eyes and the toes.

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(7) *Sarasvatî*, to the right of *Suṣumnâ*, stretching up to the tongue (the hypo-glossal nerves of the cervical plexus).

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(8) *Puṣâ*, to the back of the right sympathetic chain, stretching from below the corner of the right eye to the abdomen (a connected chain of cervical and lumbar nerves).

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(9) *Payasvinî*, between Puṣâ and Sarasvatî, auricular branch of the cervical plexus on the right.

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(10) *Sankhinî*, between Gândhârî and Sarasvatî, auricular branch of the cervical plexus on the left.

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(11) *Jaśasvinî*, to the front of the right sympathetic chain, stretching from the right thumb to the right leg (the radial nerve of the brachial plexus continued on to certain branches of the great sciatic).

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(12) *Vâranâ*, the nerves of the sacral plexus, between Kuhu and Jasaśvinî, ramifying over the lower trunk and limbs.

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(13) *Viśvodarâ*, the nerves of the lumbar plexus, between Kuhu and Hastijihvâ, ramifying over the lower trunk and limbs.

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(14) *Alambuṣâ*, the coccygeal nerves, proceeding from the sacral vertebræ to the urino-genitary organs.

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(*Vide* Sangîta-ratnâkara, स्वराध्याय, पिण्डोत्पत्तिप्रकरणम्—Ślokas 144–156. Also, the Yogârṇava.)

Section 7. Automatic and Reflex Activity of the Organism—The Forty-Nine Vâyus

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Charaka describes *Vâyu* as that which keeps the machine of the body at work, the prime-mover, the impelling force which sets in motion the organs (including the senses and the mind), which arranges the cells and tissues, and which unfolds or develops the fœtal structure out of the fertilised ovum. Charaka and Suśruta notice the five chief *Vâyus* with their functions in the maintenance of the animal life. Suśruta mentions *Prâṇa* as having its course in the mouth, and concerned in deglutition, hiccough, respiration, etc., *Udâna* as concerned in articulation and singing, *Samâna* as digesting the food in the stomach in conjunction with the animal heat, *Vyâna* as coursing all over the body, driving the chyle and causing the flow of blood and sweat, and *Apâna* as having its seat in the intestinal region, and sending down the urino-genital secretions. (Suśruta—*Nidânasthâna*, Chapter I.)

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In the mediæval physiology the number of *Vâyus* is given as 49. As in Charaka and Suśruta, the *Vâyus* are regarded as the moving or impelling forces that work the organism and all its automatic and reflex machinery. The *Âjnâvahâ Nâḍîs* (efferent nerves) are only channels for the conduction of commands of the self or the will (आत्मप्रयत्न) ; the *Vâyus*, on the other hand, are forces (or currents) that maintain the automatic, reflex, or instinctive activities of the organism. The ten chief *Vâyus* with their functions are enumerated thus :—

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(1) *Prâṇa*, which works the ideo-motor verbal mechanism and vocal apparatus, the respiratory system, the muscles engaged in coughing, sighing, etc.

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(2) *Apâna*, which ejects the excretions and wastes, the urine, the fæces, the sperm and germ-cells, etc.

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(3) *Vyâna*, whose work is extension, contraction, and flexion of the muscles, tendons, and ligaments ; the stored-up energy of the muscles.

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(4) *Samâna*, the force which, in conjunction with animal heat, works the machinery of metabolism, in the maintenance of the organic life. It drives or propels the chyle, blood, and every other current (*Śrota*) or circulating fluid in the body.

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(5) *Udâna*, concerned in maintaining the erect posture of the body.

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(6) *Nâga*, which is concerned in involuntary retching, vomiting.

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(7) *Kûrma*, which works the automatic movement of the eyelids, winking, etc.

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(8) *Krikara*, concerned with the appetites of hunger and thirst.

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(9) *Devadatta*, which brings about yawning, dozing, etc.

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(10) *Dhananjaya*, which is concerned with coma, swooning, trance.

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वायुः तन्त्रयन्त्रधरः प्रवर्त्तकः चेष्टानां, प्रणेता मनसः, सर्वेन्द्रियाणां उद्योजकः, सर्व्वशरीरधातुव्यूहकरः, सन्धानकरः शरीरस्य, प्रवर्त्तको वाचः, हर्षोत्साहयोर्योनिः, क्षेप्ता बहिर्मलानां, कर्त्ता गर्भाकृतीनां । प्राणापानोदानसमानव्यानात्मा (चरक सूत्रस्थान, Chap. XII.) तेषां मुख्यतमः प्राणः शब्दोच्चारणनिःश्वासोच्छ्वास-कासादिकारणं, अपानः ... अस्य मूत्रपुरीषादिविसर्गः कर्म कीर्त्तितं। व्यानः ... प्राणापानधृति त्यागग्रहणाह्वयस्य कर्म च। समानोऽपि अखिलं व्याप्य शरीरं वह्निना सह। द्विसप्तति सहस्रेषु नाडीरन्ध्रेषु संचरन् भुक्तपीतरसान् सम्यगानयन् देहपुष्टिकृत् । उदानः कर्म्मास्य देहोन्नयनोत्क्रमणादि प्रकीर्त्तितं । त्वचादिधातूना-श्रित्य पंचनागादयःस्थिताः उद्गारादि निमेषादि क्षुत्पिपासादिकं क्रमात् । तन्द्राप्रभृति मोहादि तेषां कर्म प्रकीर्त्तितं । (संगीतरत्नाकर ।)

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*Cf.* the summary in Raja Sourîndra Mohan Tagore's edition of the *Sangîta-darpaṇa*.

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शब्दोच्चारणं (वाक्निष्पत्तिकरणं) निःश्वासः उच्छ्वासः (अनर्मुखश्वासः) तन्द्रादीनां कारणं (साधनं) प्राणवायुः । विण्मूत्रशुक्रादिवहत्वमपानस्य कर्म । आकुञ्चनप्रसारणादि व्यानस्य कर्म ज्ञेयं । अशितपीतादिनां समतानयनद्वारा शरीरस्य पोषणं समानस्य कर्म । उदानवायुः ऊर्द्ध्वनयनमेव अस्य कर्म नागादयः नागकूर्म्मकृकरदेवदत्तधनञ्जयरूपाः पञ्च वायवः । एतेषां कर्म्माणि

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च यथाक्रमं उद्गारोन्मीलनक्षुधाजननविजृम्भनमोहरूपानि । (*Sangîta-darpaṇa*, Chap. I., Ślokas 43–48). *Cf.* the extract in Śankara.

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प्राणः प्रागवृत्तिरुच्छ्वासादिकर्मा। अपानः अवागवृत्तिरुत्सर्गादिकर्मा। व्यानः तयोः सन्धौ वर्तमानः वीर्यवत्कर्महेतुः। उदानः ऊर्ध्ववृत्तिः उत्क्रान्त्यादि हेतुः। समानः समं सर्वेषु अङ्गेषु यः अन्नरसान् नयति। इति। (*Śârîraka Bhâṣya*, Chap. II., Pada 4, Sûtra 2).

Section 8. Fœtal Development (After Susruta)

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¹ Reproduced from my monograph in Dr. Ray's “Hindu Chemistry,” Vol. II.

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The ovum fertilised by the sperm-cell and developing under the influence of animal heat forms successive layers and tissues, even as layers of cells and fibres are formed in wood. First are formed seven layers, epithelial and dermal (*Saptatwachah*), then follow the several tissues (*Kalâh*), the flesh, the vascular tissue, the fat and marrow, the lymphatic and (glandular) tissue, the intestinal tissues, the biliary and the seminal vessels. These tissues are regarded by some as modifications of the original dermal layers of the ovum (*cf.* the layers of the blastoderm and their relation to the tissues in Embryology). The tissues are supposed to be developed successively, one out of another, by chemical action or metabolism (*pâka*), *e.g.* chyle is transformed into blood, blood into flesh, flesh into fat, fat into bone, bone (in reality, fat in the bones) into marrow, marrow into sperm-cell. The organs are next formed out of the tissues. The liver, gall-bladder (*kloma*), spleen, and lungs are referred to the blood; the intestines to the blood, lymph, and bile; the kidneys to the blood and fat; the testicles to the blood, lymph, and fat; the heart to the blood and lymph; and the tongue to the lymph, blood, and flesh. *Vâyu*, with the accompaniment of animal heat, impels the "currents" (*śrotâmsi*) in the system; *Vâyu* acting on the flesh gives rise to the muscles; and it is *Vâyu*, again, which, with the essence of fat (or marrow), produces the nerves, arteries, and tendons (Suśruta, *Śârîrasthâna*, Chap. IV., and *Sûtrasthâna*, Chap. XIV.).

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The following parts (tissues and organs) in the fœtus are in a special sense modifications of the four organic substances (compounds) contributed by the sperm-cell of the male parent: hair, nails, teeth, bones, nerves, veins and arteries, tendons and ligaments, and the sperm-cell; the following are modifications of the four organic substances derived from the mother: skin, blood, flesh, fat, the heart, liver and spleen, kidneys, stomach, intestines, etc. (Charaka, *Śârîrasthâna*, Chap. III.).

c9.s3.5

The rudiments of the head and the limbs begin to appear in the third month, and are developed in the fourth; the bones, ligaments, nails, hair, etc., become distinct in the sixth. In the second month the sexual character is indicated by the shape of the fœtus, the shape of a round joint (?) indicating the male sex, and an elongated shape, as of a muscle (?), the female sex. (*Cf.* Charaka, *Śârîrasthana*, Chap. IV.—द्वितीयेमासि घनः सम्पद्यते पिण्डः पेश्यर्बुदंवा। तत्र घनः पिण्डः पुरुषः स्त्री पेशी अर्बुदं नपुंसकः Chakrapâni notes घनः कठिनः। पिण्डो ग्रन्थाकारः। पेशी दीर्घमांसपेश्याकारा। अर्बुदं वर्तलोच्चत *loc. cit.*)

Section 9. Heredity

c9.s4.2

Transmission of specific characters—what parental characters are transmitted to offspring.—The question is raised in Charaka (and earlier still in the *Brâhmanas*) how specific characters are transmitted—why the offspring is of the same species as the parental organism, say, the human or bovine species, the equine species (Charaka), or the Asvattha species, Ficus religiosa (Śankara, Brihadâraṇyaka-bhâṣya). Species (योनयः) may be compared to so many moulds, as it were, into which the ovum is cast, even as molten metals are cast in moulds. This is of course only an illustrative analogy; the cause has to be investigated.

c9.s4.3

Now Charaka and Suśruta, following Dhanvantari, hold that the fœtus, or rather the fertilised ovum, develops by palingenesis (instead of epigenesis); in other words, all the organs are potentially present therein at the same time, and unfold in a certain order. As the sprouting bamboo-seed contains in miniature the entire structure of the bamboo, as the mango-blossom contains the stone, the pulp, the fibres, which appear separated and distinct in the ripe fruit, though from their excessive minuteness they are undistinguishable in the blossom, even such is the case with the fertilised ovum.

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