Dighanikaya 31: 8. Siṅgālasuttavaṇṇanā

Explanation of the Origin Story

“Thus have I heard” introduces the Siṅgāla Sutta. Herein, this is the explanation of the terms whose meaning is not plain: “in the Bamboo Grove, at the Squirrels' Feeding Ground” (veḷuvane kalandakanivāpe): “Bamboo Grove” is the name of that park. It is said that it was encircled by bamboo, and enclosed by an eighteen-cubit wall equipped with gateway towers, radiant with green, and charming; therefore it is called the Bamboo Grove. And food was given to squirrels there; therefore it is called the Squirrels' Feeding Ground.

Formerly, it is said, a certain king came there to sport in the park, and intoxicated with the frenzy of liquor, fell asleep during the day. His attendants, thinking, “The king is asleep,” enticed by flowers, fruits, and the like, wandered off here and there. Then, attracted by the smell of liquor, a black snake emerged from a hollow tree and was approaching towards the king. Seeing it, a tree deity, thinking, “I will save the king's life,” came in the guise of a squirrel and made a sound near his ear. The king awoke. The black snake turned back. Having seen it, the king thought, “My life was saved by this squirrel,” and he established regular food for the squirrels there and proclaimed a proclamation of safety. Therefore, from that time onward, it came to be known as “the Squirrels' Feeding Ground.” For kalandaka is a name for squirrels.

"Now at that time" means at the time when the Blessed One was dwelling at Rājagaha in the Bamboo Grove, the Squirrels' Feeding Ground, having made Rājagaha his resort for alms. "Siṅgālaka the householder's son": Siṅgālaka was his name. "The householder's son" means the son of a householder is a householder's son. His father, it is said, was a wealthy householder of great property, and in his house forty crores of wealth were buried and stored away. He was a lay follower who had reached certainty regarding the Blessed One, a stream-enterer, and his wife too was a stream-enterer. But his son was devoid of faith, lacking devotion. Then his parents repeatedly exhorted him thus: "Dear boy, approach the Teacher; approach the General of the Dhamma, Mahāmoggallāna, Mahākassapa, and the eighty great disciples." He spoke thus: "I have no business approaching your recluses. If one goes into the presence of recluses, one has to pay homage; for one paying homage by bending down, the back aches, the knees become rough, and one has to sit on the ground. When one sits there, one's clothes become soiled and worn out. From the time one sits nearby, conversation takes place; when that happens, familiarity arises; then having invited them, robes, almsfood, and the like must be given. When this is the case, one's wealth dwindles. I have no business approaching your recluses." Thus, even though they exhorted him for as long as they lived, his parents were unable to bring him into the Dispensation.

Then his father, lying on his deathbed, thought: "It is fitting to give an admonition to my son." Having thought so, he further thought: "I will give him an admonition thus: 'Dear boy, worship the directions.' Not knowing the meaning, he will worship the directions. Then the Teacher or his disciples, having seen him, will ask: 'What are you doing?' Then he will say: 'My father admonished me, saying: "Worship the directions."' Then they will teach him the Dhamma: 'Your father does not have you worship these directions, but rather he has you worship these [other] directions.' Having understood the merit in the Buddha's Dispensation, he will perform wholesome deeds." Then, having summoned him, he said: "Dear boy, having risen early in the morning, you should worship the six directions." Words spoken by one lying on a deathbed should be remembered for as long as one lives. Therefore, that householder's son, remembering his father's words, acted accordingly. Therefore it is said: "Having risen early and gone out from Rājagaha," and so forth.

"The various directions" means the many directions. Now, showing them, he said: "the eastern direction," and so forth. "He entered": he had not yet entered, but because he set out with the intention, "I will enter," he is spoken of in this way even while proceeding on the road midway. "The Blessed One saw": he did not see him only just then; rather, in the early morning at dawn too, while surveying the world with the Buddha-eye, having seen him worshipping the directions, [the Blessed One thought:] "Today I will speak to Siṅgāla, the householder's son, the Siṅgāla Suttanta, the layman's discipline; that talk will be fruitful for the great multitude; I must go there." Therefore, having set out early in the morning, he entered Rājagaha for alms, and while entering, he saw him in that very way. Hence it is said: "The Blessed One saw." "He said this": he, it is said, did not see the Teacher even though he was standing nearby; he only worshipped the directions. Then the Blessed One, opening his mouth like a great lotus blooming at the touch of the sun's rays, said this: "Why now, householder's son?" and so forth.

Explanation of the Six Directions and the Rest

"How then, venerable sir?": he, it is said, having heard that statement of the Blessed One, immediately thought: "Those six directions which my father said were to be worshipped are not, it seems, these ones; it is, it seems, another six directions that are to be worshipped by a noble disciple. Come, having asked about the very directions to be worshipped by a noble disciple, I will worship them." Inquiring about them, he said: "How then, venerable sir?" and so forth. In that passage, "how" is merely a particle. "How then?" is this very interrogative word. "Defilements of action": by those actions beings are defiled, therefore they are called defilements of action. "From the grounds": from the causes. "Openings to ruin": paths to destruction. "He": that stream-enterer, the noble disciple. "Removed from the fourteen evils": departed from these fourteen evil, wretched things. "One who covers the six directions": covering the six directions. "For victory in both worlds": for the sake of conquering both, this world and the world beyond. "This world is won by him": for one of such a nature, the five enmities do not exist in this world, and thereby this world is won by him, both gratified and accomplished. In the world beyond too, the five enmities do not exist, and thereby the other world is won by him. Therefore, with the breakup of the body, after death, he is reborn in a good destination, in a heavenly world.

Thus the Blessed One, having laid down the summary in brief, now expanding upon that very thing, said: "Which are the four defilements of action?" and so forth. "Defilement of action": it is an action, and because it is associated with defilement it is a defilement; thus it is a defilement of action. For only one with defilements kills a living being, not one free from defilements; therefore, taking life is called a "defilement of action." In the case of taking what is not given and the rest, this same method applies. "Then further": the meaning is that he also spoke this further verse composition explaining that very meaning.

Explanation of the Four Grounds and the Rest

"He does bad deeds": because the non-doer becomes obvious when the doer is shown, the Blessed One, despite laying down the matrix as "he does no bad deeds," spoke showing the doer first through his skill in teaching. Therein, "one who goes by bias": one who, through bias or affection, goes into a biased course and does what ought not to be done. The method is the same in the subsequent phrases as well. Therein, one who makes a non-owner the owner through bias, thinking, "This is my friend," or "my intimate," or "an acquaintance," or "a relative," or "he gives me a bribe," this one, going by bias, is said to do bad deeds. One who makes the owner a non-owner out of habitual enmity or through anger arisen at that moment, thinking, "This is my enemy," this one, going by hatred, is said to do bad deeds. But one who, out of dullness or stupidity, says whatever and makes the non-owner the owner, this one, going by delusion, is said to do bad deeds. Furthermore, one who, being afraid, thinking, "This is a king's favorite," or "one relying on treacherous persons, he might even cause me harm," makes the non-owner the owner, this one, going by fear, is said to do bad deeds. Moreover, when distributing something, one who, out of affection, gives extra thinking, "This is an acquaintance," or "an intimate of mine"; out of hatred gives less thinking, "This is my enemy"; out of stupidity, not knowing what has been given and what not, gives less to someone and more to someone; or out of fear gives extra to someone thinking, "If this is not given to him, he might even cause me harm"—he too, in all four ways, in regular order, going by bias and so forth, is said to do bad deeds.

A noble disciple, however, even when reaching the destruction of life, does not go by bias and so forth. Therefore it is said: "Through these four ways he does no bad deeds."

"His reputation wanes": of that person who follows biased courses, both his fame and his following wane, they diminish.

Explanation of the Six Openings to Ruin and so forth

"Devotion to negligence regarding strong drink, spirits, and fermented intoxicants": here, "strong drink" means five kinds of strong drink: flour-liquor, cake-liquor, boiled-rice liquor, liquor with added yeast, and liquor combined with ingredients. "Spirits" means five fermented liquors: flower-spirits, fruit-spirits, honey-spirits, molasses-spirits, and spirits combined with ingredients. All of that is an "intoxicant" because of its intoxicating effect. "Occasion for negligence" means a cause for negligence. This is a designation for that volition by which one drinks that intoxicant. "Devotion" means devotedness to that occasion for negligence regarding strong drink, spirits, and fermented intoxicants—repeated indulgence. Because, for one devoted to this, possessions that have arisen diminish, and those that have not arisen do not arise, it is therefore called an "opening to ruin of wealth." "Devotion to roaming the streets at unseasonable hours" means the state of being devoted to roaming about in the streets at improper times.

"Frequenting gatherings" means going to assemblies for the purpose of seeing dances and the like. "Devotion to idleness" means being engaged and repeatedly engaged in physical laziness.

Explanation of the Six Dangers of Strong Drink and Spirits and so forth

Having thus laid down the matrix of the six openings to ruin, now, analyzing them, he said: "There are six dangers, householder's son," and so forth. Therein, "visible here and now": to be seen by oneself, occurring in this present world. "Loss of wealth": diminution of wealth. "Promoting quarrels": increasing verbal disputes and physical fights such as laying hands [on others]. "A breeding ground for diseases": a field for these various diseases such as eye diseases. "Engendering ill repute": for having drunk strong drink, they strike even their mother, even their father, speak much other improper speech, and do what should not be done. Thereby they encounter blame, punishment, and even amputation of hands, feet, and so forth; they incur ill repute both in this world and in the next world. Thus, for them that strong drink is said to engender ill repute. "Exposing indecency": for a secret part, when exposed, disturbs and destroys a sense of shame; hence it is called "indecency." And intoxicated with strong drink, they wander about exposing various parts of the body; therefore, from exposing their indecency, that strong drink is called "exposing indecency." "Weakening wisdom": it weakens the wisdom regarding ownership of kamma, as in the case of Sāgata Thera; therefore it is said to be "weakening wisdom." However, it is unable to weaken the wisdom of the path. For among those who have attained the path, it does not even enter their mouth. "The sixth factor" means the sixth cause.

"He himself is unguarded and unprotected": for roaming at the wrong time, he steps even on stumps, thorns, and the like, he encounters even snakes, yakkhas, and the like, and enemies, knowing that he goes to such-and-such a place, lie in wait and seize him or kill him. In this way he himself is unguarded and unprotected. His wife and children too: thinking, "Our father, our master wanders at night, why shouldn’t we?", his sons, daughters, and wife, making an arrangement outside and wandering at night, come to ruin and misfortune. In this way his wife and children too are unguarded and unprotected. "Property": knowing that his wife, children, and retinue wander at night, thieves enter the empty house and take away whatever they wish. In this way his property too is unguarded and unprotected. "And he is suspected": even concerning evil deeds done by others, he is to be suspected: "It must have been done by him." Whatever house door he passes by, if a theft or adultery was committed there by someone else, when it is said, "It was done by him," even though untrue and non-existent, it sticks and takes hold of him. "And of many painful things": it is impossible to say, "There is only this much suffering, this much grief." When no other person [is found], everything is brought down upon the one who wanders at unseasonable hours; thus he is faced with and a forerunner of many painful things.

"Where is the dancing?": having asked, "In what place is there dancing such as mime and theatrical shows?", he must go wherever it is, in a village or a town. Thinking, "Tomorrow I will go to see the dancing," while preparing his clothes, scents, garlands, and so forth today itself, there is an interruption of work for the entire day. Seeing the dancing keeps him right there for one day, two days, or three days. Then, even if he gets the fortune of rain and so on, when he does not do sowing and the like at the time of sowing and so on, unarisen wealth does not arise; and knowing he has gone outside, thieves do as they wish in the unprotected house, whereby even his arisen wealth is destroyed. In "Where is the singing?" and so forth, this is the method as well. Their distinction was indeed explained in the Brahmajāla.

"Victory [begets] enmity": thinking "I have won," he takes another's cloak or turban in the midst of the assembly; the other, thinking, "You dishonour me in the midst of the assembly; let it be, I will teach him a lesson," harbours enmity right there; thus, winning, he generates enmity himself. "The loser": being defeated by another, he grieves over whatever turban, cloak, or other wealth such as bullion and gold was taken by the other; he grieves on that account, thinking, "Alas, it was mine; alas, that is no longer mine!" In this way, the loser grieves for his wealth. "His word is not accepted when he goes to an assembly": being questioned as a witness in a court of justice, his word is not accepted, does not take hold; there are those who say, "This fellow is a gambler, a dicer; do not take his word." "He is despised by his friends and colleagues": for his friends and colleagues say this to him: "Friend, you are indeed a gentleman, yet you wander about as a gambler, broken and ruined; this is not fitting for your birth and clan; do not do this from now on." Even when spoken to like this, he does not do what they say. Then they do not stand together or sit together with him. Because of him, even when questioned as witnesses, they do not speak. In this way he is despised by his friends and colleagues.

"By those who give and take in marriage": those who take in marriage are those who wish to take a girl from his house. Those who give in marriage are those who wish to give a girl into his house. "He is not sought after": he is not desired. "He is not capable of supporting a wife": he is not able to support a wife. "Whether a girl is given into his house or comes from his house, she will just have to be supported by us."

Explanation of the Six Dangers of Bad Friendship, and so Forth

"Rakes": dice-rakes. "Drunkards": those addicted to women, addicted to food, addicted to cakes, addicted to radishes. "Thirsty": addicted to drink. "Cheats": those who deceive with a counterfeit. "Swindlers": swindlers by direct deception. "Violent men": those who commit violent deeds such as burglary. "These are his friends": these are friends of his. He does not take delight with other good men, like a pig adorned with scents, garlands, and so on and placed on a noble couch [does not take delight there, but rather in] a cesspool; he approaches only bad friends. Therefore, both in this visible world and in the world beyond, he encounters much harm.

"[Saying,] 'It is too cold,' he does not do his work": when he is addressed by people who have risen early, "Come, good sir, let us go to work," he sits warming himself by the fire, saying, "It is too cold just now, it seems my bones are breaking; you go, I will see later." They go and do the work. The other's work is ruined. In "It is too hot" and so forth, this is the method as well.

"One is a drinking companion": someone is a companion only at the drinking place, in the tavern. There is also the reading "pannasakhā" [fallen companion], which has this same meaning. "Saying 'friend, friend'": saying "friend, friend," he is a companion only to one's face; behind one's back, like an enemy, he seeks only an opening. "When affairs have arisen": when business of such a nature has arisen. "Generation of enmity": abundance of enmity. "Harmfulness": doing what is harmful. "Extreme stinginess": great stinginess, the state of rigid avarice. "He sinks into debt as into water": sinking like a stone into water, he plunges into debt.

"By one who hates rising at night": by one who by nature does not get up at night. "It was too late": saying, "This has become too late," they do not do their work. "Their work thus abandoned": their work being abandoned after having spoken in this way. "Opportunities pass by the young man": opportunities pass by such a person; they do not remain with them.

"More than grass" means even higher than grass. "He does not lose happiness" means that man does not abandon happiness; he is continuously endowed with happiness. By this line of talk he shows this meaning: "Being a householder, so much work should not be done; for one doing it, there is no growth. In this world and in the world beyond, he receives only reproach."

Explanation of the Counterfeit Friend and Others

Now, whatever misfortune arises for one doing so, or whatever other perils, troubles, or misfortunes there are, they all arise on account of a fool. Therefore, to show fools who are counterfeit friends, non-friends, saying, "These evildoers are not to be associated with," he said: "These four, householder's son, are non-friends" and so on. Therein, "one who takes only for himself" means one who, having come empty-handed, certainly takes just anything away. "One supreme in words" means one for whom talk is supreme; merely by words he is like a giver and a doer. "A flatterer" means he speaks flattering words. "A companion in ruin" means he is a companion in the ruin of wealth.

Having thus shown the four non-friends, in order to analyze each one among them further with four factors, he said: "In four ways indeed, householder's son" and so on. Therein, "he is one who takes only for himself" means he is definitely only a taker. Having come empty-handed to his friend's house, he praises the worn garments and the like; and the other says, "Friend, you praise this excessively," and having put on another, gives it to him. "He desires much for little" means having given some small thing, he wishes for much from him. "He does a duty out of fear" means when his own danger has arisen, becoming like his slave he does this or that duty for him; he does not do it all the time, but does it when danger has arisen, not out of love—thus he has become a non-friend. "He associates for the sake of benefit" means he does not associate out of intimacy with a friend; hoping for his own benefit alone, he associates.

"He welcomes with the past" means when a friend has come, he receives him with the past in this way: "You did not come yesterday or the day before; on this occasion our crop turned out exceedingly well, and having set aside many seeds of rice, barley, and so forth, we sat watching the road, but today everything is finished." "With the future" means he receives him with the future in this way: "On this occasion our crop will be lovely, the rice and other grains laden with a heavy harvest; when the harvest is gathered, we will be able to show hospitality to you." "With what is useless" means seated on the neck of an elephant or on the back of a horse, having seen his friend he says: "Come, sir, sit here!" Having put on an attractive garment, he says: "Indeed, this would be suitable for my friend, but I have no other"—thus he receives him with what is useless. "He shows adversity regarding present duties" means when it is said, "I need a cart," he says: "Its wheel is broken, the axle is snapped," and so forth.

"He approves even of his bad deed" means when it is said, "Let us do whatever [evil] among killing living beings and so forth," he approves: "Good, friend, let us do it!" In the case of a good deed also, this is the method. "He is a companion" means when it is said, "They are drinking liquor in such and such a place, come, let us go there," he says: "Good," and goes. This is the method everywhere. "Having understood thus" means having known in this way: "These are counterfeit friends."

Explanation of the Good-Hearted Friend and Others

Having thus shown the bad friends who are not to be associated with, now, in showing the good friends who are to be associated with, he said again: "These four, householder's son" and so on. Therein, "good-hearted" means those of beautiful heart.

"He protects the heedless" means having seen him drunk from liquor, lying down in the middle of the village, at the village gate, or on the road, he thinks: "Someone might even take the inner and outer clothing of one lying down like this," and sitting near him, takes him and goes when he wakes up. "The property of the heedless" means the friend has gone outside or is heedless, having drunk liquor; the house being unprotected, he thinks: "Someone might take just anything," and having entered the house, he protects his property. "Of the frightened" means when some fear has arisen, he is a refuge, removing that fear, saying: "Do not fear; when a friend like me is present, why do you fear?" "Double the wealth" means when some business to be done has arisen, having seen his friend who has come into his presence, he says: "Why have you come?" "There is business at the royal court." "What is needed to be obtained?" "One kahāpaṇa." Saying: "Business in the city is not accomplished with just one kahāpaṇa, take two!"—whatever amount he mentions, he gives twice that.

"He reveals his secret to him" means, without telling another, he reveals to him alone his own secret, speech that ought to be concealed. "He conceals his secret" means he protects a secret told by him so that no one else knows. "He does not abandon him in misfortunes" means when danger has arisen, he does not forsake him. "Even his life for his sake" means even his own life is indeed given up for the sake of that friend; even disregarding his own life, he indeed does his work.

"He restrains from evil" means he restrains him, saying: "While we are watching, you are not permitted to do such a thing; do not commit the five enmities, the ten courses of unwholesome action!" "He establishes in the good" means he enjoins him in the good in this way: "Engage in good action, in the three refuges, in the five precepts, in the ten courses of wholesome action; give gifts, make merit, listen to the Dhamma!" "He makes him hear what has not been heard" means he makes him hear a subtle, refined matter that has not been heard before. "The path to heaven" means he explains the path to heaven in this way: "Having done this deed, one is reborn in heaven."

“He does not rejoice in his misfortune” means that when such loss occurs to his children and wife or his retinue through his ruin or lack of growth, upon seeing or hearing of it, he does not rejoice, but is displeased. “In his fortune” means that through his growth, upon seeing or hearing of such success or acquisition of authority, he rejoices and is pleased. “He checks anyone who speaks in dispraise of him” means that when it is said, “So-and-so is ugly, unattractive, base-born, and immoral,” he checks the other person who speaks in dispraise of his friend with words such as: “Do not speak like that; he is handsome, attractive, well-born, and endowed with virtue.” “He praises anyone who speaks in praise of him” means that when it is said, “So-and-so is handsome, attractive, well-born, and endowed with virtue,” he praises the other person who speaks in praise of his friend, saying: “Oh, you speak well! Well spoken by you! It is just so: this man is handsome, attractive, well-born, and endowed with virtue.”

“He shines like a blazing fire” means that he shines like a fire blazing on a mountaintop at night.

“For one gathering wealth” means for one amassing, accumulating wealth righteously and fairly without oppressing oneself or another. “As the bee proceeds” means just as a bee, without injuring the color or scent of flowers, gathers nectar with its mouth and wings and gradually builds a honeycomb the size of a wheel, so for one gradually building a great mass of wealth. “His wealth accumulates” means his wealth reaches accumulation. How? Like an anthill being gradually built up by termites. Hence it is said: “It grows like an anthill.” The meaning is that just as an anthill grows, so it reaches accumulation.

“Having gathered” means having accumulated. “Fit for the purpose” means possessing suitable nature, or competent and adequate to establish a household.

Now, instructing on how the household should be established, he said, “Let him divide his wealth into four,” and so forth. There, “He indeed binds friends” means that dividing [his wealth] in this way, he establishes friends unbreakable. For he who has wealth can indeed maintain friends, not the other.

“He should enjoy his wealth with one portion” means he should consume wealth with one share. “With two he should conduct his business” means he should engage in agriculture, trade, and other work with two shares. “And the fourth he should store up” means he should set aside the fourth share, having stored it up. “It will be for times of misfortune” means for families do not always fare identically; sometimes misfortunes also arise on account of kings and the like, therefore, thinking “it will be [useful] when such misfortunes have arisen,” he said, “he should store up one share.” But among these four shares, having taken which share should one perform wholesome deeds? The share mentioned as “he should enjoy his wealth.” Having taken from that, gifts should be given both to monastics and to the destitute, travelers, and the like, and wages should be paid to weavers, barbers, and the like.

Exposition of the Section on Covering the Six Directions

Thus, through this much course of discourse, having given advice to the householder's son so that the noble disciple, abandoning the unwholesome through four reasons, avoiding the ruinous ways to wealth through six reasons, associating with the sixteen friends, establishing a household, maintaining a family, lives by a righteous livelihood and shines among gods and humans like a mass of fire, for the sake of avoiding what should be avoided and practicing what should be practiced, now, showing the six directions that should be revered, he said, “And how, householder's son,” and so forth.

There, “one who covers the six directions”: one who lives in such a way that danger coming from the six directions does not come, who is safe and without fear, is called “one who covers the six directions.” In “Mother and father are to be regarded as the eastern direction,” and so forth, mother and father are to be regarded as the eastern direction because they have helped first. Teachers as the southern direction because they are worthy of offerings. Wife and children as the western direction by way of following behind. Friends and companions, since one overcomes various kinds of suffering on their account, are therefore the northern direction. Slaves and workers as the lower direction by way of standing at the soles of the feet. Ascetics and brahmins, because of their standing above through their virtues, are to be regarded as the upper direction.

“Supported, I will support them” means I was supported, nourished, cared for by my mother and father, who breastfed me, grew my hands and feet, wiped away snot with their mouth, bathed me, and adorned me; today I will support them in their old age by washing their feet, bathing them, giving them gruel and food, and the like.

“I will perform their duties for them” means putting aside my own work, I will go and perform the duties of my mother and father that arise in royal families and the like. “I will maintain the family lineage” means even by protecting the property belonging to one's mother and father—fields, estates, gold, coin, and the like—without destroying it, one is said to maintain the family lineage. Even by removing one's mother and father from an unrighteous lineage and establishing them in a righteous lineage, and by continuing without interruption the food by ticket and so forth that has come down through the family lineage, one is said to maintain the family lineage. With reference to this it was said: “I will maintain the family lineage.”