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The Geography of the Puranas c7: Chapter I Sources of Puranic Geography

The Geography of the Purāṇas c7

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Chapter I Sources of Puranic Geography

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THE geography of the Purāṇas chiefly hinges on religion. It has its tap root in ancient traditions and religious compositions which are infused with the spirit of adventure and appreciation of scenic beauty (both of which constitute a favourable equipment in the making of geographers). Every physical phenomenon, every major or spectacular landmark on the earth's surface, has a religious background for Indians; every mountain peak, every river, every crag, every useful tree is sacred and is preserved in these traditions. They provide the physical background of events which occurred on the world stage since times immemorial and have been recorded in what is called the ancient Indian sacred literature. This sacred literature, which goes back to two or three thousand years B.C., abounds in geographical material and is the primary source of Purāṇic geography.

The Vedas

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The Ṛgveda Saṃhitā mentions tribes, rivers and a few mountains and deals particularly with the natural phenomena which appealed to the aesthetic sense of their authors. It contains accounts of (1) the fight of Indra and the gods against Vṛtra and his herds; (2) the fight of Indra and Divodāsa against Sambara and his army; (3) the fight of Kutsa against Suṣṇa and his army; (4) the fight of Indra against various Asura chiefs; (5) the recovery of cows by the Angirasas from the Pāṇis; (6) the war carried on by Ten Kings against Sudāsa; (7) the wars that were waged between different countries; (8) the activities of the various priestly clans which were the authors of the Ṛgvedic hymns; (9) the exploits of Indra, Aśvins and other gods; (10) the tribes which belonged to the Āryan stock and also of those tribes which came under the Āryan influences.

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The variation of the above mentioned events naturally introduces facts pertaining to descriptive geography—i.e., the various lands, their physical content, their boundaries, their people as well as ideas regarding physical geography, i.e., atmosphere, land and water. The main contribution, however, of the Ṛgveda to the Purāṇic geography is its cosmology and cosmogony which are repeated in the original or modified form in all the Purāṇas.

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Ideas regarding the causes of the winds, clouds and rainfall, the movement of the sun, the moon and the planets, the phenomena of the seasons, of day and night, of eclipses and the cardinal points, all of which are linked with problems of cosmology and cosmogony, are reflected in subsequent literature, particularly the Purāṇas. The topography of the Ṛgveda is limited to the description of 21 rivers¹ in all (5, 53, 9), (10, 64, 6) and (75, 5, 6). In verse (10, 64, 9) the Saraswatī, Sarayū and Sindhu are mentioned as the ‘leaders’ of these rivers—the Saraswatī as that of the first group (10, 75, 5), the Sindhu of the second group (10, 75, 6) and the Sarayū of the third (5, 53, 9). Of the mountains only the Himavanta (10, 121, 4) and Muñjavān (10, 34, 1) find a place in the Ṛgvedic hymns. All these rivers, their names and the order in which they are mentioned figure in the Purāṇas.

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In the Ṛgveda most of all the importance appears to have been attached to natural vegetation, fauna and human groups (tribes), settlements and occupations. A classification of natural vegetation into vṛkṣa (trees), oṣadhi or virudha (shrubs) and tṛṇa (grass) and characteristics of different plants² in each group are provided in the Ṛgveda (10, 97). Natural vegetation played an important part in the religion of the Āryans. Ritual performances were made by using numerous products derived from plants, and certain plants acquired the status of gods. As such, all these plants have an important place in later literature, especially in the Purāṇas. The same applies to animals which were classified by Vedic Āryans as wild beasts (mṛga), amphibious animals (śiṃśumāra), aquatic animals (purīkāyas), insects and worms (kīṭa), birds (pakṣī) and domestic animals.

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Facts of human geography, i.e., those pertaining to man’s adjustment to nature and their ideas and actions have been elaborately and precisely dealt with in the Ṛgveda and are intimately associated with religious ritual. Every human activity related to the earth and its resources, i.e., agriculture, animal husbandry, irrigation, industries, means of transport, houses and settlements, diet, clothing and social relations, finds a suitable place in the sacred book and provides a key to corresponding accounts in the Purāṇas and other ancient works. The Ṛgveda is the ultimate source of all the knowledge which was embodied in subsequent literature including the Purāṇas.

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The three Vedas (the Yajurveda, the Sāmaveda and the Atharvaveda), the Brāhmaṇas, the Āraṇyakas, the Upaniṣads and the Kalpa Sūtras belong to a later period and were composed during several centuries which followed the compilation of the Ṛgvedic hymns. Like the Ṛgveda they too are not geographical treatises, but some of them like the Atharvaveda, the Brāhmaṇas and the Sūtras contain geographical material (mentioned below) which in one form or the other found its way into the Purāṇas.

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The astronomical notions of the Purāṇas are not only based on, but also in many cases borrowed from the later Vedas, the Brāhmaṇas and the Sūtras. They contribute most of the ideas regarding the shape of the earth, the movement of the sun, the moon and the planets, the solstices, lunar mansions, the phases of the moon, directions and associated gods, computation of time, day and night, year and its components to all the Purāṇas which either repeat or modify them to suit the exigencies of narration.

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The description of topographical features in the later Vedic literature is slightly better developed than in the Ṛgveda. This is natural, since with the ‘Aryanisation’ of the far-flung areas, the need for a detailed knowledge of those areas was felt and provided for in the later works. As mentioned earlier, only a few mountains are referred to in the Ṛgveda. To the Ṛgvedic Himavanta and Mūñjavān, the Taittirīya Āraṇyaka and the Sūtra texts add an important feature—the Mahāmeru, which is the core of the Purāṇic mountain system. The Atharvaveda (19, 39, 8) and the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa (1, 8, 1-10) add Navaprabhraṃśana in connection with the Great Deluge. The Yajurveda (Mait. Saṃh. and Kāthaka Saṃh.) for the first time mentions the three-peaked Trikakubha (or Trikakud of Atharvaveda and Śatp. Brāh.). Taitt. Āraṇyaka refers to two other mountains, the Maināka and the Krauñca. The southern Mountain (most probably the Vindhyas) appears for the first time in the Kauśitakī Up. (11, 13), while the name Vindhya occurs expressly in the Vasiṣṭha Dharma Sūtra (1, 9) and the Manusmṛti (11, 21). To this the Sūtras add the Pāripātra as the southern boundary of the Āryan land.

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The Saṃhitās and Upaniṣads enlarge and systematise the drainage pattern of the Ṛgveda. The Śat. Brāh. and Ait. Brāh. refer to a set of seven rivers flowing to the west while Bṛhadā. Up. adds another set of seven rivers flowing to the east. To the Ṛgvedic list is added Sadānīrā (probably Gaṇḍaka, Śat. Brāh. I, 4, 1, 14), Vāraṇāvatī (Atharvaveda, IV, 7, 1) and a few minor rivers. The list, however, swells and becomes comprehensive in the epics and is later transferred to the Purāṇas.

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The Purāṇic references to climatic elements are meagre as compared with those occurring in the Vedic literature. They no doubt draw upon the latter but nowhere do they improve upon or excel the older accounts. It may be argued that perhaps the Purāṇas did not attach so much importance to climate as the Vedic Āryans did, or they considered it irrelevant to their subject matter, and were content with the knowledge of its elements as conveyed by the ancients. The division of the atmosphere (rajas) into divya and pārthivya (Ṛgveda, IV, 53, 3), or into Uttama, Parama and Tṛtīya (Ṛgveda, X, 45, 3) which anticipated the modern atmospheric layers, is quite old, so are the types of winds, Vāyu, Maruts and Rudra referred to in the Rgveda, Taitt. Saṁh. and Ait. Brāh. The phenomena of rainfall and its causes, types of clouds and climatic regions are directly or indirectly mentioned in the Rgveda and other Saṁhitās. The Purāṇas very often repeat, sometimes neglect, and only very rarely add to these ideas.

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The Ait. and other Brāhmaṇas and Sūtras add the names of more trees, animals, shrubs and grasses typical of the Gangetic valley to those mentioned in the Rgveda. The Atharvaveda adds and describes an important class of shrubs with medicinal properties and used as cures, such as kuṣṭha, jaṅgira, apāmārga, arundhati, paṭa, etc. (Atharvaveda, XII, 1, 2). It also gives some of the trees a higher status among plants, for instance, the pipala or aśvattha was supposed to 'protect its worshipper from superhuman foes and help him in overcoming his rivals' (Atharvaveda, III, 6). The udumbara (gūlar), though mentioned in the Rgveda gained paramount importance as a sacred tree in the post-Rgvedic period. Nyagrodha (the banyan tree, meaning literally, 'growing downwards') was also considered sacred and its divine properties are for the first time mentioned in the Ait. Brāh. (VII, 30), Taitt. Saṁh. and Sūtras. Bilva or vilva (bela), karkandhu or badarī (bera), plakṣa (pākhar), karsmaria, khajūra, varaṇa, vikarkaṭa, rajjudata (lesora), rohitaka, talasa, pitūdaru, vibhīdaka (whose nuts were used as dice) and arka are some of the important trees added by the Atharvaveda, Taitt. Saṁh. and the Brāhmaṇas. Gobhila gives a long list of trees, most of which are not identifiable, e.g., tilvaka, bādhaka, the nimba tree, rajavnika, aralu, dadhititha, kovidāra and śleṣamalka. Occasionally veṇu (bamboo), amba (mango) and śiṁśapa (shisham) are also mentioned in the Brāhmaṇas and Upaniṣads. The Purāṇas attach equal importance to sacred trees, shrubs and grasses and add a few more to each class while presenting geographical or non-geographical material. It is to be noted that practically all the plants mentioned above belong to Northern India.

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The cult of sacrifice and hunting economy attached great importance to certain animals—both wild and domestic. 'Paśu' in the Vedic language included man among the five or seven animals fit for sacrifice. Taitt. Saṁh. (IV, 2, 10, 1-4), Vāj. Saṁh. (XIII, 47, 51) and the Atharvaveda (XI, 2, 9) mention five: man, cow, sheep, goat and horse. Atharvaveda (III, 10, 6) adds the ass and the camel to this list and in general provides categories of birds and animals in four verses (Atharvaveda, XI, 2, 24 and 25; XII, 1, 49 and 51) which lay down the pattern of classification of animals including birds, reptiles, insects and worms in later works. The Purāṇas follow this classification and add members to each category, but such additions are incidental and not deliberate. These additions are the direct result of their observation or experience of them in other regions of India.

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The human geography, which finds its roots in the Ṛgveda is carried over and reoriented in subsequent Vedic literature. The reorientation and revision of the facts of human geography (including economic, social and cultural) has been a progressive and continuous process, since it is linked with the progress of man and the crystallisation of human activities. The specialisation of occupations and its corollary, the caste system, the status of different human groups, development of civic sense and growing mental and physical needs, naturally resulted in the changing pattern of physical and cultural landscape. The simple Ṛgveda pattern gradually developed into the complicated but picturesque pattern of the Purāṇas.

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The population pattern, i.e., its distribution and agglomeration is frequently referred to in the Vedic literature. The ‘grāmas’ and ‘puras’ (strongholds or forts) of the Ṛgveda and the ‘nagaras’ of the post-Ṛgvedic period clearly point out the nucleation of population as well-defined settlements in the land of the Āryans, although but few names of cities or towns appear in their discussions. For instance, in the vast Vedic literature mentioned above, only a few cities like Āsandivat (Ait. Brāh., VIII, 21), Kampila (Vāj. Saṃh., XXIII, 18; Śat. Brāh. XIII, 2, 8, 3), Paricakrā (Śat. Brāh., XIII, 5, 4, 7) and Kauśāmbeya or Kuśāmba (Śat. Brāh., XII, 2, 2, 13) receive some attention. n the Epic and the Purāṇic periods when the impact of politics on religion became more pronounced, references to political divisions, capital cities and administrative and strategic centres increased along with those to religious centres. But the genesis of human settlements, irrespective of their size, that is, their division into segregated quarters of different castes, persisted throughout.

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Perhaps the most important contribution of the Vedic literature to the Purāṇas (next to its cosmogony and cosmology) is its system of regional division. The Vedic regions are in fact ‘human’ or ‘cultural’ regions, i.e., the division of land into the ‘countries’ of different tribes or communities. This system became so popular and deep-rooted that none of the later works, religious or secular, could break away from it. The pattern was laid down by the Vedas for all time to come.

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The Ṛgveda refers repeatedly to the ‘five tribes’ collectively known as ‘pañcajanāḥ’ or ‘pañcakṣiti’—i.e., Anus, Druhyus, Purus, Turvasas and Yadus. But it may be noted that the frequency of such references ceases after the Brāhmaṇas. The Alinas, Bhalanas, Pakthas, Viṣāṇis and Śivis were the other five tribes that took part in the Battle of Ten Kings against Sudāsa (Ṛgveda, VII, 18, 7). The Kṛvis (Pañcālas of later period) are also mentioned many times in the Ṛgveda. In Satapatha Brāhmaṇa the name of a Pañcāla king is given as Kraivya Pañcāla. Other tribes, e.g., the Mūjavantas or Muñjavantas, the Ārjikas, the Gandhāris, Bharatas, Tritsus (one of whose kings, Sudāsa, fought a decisive battle against the Ten Kings referred to above and against three non-Aryan tribes, Ajas, Sigrus and Yakṣas) and the Uśinara tribe also figure in the Ṛgveda. In addition to these, the Ṛgveda refers to the non-Aryan tribes of the Kikaṭas, Pārāvatas, Simyus and Paṇis, the latter being the most prominent.

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The later Vedic literature adds to this list the Kurus and the Pañcālas (Kāṭh. Saṁh. and Kauśīt Up. and Bṛhad. Up.) who reached their zenith in the Brāhmaṇa period, Vashas (associated with Uśinaras and living somewhere near Kurus and Pañcālas) (Ait. Br., VIII, 14), Kāśī, Kosala and Videha (Brāhmaṇas), Magadhas (Śat. Brāh., I, 4, 1, 10 and Atharvaveda, V, 22, 14), Aṅgas (Atharvaveda, V, 22, 14), Puṇḍras (Ait. Br., VII, 8), Vaṅgas (Ait. Āraṇ., II, 1, 1), Matsyas (Śat. Brāh., XIII, 5, 4, 9) Sātvanas (Ait. Br., VIII, 14), Pulindas (Ait., Br., VII, 18), Vidarbhas (Ait. Br., VII, 34), Andhras (Ait. Br., VII, 18, where they, along with the Puṇḍras, Sabaras, Pulindas and Mūtibas are described as inhabitants beyond the boundaries of the Āryan territory). Kaliṅgas, Avantis and Saurāṣṭras appear in Baudhāyana (Dh. Sūt. I, 1, 2, 13-15), the first two being considered unholy. Each of these tribes or people was so much associated with a particular region that land and people became synonymous. In many cases where these people formed kingdoms or republics, the name persisted for a long time. Thus Kāśī region, Kāśīs and Kāśī kingdom; Vidarbha region, Vidarbhas and Vidarbha kingdom; Aṅga reign, Aṅgas and Aṅga kingdom, etc., became standard names which were carried over in the works of the post-Vedic period including the Purāṇas.

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If we reconstruct a map of Vedic India, it will show that the Āryan land included the Indo-Gangetic Plain up to the Brahmaputra on the East, Hindūkush on the North-West, Indus on the West, Himālayas on the North and the Vindhyan hills on the South. It will be interesting to compare this map with that of the Purāṇas which is given elsewhere in this work.

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It may be mentioned that the Vedic texts contain reminiscences of the land which the Āryans occupied before they entered India. Two such areas are desribed thus:

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Then in the northern quarter the All-gods anointed him six days with the Pañcaviṁsa, and with this triplet and his yajus and these exclamations for sovereignty. Therefore, in this northern quarter, the lands of Uttara Kurus and the Uttara-Madras, beyond the Himavanta their (kings) are anointed in accordance with the action of gods (Ait. Br., VIII, 14).

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The Uttara Kuru is not mentioned in the Ṛgveda but became important in later times till we find in the Purāṇas that it becomes the northernmost region of Jambū Dvīpa, stretching out to the Arctic (Northern) ocean.

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The Epics

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The subject matter of the Epics, i.e., the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata, in some cases goes back to the remotest antiquity, but both of them in their existing forms are far later than any of the Vedic hymns, and probably posterior to all the Brāhmaṇas. The two Epics, are intimately related and include a large number of substantially identical verses (for instance, the present edition of the Rāmāyaṇa has copied from the Mahābhārata a whole chapter word for word: Canto 100 of the Ayodhyākāṇḍa is the same as Chapter 5 of the Sabhāparva). However, the original works of Vālmīki, that is to say, Books II-VI of the Rāmāyaṇa are believed to have been completed before the Epic kernel of the Mahābhārata had assumed a definite shape. We shall therefore consider the geographical ideas contained in the Rāmāyaṇa first.

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The Rāmāyaṇa assumes that the entire earth belonged to the kings of the Solar race. In his reply to Vāli, Rāma says: 'The earth inclusive of even the hills and the forests belongs to the Ikṣvākus', but their sovereignty was evidently only a hegemony and not a unitary government. Very possibly it was hegemony only over some parts of India and adjacent lands, since Daśaratha explains this to Kaikeyī (in Ayodhyā, X, 381) and then proceeds to specify various kingdoms in India such as Sindhu, Sauvīra, Saurāṣṭra, Dakṣiṇāpatha, Vaṅga, Aṅga, Magadha, Matsya, Kāśī and Kosala. During the Aśwamedha sacrifice performed by Daśaratha, Vasiṣṭha asks Sumantra to bring all the righteous potentates in India (Bala, XIII, 18). He refers not only to the northern Indian kings of Mithilā, Kāśī, Kekaya and Aṅga, Sindhu, Sauvīra and Saurāṣṭra but also to some of the kings in South India. When Daśaratha calls an assembly of kings and commoners to consider the appointment of a yuvarāja (heir-apparent) he invites the kings of the east, north, west and south (Ayodhyā, III, 24). When Sugrīva sends four parties to search the four quarters for Sītā, we find in those descriptions a detailed delineation of the rivers of India from the Gaṅgā to the Tāmraparṇī and of various kingdoms in Northern as well as Southern India (Canto XLI of Kiṣkindha Kāṇḍa). There is a reference even to Kāvata which was the capital of the Pāṇḍya kingdom. In it we have also references to the lands beyond the Indian sub-continent, for instance, to Ceylon (Laṅkā), Jāvā (Yavadwīpa), Borneo (Suvarṇarūpyaka) as well as to China and Tibet (China and Padma China) and Bālhika, etc. (Uttarakāṇḍa). These seem to be interpolations of a later period. More valuable details are found in the description of journeys to different parts of the country when Viśwāmitra took Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa from Ayodhyā (Oudh) to Siddhāśrama and then to Mithilā (North Bihar and Tirhut); the Epic gives a vivid account of the country traversed by them. The description of journey made by Vasiṣṭha's messengers who were sent to fetch Bharata and Satrughna and that of the journey made by the latter from Girivraja in the Kekaya country (Punjab) to Ayodhyā reveal many interesting geographical features of the north-western regions of India. The narrative of Rāma's journey in exile from Ayodhyā to Citrakūṭa (60 miles south-west of Allahabad) and through the Daṇḍaka forest to Pampā, Kiṣkindhā and Laṅkā and finally the account of various countries of the four quarters of India where the 'vānara' chiefs were sent in sarch of Sītā (in Kiṣkindhā Khāṇḍa) bring out the geography of practically the whole of India and adjacent lands. Again, more facts about the South Indian kingdoms are revealed by the account of Rāvaṇa's car flying from Laṅkā to Mārica's Āśrama. Thus a complete picture of a major part of South-Eastern Asia is presented by the Epic as conceived by Vālmīki.⁴

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Although the major topographical features of North India as given in the Rāmāyaṇa are fairly accurately described, those which pertain to peninsular India are rather confused. It is stated that Rāma went into the Daṇḍaka forest and reached the Mahendra Mountain 'opposite Laṅkā', but the Mahendra Mountain is far away from the present Ceylon. The only possible explanation of these discrepancies appears to be that Vālmīki considered peninsular India to be bounded by the Vindhyas in the North, Sahya and Malaya (known as Western Ghats today) in the West and the Mahendra and Vindhyan ranges were supposed to be so interconnected that they could be considered as one range enclosing the Deccan Plateau on the North and East.

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If we try to visualise the world of the Rāmāyaṇa with the help of the descriptions of mountains and rivers and their relative positions with reference to fixed or known points on the map of India and adjacent lands such as Kāśī, Ayodhyā, Himālaya, Gaṅgā, Citrakūṭa, etc. we come to the conclusion that the world of the Rāmāyaṇa covered the whole of South-Eastern Asia or at least a major part of it. An attempt has been made on the accompanying diagram (Fig. 1) to depict the major topographical features which are described or referred to directly or indirectly, in the Epic. The following points are to be noted because they have a direct bearing on the Purāṇic account of the seven dvīpas or continents.

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1. The northern ocean is placed north of Uttarakuru, the 'Salt Ocean' is identified with the Bay of Bengal. The 'Milk Sea', the 'Sea of Blood' and the 'Fresh-Water Ocean' are located to the east of Bhārata.

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2. Meru is placed to the West of Bhārata.

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3. The Pāriyātra Mountain is linked with the Himālayas and as many as five mountains are located south of Jambū Dvīpa, and an equal number

The World of the Rāmāyaṇa

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THE WORLD OF THE RĀMĀYAṆA

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of them north of it. Again four important ranges are supposed to be west of Bhārata and two on the east.

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4. Kūṭa Sālmali is located to the east of Bhārata.

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The Mahābhārata, as we possess it in three recensions,⁵ cannot be designated correctly as an epic poem. It is a gigantic mass of compositions by various authors on various dates extending over several centuries arranged in eighteen books or parvas with a supplement called the Harivaṃśa, which may be reckoned as the nineteenth book. The number of ślokas exceeds 100,000, while the Harivaṃśa contains over 16,000. It is virtually an encyclopædia of knowledge and moral teachings, and in its own words, contains ‘the essence of the four Vedas’.

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The geographical matter contained in the Mahābhārata is immense. It is perhaps the only great work which deals directly with geographical details, and not incidentally as other works. In the ninth chapter of the Bhīṣma Parva, Sañjaya gives a general description of India consisting of long lists of countries, ‘nations’, mountains and rivers. Again there are descriptions of certain routes which are valuable; for though the distance is hardly ever mentioned, the direction and reference to known places enable one to locate approximately the unknown. Besides, the Mahābhārata mentions in the Ādiparva the twelve years’ sojourn of Arjuna, in the Sabhāparva the conquest of the ‘four quarters’ by the four brothers of Yudhiṣṭira; in the Vanaparva, an account of the Tīrthas and Pāṇḍava’s pilgrimage and in the Aśvamedhaparva, Arjuna's expedition through various countries. The Udyogaparva and the parvas describing the war, mention almost all the Indian people siding with the one party or the other. Another important section forms part of the Sabhāparva which deals with the presents made by different kings and peoples to Yudhiṣṭira and describes the natural and commercial products of different regions of India and some of the adjacent lands.

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To visualise the evolution of the Purāṇic world map it would be necessary to reconstruct a diagram of the world according to the Mahābhārata as we did in the case of the Rāmāyaṇa (Fig. 2). The diagram so constructed shows that it provided the blueprint on which the Purāṇas superimposed their ideas and improved. The two diagrams clearly show that the Rāmāyaṇa laid the foundation, the Mahābhārata reoriented it and the Purāṇas enlarged and perfected it⁶. The Purāṇas practically assign similar names and location to all the mountains, varṣas, rivers and oceans. They had only to rearrange and add details of the different regions of the world so conceived and complete the picture of the surface of the earth.

Astronomical Works

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As mentioned above, the astronomical notions of the Purāṇas are derived from those in the Vedic literature. Subsequently they were modified and enlarged in the light of advancement in astronomical and astrological science made by Indian astronomers. The works of Varāhmihira and Brahmagupta, Āryabhaṭṭa, Bhāskarācārya, Bhaṭṭila, Utpala, Vijayanandi, and others affected current ideas regarding the earth as a unit of the universe. The Purāṇas made a compromise between the scientific observations of the astronomers and the old traditions which had reached them through their sacred literature and wove them in their cosmological patterns. We find in the Viṣṇu Purāṇa chapters on the sun and its movement in the ecliptic, length of day and night, division of time, equinoxes and solstices, northern and southern declination, the planetary system, description of the moon and its movement, the polar star (Dhruva) and typical members of the planetary system. Other Purāṇas also follow the same pattern but add details here and there, which show clearly the impact of the growing knowledge of astronomy on religious thinking and the incorporation of new ideas which could be conveniently fitted into the ancient lore.

Travellers' Accounts

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Travellers' accounts, religious, commercial or expeditionary appear to have influenced the Purāṇic description of the different regions of the world. It is to be noted that all the Purāṇas, though basically identical as regards their geographical content, show variations in their regional accounts, according to their knowledge of various lands acquired through this source. For instance, the Vāyu and the Matsya give far more details about Bhadravaṛṣa and Ketumāla, i.e., extra-Indian territories as compared with others. Obviously these reflect the closer contacts of India with China, South-East Asia and the Trans-Oxus regions which developed during the period when these Purāṇas were composed. Similarly the later Purāṇas also bring out in varying degrees the changing pattern of communities (or tribes) and acquaintance with the topographic details of different regions of India and their inhabitants by the addition or substraction of names to or from the traditional lists of similar features given in the Epics and earlier Purāṇas.

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CHAPTER II Puranic Continents and Oceans

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THE geography of the world and its regions figures in most of the Purāṇas, the main features of the continents and oceans and their subdivisions remaining essentially the same. The Agni and Brahma are word for word the same as the Viṣṇu; and the Kūrma, Liṅga, Matsya, Mārkaṇḍeya and Vāyu present many passages common to them and the Viṣṇu or to one another. The Vāyu enters most fully into particulars. The Bhāgavata differs in its nomenclature of minor details from all, and is followed by the Padma. The others either omit the subject, or refer to it briefly. The Mahābhārata ( Bhīṣma Parva) gives an account which is essentially the same, and many of the stanzas are common to it and the different Purāṇas.

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According to the Purāṇas (except the Padma), the world comprises of seven 'dwīpas.' A 'dwīpa' literally means 'land between two arms of water'. It may signify and 'island', a 'peninsula' or a 'doab' (between two rivers). In ancient Sanskrit literature it has often been used to mean only a division of land (big or small) and no more. These seven dwīpas are so arranged that the central one (called the Jambū Dwīpa) is surrounded by an ocean of salt water. Round this ocean is land again which forms the second dwīpa. This dwīpa in its turn is encompassed by the ocean of sugarcane-juice and so on. Thus there are seven dwīpas or Lands and seven seas (or oceans). The areas of each continent and ocean are such that they increase in simple geometrical progression according to their distance from the central dwīpa.

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The order in which the dwīpas occur is not uniform in all the Purāṇas. The sequence given in different Purāṇas is summarised in the following table (see pp. 28-9).

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All the Purāṇas are agreed at least on one particular point, i.e., the place assigned to Jambū Dwīpa. All, except the Skanda, further agree in designating Puṣkara as the seventh dwīpa and also maintain that the first ocean is briny, while the last one contains fresh water. It may, however, be noted that the Mahābhārata and the Padma Purāṇa enumerate only five dwīpas which signifies the Plakṣa and Sālmala may be later additions to the list of dwīpas.

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Each dwīpa is named after a founder who is one of the sons of Prajāvrats. Each of them founds a kingdom or dynasty in his dwīpa. With one exception, each of these heroes begets seven sons and the kingdom of his dwīpa is divided into seven principalities, one principality being assigned to each of the seven sons. Again each dwīpa has seven mountain ranges and seven rivers.

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The names of the principalities or sub-regions in each dwīpa are derived in most of the Purāṇas from the names of the founders' sons. In some Purāṇas some of the dwīpas themselves and of the sub-regions are named after the mountain ranges.

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With one or two exceptions, the element of caste appears in these dwīpas. The castes are invariably four, corresponding to the four castes obtaining in India, though they are known by other names and are distinctive in the several dwīpas.

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As we shall presently see the dwīpas differ in details in different Purāṇas. The name of each of the dwīpas is identical with the name of a colossal tree or plant growing in that dwīpa. Only Krauñcha Dwīpa gets its name from the local mountain bearing that name.

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The idea of seven continents, seven iqlims (climates), seven keśwars (empires), seven seas, seven lands and seven skies is quite old, but it appears for the first time in the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata.¹

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Before we trace the evolution of the Purāṇic cosmography it would be interesting to see how similar notions prevailed among the other nations of the world, particularly among the Arabs, the Persians, the Greeks and the Chinese. The Arabs borrowed from the Greeks the division of the habitable world into seven climates. This division is based on the relative length of days and nights. Ptolemy counted, in his 'Geography', twenty climates²; but some more ancient authors had recognized seven climates³, and it was the latter which the Arabs adopted. The seven climates included all the portion of the globe to which the ancients and the Arabs gave the name of the 'habitable quarter' of the world. The Arabs and the ancients, however, were agreed that there existed habitable earths even beyond the seven climates⁴.

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The Arabs understood by the word 'climate' a terrestrial zone parallel to the equator, where the difference between the length of the day and the night at summer solstice amounted to half an hour. But there was no agreement regarding the point of commencement and ultimate boundary of the seven climates. Abul Fida considered the first climate to commence at the 12th degree n. lat. and the last climate extended to the 50th degree⁵.

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| Continents & oceans | Bhagawata, Garuda, Vāmana, Brahma, Mārkaṇḍeya, Liṅga, Kūrma, Matsya Brahmāṇḍa, Agni, Vāyu, Devi & Viṣṇu | Varāha | Skanda | Mahābhārata & Padma | Siddhānta Śiromaṇi |
| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) |
| 1 | Jambū | Jambū | Jambū | Jambū | Jambū | Jambū |
| 1a | Salt water (Lavaṇa) | Salt water | Salt water | Salt water | — | — |
| 2 | Plakṣa | Śaka | Śaka | Śaka | Śaka | Śaka |
| 2a | Sugarcane Juice (Ikṣu) | Milk | Milk | Milk | — | — |
| 3 | Śālmala (i) | Kuśa | Kuśa | Kuśa | Kuśa | Śālmala |
| 3a | Wine (Surā) | Ghee | Curd | Wine | — | — |
| 4 | Kuśa | Krauñca | Krauñca | Krauñca | Krauñca | Kuśa |

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| (1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) |
| 4a | Ghee (Sarpi) | Curd | Ghee | Curd | — | — |
| 5 | Krauñca | Śālmala | Śālmala | Krauñca | Puṣkara | Krauñca |
| 5a | Curd (Dadhi) | Wine | Wine | Ghee | — | — |
| 6 | Śaka | Gomeda (ka) | Gomeda | Śālmala | — | Gomeda (ka) |
| 6a | Milk (Kṣīr) | Sugarcane | Sugarcane | Sugarcane juice | — | — |
| 7 | Puṣkara | Puṣkara | Puṣkara | Puṣkara | Gomeda | — |
| 7a | Fresh water (Swaduda) | Fresh water | Fresh water | Fresh water | Fresh water | — |

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a = Surrounded by an ocean of:

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Romaka Siddhānta names Jambū, Kuśa Candra, Śālmala, Plakṣa, Gomeda and Puṣkara (i.e., Candra and Gomeda for Krauñca and Śaka).

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Yogavāsiṣṭha 3.73.52-8 gives: Jambū, Śaka, Kuśa, Śveta, Krauñca, Gomeda and Puṣkara.

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The idea of climatic divisions was initiated by the Greeks. The word 'climate' itself indicates it, having been derived from a Greek term 'klima' meaning 'inclination'. In fact the idea of climates was based more or less on the inclination of the sun in relation to the equator. The idea of climate was adopted by the Persians in the early centuries of the Christian era, when Greek ideas invaded the East. Probably it was the same with Indians. Among the Persians, and later among the Arabs, the word 'climate' was written 'iqlim'.

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But beyond its acceptance in astronomy, the word 'climate' received among the Persians (and later among other nations), the signification of empire and nation. We know that like the Indians the Persians believed in the existence of seven earths separated from one another by seas and that while the Indians gave the name of Jambū Dwīpa to the inhabited earth, the Persians called it 'Khonneretz-Bami'. The Khonneretz, according to the Persians included Iran-Verj, Kang-dez, Jamgard and Kashmīr.6 The Persians, later divided the world into seven empires or rather seven nations which they sometimes called by the indigenous name of kishwars and at other times by the name of 'climates'. These seven empires, as mentioned in the Zend Avestā, are: the Tazi or Arabs, Irān or Persia, Mazendran or the Slav races, Turān or the land of Turks, Rum or Roman Empire, Sind and India and lastly Chinistan or China.7 In the Chahnāmā, the seven kishwars are—China, India, Turān or Turkistan, the Roman Empire, Africa, the land of the Slavs and Irān. We find the name of the Romans included in this scheme, which leaves no room for doubt that this division was not made earlier than the Christian era. As regards the word Irān and Turān, it is known that these are the two denominations which have been employed by the Persians since remote antiquity, the first indicating Persia and the second indicating in a general manner the nations established at that time north of the Oxus.

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The Chinese, according to Abū Zaid divided the world into five major political divisions.8 The Emperor of China, he says, told him, 'We count five great sovereigns. The richest of them reigns over Iraq (the province of Baghdad), because Iraq is situated in the centre of the world and other kings are placed round him. He bears the title of "the King of Kings". After this Empire comes ours; the sovereign is named "the King of Peoples" because no other king on the earth maintains better order in his states, and rules; there are hardly any people who are more loyal to their prince than are our people. He is, therefore, in reality "the King of People". After that comes the "King of Ferocious Beasts", viz. the King of the Turks with his state adjacent to China. The fourth in rank is the "King of Elephants", namely, the King of India. We call him the "King of Wisdom" because wisdom is the special characteristic of the Indians. Lastly comes the "Emperor of the Romans" whom we call the "King of Beautiful People", not because they are beautiful but because no other people excel the Romans in physique. These are the principal kings, others occupy only a secondary position. The title of the 'King of People' which the Emperor of China adopted apparently meant 'the King of Humanity in general'. The title of the 'King of Ferocious Beasts' belongs, specifically to the ruler of the Turks, called by contemporary writers by the name of Tagazgaz. According to Masūdī, no other people on earth were more brutal, more given to shedding blood, or rearing of horses, than the Turks.

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Another Chinese tradition which goes back to the period of the firm establishment of Buddhism there is East of the Tsing-Ling mountain is the "King of People" (Emperor of China) who bears this title on account of the enormous population of this part of the world. These people have refined manners. Humanity, justice and science flourish there and the land is sweet and pleasant. South of China lies the empire of the "King of Elephants" (or the King of India). This country is hot and humid. It suits the elephants, hence its name. The inhabitants are ferocious and violent, they are devoted to magic and occult sciences, but they also believe in purifying their hearts, and in escaping from the vicissitudes of life and death by sundering worldly ties. On the west is the empire of the "King of Precious Commodities" (the King of Persia, known later by the title of the Caliph of Baghdad). This land touches the sea which produces pearls and precious objects, and which give it its name. The inhabitants do not practise any rites (Buddhist) nor do they have any social laws. They only have an inordinate love for riches. To the north lies the empire of the "King of Horses". The land is cold and hard and is suitable for raising horses. The inhabitants are brave and cruel. They know how to endure death and face danger.¹⁰ It is to be noted that by Tsing-Ling mountains, the Chinese usually meant the Pāmir Plateau and its ranges. It coincides with the Meru of the Purāṇas.¹¹

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Let us now consider how the idea of the seven dwīpas originated and developed in Purāṇic cosmography. The source of all Purāṇic notions, as mentioned earlier can be traced back to the Vedic literature and the Epics, in the present case to the Epics. We shall therefore first of all discuss in detail the regional division of the world which can be deduced from various statements made in the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa and compare them with corresponding concepts in the Buddhist and the Jain literature. At the same time we shall endeavour to examine in relation to the source material the varying and sometimes conflicting details of the various dwīpas as given in different Purāṇas.

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The most ancient concept of the earth¹² was that of four dwipas or regions, i.e., Jambū, Uttarakuru, Ketumāla and Bhadrāśwa¹³ partially surrounded by four seas.¹⁴ These four countries were grouped around Meru (south, north, west and east respectively) like the petals of a lotus.

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Similarly the Harivaṃśa¹⁵ names Uttarakuru, Bhadrāśwa, Ketumāla and Jambū Dwīpa. In two of the passages, the region of Yama is substituted for the southern Jambū Dwīpa. Although seven dwipas and seven seas are mentioned¹⁶ in several passages, there is no mention anywhere of a single Purāṇic dwipa, whereas the names of the four dwipas are given.

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The Mahābhārata (12, 14, 21-5) presents a different account. It is stated there that Yudhiṣṭira formerly ruled Jambū Dwīpa; Krauñca Dwīpa like Jambū Dwīpa and situated west of Meru; Śaka Dwīpa like Krauñca Dwīpa and situated east of Meru; and Bhadrāśwa equal in size to Śaka Dwīpa and situated north of Meru'.

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The above observations are corroborated by the earliest Buddhist cosmology¹⁷ where the original concept has been overlaid by Purāṇic ideas but the theory of concentric dwipas is clearly secondary. Especially noteworthy are the passages in the Mahāvastu and the Lalitavistāra which mention only the four dwipas—Jambū Dwīpa, Pūrvavideha, Aparagodānīya and Uttarakuru (grouped around Meru to the south, east, west and north respectively)—and constituting the whole world, ‘Lokadhātu’ and give no hint of the Purāṇic geography. They most probably represent an older period than does the Mahābhārata (6, 5-12) in its present form. The general idea is the same, the particular names vary.

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It is noteworthy that geography of the Sūrya-Siddhānta (12. 38-40)¹⁸ is based entirely on this earlier concept. The Jain texts in general seem to be closer to the Purāṇic concept than are the Buddhist texts, but the oldest texts need further investigation in this respect. Some texts give eight or nine, others as many as nineteen dwipas. The names and the order of such elements as agree with the Purāṇic elements differ considerably from the names and order of the Purāṇic tradition which is itself not always consistent, but many elements are common to both the traditions. There are, however, traces of traditions intermediate between the theory of four dwipas as outlined above and the Purāṇic theory of several concentric dwipas. Weber ¹⁹ describes a theory of two concentric oceans and three (or two and half) dwipas. In the centre is the Jambū Dwīpa, divided by six parallel mountain ranges into seven regions. The mountains from south to north are named Himavat, Mahāhimavat, Niṣadha, Nilavata, Rūpya and Śikharin, Harivarsa, Videhaka, Ramyaka, Airanyavata and Airavata.²⁰ Surrounding Jambū Dwīpa is the salt water ocean. Then comes Dhāta- [Figure: THE WORLD OF THE MAHĀBHĀRATA DIAGRAMMATIC]

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kikhaṇḍa (or Dhātukikhaṇḍa) surrounded by an ocean of fresh water. Then comes Puṣkaradvīpa, the outer half of which is shut off by the Maṇisottara mountains which cause perpetual darkness there. The outer half of Puṣkaradvīpa is named Mahāvīra. The earliest Jaina cosmography deserves a closer study and comparison with early Buddhist and Hindu cosmography.

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In its description of Sudarśana¹ (evidently equivalent to Jambū Dvīpa) the Kumbhakonam edition of the Mahābhārata (6.5.17) used the words: 'Dviramasas tu tataḥ Plakṣa dviramsaḥ Sālmalir maham, dviramsaḥ Fippalastasya dviramsas ca Kuśo maham.' The Bombay and Calcutta editions omit the first line and read: 'Dviramse Pippalas tatra dviramse ca Saśa maham.' In 6.6.2 all three editions read Pippala and Saśa. In 6.6.13 all three editions have Bhadrāśva, Ketumāla, Jambū Dvīpa and Uttarakuru. Noteworthy is the intrusion of Plakṣa in the Kumbhakonam edition, which is mentioned nowhere else in the Epic except in this passage of the Kumbhakonam edition. The context does not support the Kumbhakonam reading, but these particular names would hardly have been used, even in a late interpolation after they had become crystallised as the names of concentric dvīpas. They are named here as parts of Jambū Dvīpa, not as independent dvīpas. If the line is an interpolation, it seems to come from a period earlier than that of the Purāṇic geography.

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Intermediate between the simple conception of the four dvīpas grouped around Meru and the Purāṇic theory of seven dvīpas surrounded by and surrounding seven concentric oceans (Jambū, Plakṣa, Sālmalī, Kuśa, Krauñca, Sāka ad Puṣkara surrounded respectively by the oceans of salt water, sugarcane juice, wine, clarified butter, milk, curd and fresh water) is the description of Mahābhārata 6, 11-12. In 6, 11, 1-3 after a description of Jambū Dvīpa has been given, Dhṛtarāṣṭra asks Sañjaya for a description of Sāka, Kuśa, Sālmalī and Krauñca. In 6.11.4 is the statement: 'O King! this world is composed of very many dvīpas, but I shall describe to you only seven dvīpas and also the Sun and the Moon and the planets'.² After a brief description of Jambū Dvīpa comes a description of Sakadvīpa which is surrounded on all sides by the sea of milk (6.11.10), but no statement is made concerning its direction from Jambū Dvīpa. Then in 6.12.1 occurs the statement, 'Uttareṣu ca Kauravya, dvīpeṣu śrūyate Kathā, evam tatra mahārāja brucataś ca nibodha me'. After this, oceans of clarified butter, curd, wine and water and the dvīpas, Kuśa, Sālmalī and Krauñca are enumerated. In verse 24 is the statement: 'In Puṣkara dvīpa there is a mountain called Puṣkara full of gems and jewels' and in verse 26 it is stated that various gems come there from Jambū Dvīpa. No specific ocean is mentioned in connection with it and there is no explicit statement to the effect that it is situated in the north. But in verse 3 it is said that the dwīpas double in size as one goes north and that they are surrounded by these oceans. That seemingly makes it necessary to include Puṣkara among the northern dwīpas and to connect it with the ocean of fresh water, yet in verse 9 it is said that in 'the middle dwīpa' (that rules out Puṣkara the fourth)²² is a large mountain named Kṛṣṇa²³ which is a favourite abode of Nārāyaṇa. Paścima usually means 'western' which seems out of place here. Yet Kṛṣṇa is not included in the six mountains of Krauñca-dwīpa, nor is it mentioned in the description of Puṣkaradwīpa. The dilemma is one from which there is no escape on the basis of our uncritical editions of the Mahābhārata. The matter is further complicated by the fact that in the request for information only Śākadwīpa, Kuśadwīpa, Sālmalidwīpa and Krauñca-dwīpa are named. After including Jambū these make five. In 6.11.4 a description of seven dwīpas was promised, but only six are actually described. A description of Puṣkaradwīpa, not asked for, is given and in both request and answer Plakṣadwīpa is omitted. Surely the number seven is not to be taken literally. The description of Śākadwīpa is so clearly marked off from that of the dwīpas which are said to be situated in the north that there is no valid reason for believing that it too was located in the north. More details are given about it than about the other dwīpas. The names of the four castes living there are given. This detail is extended by the Purāṇas to the other dwīpas also. Its seven mountains including Meru seem to be modelled on the seven Kulaparvatas of Jambū Dwīpa. It is assigned second place and seems to be more historical than the other dwīpas.

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Significant is the fact that while the Mahābhārata states that the dwīpas are surrounded by oceans, nowhere is it stated that the dwīpas surround the oceans. The Mahābhārata does not show any knowledge of the theory of concentric circles of land. Its dwīpas are really islands or doabs. The Purāṇic theory may be due merely to a misunderstanding of this passage of the Mahābhārata, or distant islands and peninsulas such as Indo-China, Jāvā, Sumātrā and Arabia may have been regarded as forming circles of land.

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In the Purāṇic accounts Śākadwīpa is usually placed sixth in order, but there is a different theory which places it second in order, and this latter tradition seems to be the earlier one. In the passage just quoted from the Mahābhārata Śākadwīpa is assigned second place and more details are given about it than about the other dwīpas.

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If the Śākadwīpa of Mahābhārata (6.11) is not to be located in the north there are many clues as to its probable location. The Mahābhārata (12, 14, 23, quoted above) unequivocally locates Sākadvīpa east of Meru. A passage in the Bhāskara (quoted by Wilson in Viṣṇu Purāṇa, 2.110.1) says:

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Venerable teachers have stated that Jambū Dvīpa embraces the whole northern hemisphere lying to the north of the Salt Sea and that the other six dvīpas and the (seven) seas, viz., those of Salt, Milk, etc. are all situated in the southern hemisphere. To the south of the equator lies the Salt Sea, and to the north of it, the Sea of Milk whence sprang the nectar, the moon and the (goddess) Śrī and where the omnipresent Vāsudeva, to whose lotus feet Brahmā and all the gods bow in reverence, has his favourite residence. Beyond the Sea of Milk lie, in succession, the seas of curd, clarified butter, sugarcane juice and wine, and, last of all, that of sweet water which surrounds Vaḍavānala.

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Even more significant is the passage in the Rāmāyaṇa (4.40) which contains a long description of the journey made by the monkeys eastward (verses 19.54) in search of Sītā. It said there that the searchers, after leaving India, will first come to Yavadwīpa (probably Jāvā), Saptarajyo-paśobhitam and Suvarṇarūpyakadvīpāni, Suvarṇakaramanditam,²⁵ then to a mountain named Śiśira,²⁶ then to a river (Soṇa) then to an ocean (Kālameghapratimam), then to an ocean (Raktajalam Lohitam)²⁷ where there is Kuṭaśālmali, then to the Pāṇḍurameghābham Kṣirodam, in the midst of which is a mountain (mahāna śveta Ṛsabho nāma parvatah) containing the Sudarśana lake, then to the Jalodama which contains the Hayamukha (whirlpool). On the northern shore of this ocean is a mountain (Jalarūpaśilo nāma Sumahān kanakaprabhah) and beyond this to the east, the Udayagiri, one peak of which is named Saumanasa. In Gorresio's edition which differs considerably from the above account, the stages of the journey are marked by the following names: Jaladwīpa, Gaṇadwīpa, Jambū-dwīpa, Śiśira, Kālodaka, Lohita (with the Kuṭaśālmali) Mt. Gośṛnga, Kṣiroda (with Mt. Aṅśumat and Lake Sudarśana), Ghṛtoda, Jalarūpaśilā, Udayagiri and Saumanasa. The first three names are puzzling. The ocean (Kālameghapratimam or Kāloda) is comparable to the Kāloda, which, in some Jain accounts, surrounds the second dwīpa Dhātaki. Lohita is comparable to the red ocean of wine (Surā) which surrounds Sālmalidwīpa; the mention of the Kuṭaśālmali makes the identification certain. Kṣiroda corresponds to the ocean of milk which surrounds Sākadvīpa²⁸. The Ghṛtoda can be identified with the Ghṛtoda which surrounds Kuśadwīpa. Jaloda corresponds to the ocean of fresh water which surrounds Puṣkaradwīpa, while Hayamukha is identical with the Vaḍavāmukha or Vaḍavānala of the Mahābhārata and the Purāṇas.²⁹ The passage seems to be old, older even than the geographical passage in the Mahābhārata (6). It probably reflects travellers' accounts of voyages to the east. It is to be noted also that Rāmāyaṇa 4.42.38 for obvious reasons locates Meru in the west, not in the north.

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