The Geography of the Puranas c8: Chapter IV. The River System of the Puranas

The Geography of the Purāṇas c8

Language: English

Chapter IV. The River System of the Puranas

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CORRESPONDING to the pattern of the major mountain ranges of Jambū Dwīpa, the Purāṇas give an account of its drainage pattern which, too, is arranged symmetrically round the central pivot, the Meru (Pāmirs). This is bound to be so, since the drainage is naturally guided by the framework of bordering ranges. The Purāṇas, first of all, give an account of the origin of the main rivers which rise in Meru and flow towards the four cardinal points. Then they deal with the course of each of these rivers mentioning the various topographical features which occur in the river's basin from its source to its mouth. Besides these main rivers, the Purāṇas also deal with other rivers and lakes in the various regions of Jambū Dwīpa.

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To understand the account of rivers and lakes as given in the Purāṇas, it is necessary to keep the following basic Purāṇic notions in mind:

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(i) The authors of the Purāṇas believed that rivers originate in lakes, so each river has, in their accounts, invariably a lake visible or invisible (underground) as its source. This lake, in its turn, lies at the foot of a mountain and collects the rain or glacial water which runs down its slopes. Thus, as a rule, according to the Purāṇas, each river has a corresponding lake and an associated mountain.

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(ii) The Purāṇas assume that a river can penetrate, through subterranean channels, mountain ranges or minor impediments, which lie athwart its course. As a corollary, the water of a lake could 'filter' through the bounding ridges and give rise to streams on opposite slopes. The Purāṇas imagine and locate subterranean channels where (a) a river falls into and ends in a lake which has no visible outlet. If a river rises on the opposite side of a range overlooking the lake, it is supposed that the course of the former river is continued across the range; (b) a river flowing through a broad valley enters a narrow gorge, and gives the impression of a decrease in its size and volume. In this case the assumption is that the river has lost some of its waters by sending a branch or branches across the adjoining ridges into the neighbouring valleys. Thus a river could flow in as many as two, three or more channels, separated by intervening ridges.

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(iii) A river with all its tributaries is considered by the authors of the Purāṇas as one river. They do not usually give separate names for tributa ries while describing the main river. If the Purāṇas want to say that the river B is a tributary of river A, they say that 'the river A falls on the summit of the source mountain of river B'. Conversely, if the Purāṇas say that river A falls on mountain X and then on mountain Y, they want to convey the idea that the river A first receives a tributary from mountain X, then another from mountain Y. Individual tributaries are no doubt mentioned in the Purāṇas but only when they 'in their own right' are associated with any natural or cultural phenomena. For instance, Vetravatī, Śiprā or Kālindī would be mentioned as individual rivers while describing the city of Vidiśā, the Kingdom of Ujjayinī or the land of Surasenas or Pañcālas with which they are associated—but not as tributaries of the Carmanvatī or the Gaṅgā.

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It is not necessary that the Purāṇic idea regarding the source river of any river-system should be identical with what we hold today. For instance, the Purāṇas give equal importance to the Vaṅkṣu and Panj as the sources of Oxus or to Bhāgīrathī and Alakanandā as those of the Gaṅgā or to the Yārkand and Kāṣghar rivers of the Tārim. In fact, we were not sure about the sources of the major rivers of the world, even up to the late 19th or early 20th century. Controversies regarding the sources of the Nile, Brahmaputra, Oxus, etc., are well known.

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These three basic 'principles' or notions of the Purāṇas are the 'key' to an understanding of the Purāṇic description of rivers and lakes. Without this, the Purāṇic accounts in many cases become meaningless, incongruous or 'mythical'.

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According to the Purāṇas, there are four major rivers which flow from Meru towards north, south, east and west. In the Scriptures also there are four rivers, and we find in Edda, four primeval rivers of milk flowing from the teats of Audhumble. In all these accounts, these rivers are only four branches of the original river, Swargaṅgā or Mandākinī in the Purāṇas. In the Edda also all rivers have their origin from the parent river called Ilvergelmer, but in Scriptures it has no name.

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The Purāṇic account of this source river (Swargaṅgā) runs as follows: It rises from under the foot of Viṣṇu, at the polar star, passing through the circle of the moon, it falls upon the summit of Meru, where it divides into four streams flowing towards the four cardinal points. According to the Genesis, the river went forth watering the garden of Eden, and, of course wandering through it, divided itself into four heads. The Purāṇic accounts use the same expression, but in a literal sense, and suppose that these four branches pass actually through four rocks carved into the shape of four heads of various animals. The Gaṅgā running towards the south passes through a cow's head, hence India is called the Land of Cows (cf. Govansas and Go-pālas or simply Pallis or shepherds). In the west is a horse's head from which flows the Chakṣu; and the inhabitants of the countries bordering on it are of course Aśvas or Turaṅgamas, horses or rather horsemen. Towards the east is the head of an elephant, from which flows the river Sītā. To the north is the lion's head, from which flows the Bhadra-Somā, hence this country is called the country of the Lions, and there is actually a powerful Tartarian tribe there, called the 'Tribe of the Lion'. All the four rivers after running through the various regions of Jambū Dvīpa, fall into their respective oceans.

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But before the 'heavenly stream' divides into these four branches, it encircles Meru through seven channels for a space of 84,000 yojanas. After its division, each stream falls from the immense height of Meru into a lake from which it flows towards the ocean and in doing so it 'falls' on various mountains. Thus there are four corresponding lakes, Arunodā in the east of Meru, Manasā in the south, Sītodā in the west and Mahābhadra in the north.

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The four rivers mentioned above and their corresponding lakes have been discussed and identified¹ in the following chapters, which deal with the geography of the major regions of Jambū Dvīpa. It may, however, be mentioned that the nomenclature of the rivers has been a source of constant trouble. It is not peculiar to the Purāṇas alone. Even today in certain regions the main channel of a river assumes a different name after every bend. Chitral, Asnar, Yasin, Kunar and Mustaj, for instance, are names given to different parts of the same river. Similarly Tashkurgan, Taghdumbash, Dangubash, Sarikol, Karat-Chukor, Tisnaf, Chiragh Tau and Almaligh are the names of different parts of a single river. In Ladakh the Indus is known by many names, so is the Sutlej. The names Karnālī, Gogra, Śaradā and Kurialī all pertain to one river, and these are in addition to its purely Tibetan names. Where two affluents join, the combined stream is frequently given a name differing from those of either tributary: Gaṅgā is the name given to the river formed by the junction of the Alakanandā and Bhāgīrathī, and yet the Purāṇas apply the name Gaṅgā to either of them. Thus, while it is common for a river to be known by many names, it is equally common for the same name to be used for different rivers. The names Sarayū, Rāmagaṅgā, Kālī, Dhaulī, Kosī, Śaradā are all given to more than one Himalayan river; the Great Kālī river, for instance, has the alternative name Śaradā. Dhaulī is the name of a tributary of the Kālī in Kumaon and also of a tributary of Alakanandā. Kizil Sū is the name of two rivers flowing in opposite directions from a pass in the Alai valley. In this respect, the name Gaṅgā is perhaps the most common of all. It has been given ever since ancient times to many large rivers particularly to those which have been considered sacred. In Bhāratavarṣa alone we have the Pen-Gaṅgā, Waingaṅgā, Rāmagaṅgā, Kṛṣnagaṅgā, Viṣnugaṅgā and a number of other ‘Gaṅgās which we can easily locate on any modern map. The Gaṅgā of the Purāṇas may be easily taken to denote any river of the Seven Dwīpas which is as big, and as beneficial as the Gaṅgā proper.

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The nomenclature of the source river of the Purāṇas needs clarification. The Gaṅgā has the same relation to the river-systems of the world as Meru has to its mountain ranges. In an earlier paragraph we have given the Purāṇic concept of this river. Let us analyse that statement.

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The Gaṅgā is a celestial river which has been very picturesquely compared in the Purāṇas to the Milky Way. The first part of the statement, therefore, refers to the ‘Starry River’ in the heavens (i.e., the Milky Way) which one sees revolving round the North Pole in the Northern Hemisphere, as though it were attached to the Pole by an invisible bond. The ‘abode’ of this celestial river (in the literal sense) on the earth is the extensive, snow-bound and glacier-mantled high plateau of the Pāmīr (the Meru) on which that river, i.e. the Gaṅgā ‘descends’ from the sky, obviously in the form of snow. The ‘Gaṅgā’ thus remains suspended on this mountainous region above the snow-line or, in Purāṇic language, rests on the head or in the tresses of gods and deities. Not only does the ‘heavenly river’ rest on the plateau of Meru but also on the high ridges and ranges which surround and radiate from the Meru or the Pāmīr region. Thus the ‘river’ runs several times ‘round Meru’, according to the Purāṇas, before it descends further down by melting or as a glacier. It should be noted that at this stage, i.e. before melting, the Gaṅgā rests or remains suspended on the high mountain peaks and ridges and does not flow into valleys or plains. When the glaciers melt and their water accumulates in the lakes at the foot of the mountain and issue from there as rivers, the Gaṅgā assumes the form of water channels—i.e., rivers in the real sense. The Purāṇas mention four main lakes and four main rivers which originate as such and flow to the four cardinal points of Jambū Dwīpa.

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It will be realised from the above discussion that the Purāṇas intend to bring out three stages in the evolution of the Gaṅgā:

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(i) They connect it with the heavens by comparing and identifying it with the Milky Way. This is its celestial stage.

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(ii) As the snow falls on the high mountains they identify it with the snow cap of High Asia which covers its high ranges and its central knot, the Pāmīrs. Gaṅgā is just a cover or belt of snow and ice at this stage. This is the Gaṅgā at its ‘snowy’ stage.

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(iii) From this common source, i.e. the Pāmīrs, the snowy Gaṅgā melts and divides into the four main rivers of Asia which radiate in different directions. The Gaṅgā at this stage becomes a stream or rather four streams of water. The Purāṇas have thus rolled the accounts of the glaciers of Asia, the rivers of Asia and their origin into one, in a simple but colourful statement, which is repeated practically in all the Purāṇas.

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The Purāṇas realised the extent of Meru and its extensive snow cover, hence they gave it great importance, as is evidenced in their detailed account of Meru, but they also visualised the extension of the snow-cap towards the south along the high Himālayan ranges, hence their Gaṅgā (i.e., the Snowy Gaṅgā) sprawled far to the south and southeast of Meru on the summits of the Himālayan and Trans-Himālayan ranges. They, therefore, consider that all rivers which originate in the snows of the Himālayas, are the manifestation of the Holy Gaṅgā. It is no wonder that the various ‘Gaṅgās’, Indian and extra-Indian, for instance, the Mahā-Gaṅgā (Hwangho), Gaṅgā (Ganges), Kṛṣṇagaṅgā, Viṣṇugaṅgā, Kāligaṅgā, Gaurigaṅgā, Dhauligaṅgā, etc., have been so named because they all derive their waters from the common source—i.e., the Snowy Gaṅgā of the Purāṇas. The Vāyu Purāṇa (as well as other Purāṇas), very clearly refer to this phase of the sacred river when they say:

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This river (Gaṅgā) after passing through thousands of mountains, irrigates hundreds of valleys and passes through thousands of forests and hundreds of caves. It then falls into the Southern Sea.

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The beautiful river which is one yojana in breadth and is so surrounded with mountain peaks, which was borne by Mahātmā Śaṅkara on his head, and which purifies even the greatest sinners, that river is Gaṅgā.

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This river flows from all sides of Himālayan mountains and is divided into several branches which are known by various names (Ch. 42, 35-38).

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Besides the account of the four major rivers² and lakes mentioned above, the Purāṇas bring in the names of various other lakes and rivers in other chapters or in different contexts. In Vāyu Purāṇa these chapters are:

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(a) The descriptions or regional accounts of Ketumāla, Bhadrāśva, Uttara Kuru and Bhāratavarṣa.³ These regions have been discussed in the following chapters,⁴ and wherever possible suggestions have been made for their identification. In the case of Bhāratavarṣa the Bhāgawata mentions, besides the Gaṅgā, 42 other rivers; the Vāyu, 93; the Matsya, 90; the Viṣṇu, 17; and the Mārkaṇḍeya, 90. The lists of the Vāyu, Matsya and Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇas are practically identical.⁵

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JAMBŪ DWĪPA OF THE PURĀṆAS DIAGRAMMATIC

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CROSS SECTION FROM SOUTH TO NORTH ACROSS MERU (ACCORDING TO PURĀṆIC DESCRIPTION)

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HIMALAYAN AND TRANS-HIMALAYAN PEAKS OF THE FIFTH & HIGHER MAGNITUDES

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Fig. 5 HIMALAYAN AND TRANS-HIMALAYAN PEAKS OF THE FIFTH & HIGHER MAGNITUDES

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PEAKS ● 28000' AND ABOVE ● 27000'-28000' ● 25000-27000' ● 25000-26000' ● 24000-25000'

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JAMBŪ - DWĪPA

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AREA BELOW 600 FEET

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AREA BETWEEN 600-1000 FEET

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AREA ABOVE 1000 FEET

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PURANIC NAMES ARE IN RED

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Fig. 7

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SKETCH OF HINDU KUSH (OR W. NIṢADHA RANGE)

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[Figure: NOT TO SCALE 1" APPROXIMATE = 60 MILES

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PAMIR OR MERU

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COLONIES

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FIREWORSHIPPERS

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ISHKASHIM

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STRAGH

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T65

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NARAYANA, T

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TIRICHMIR

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MAHADEO, T

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T33

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LANKHO

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T. VISNU

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BAROGHIL P.

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DARKOT

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DASPAR

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DESA PRADESA

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COLONIES OF DEMONS

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HIMACITRA

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CHITRAL

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T = TEMPLE OR ABODE OF

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PURĀNIC NAMES ARE IN RED AREA BELOW 9000 FEET]

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The Vāyu Purāṇa⁶ also gives a list of 43 rivers in Bhadrāśva (the basin of the Tārim and N. China) including the river Sitā (Tārim-Hwangho) and another list of 43 rivers in Ketumāla (the basin of the Oxus) including the Oxus. These appear to be fairly comprehensive lists. But in the case of Uttara Kuru only half a dozen major rivers are mentioned, revealing the Purāṇic writers' lack of interest in the northern regions of Asia.

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(b) The description of the Trans-Himālaya lakes and rivers under the title ‘Gaṅgā-Avtāra Varṇana’ occurs in chapter 47 of the Vāyu Purāṇa. Chapter 121 of the Matsya Purāṇa is practically identical with this chapter of the Vāyu; there are only a few minor variations, rather omissions, here and there.

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The salient facts given in this chapter which are detailed below and summarised in a table (see p. 70) show the intimate and fairly accurate knowledge which the authors of the Purāṇas had, regarding these little known regions which remained unexplored till the beginning of the 20th century.

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The ‘Gaṅgā-Avtāra Varṇana’ in the opening paragraph fixes the position of Mount Kailāsa north of the Himālaya on the Hemakūṭa (modern Kailāsa) range. The position of other mountains, rivers and lakes in the Trans-Himālayan region is then given with reference to this focal point (i.e., Mt. Kailāsa). This is logical, since, in the absence of latitudes and longitudes, reference to a fixed known point is absolutely necessary for locating the features around it.

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‘Cold and fresh’ water from the springs of the Kailāsa mountain flows into a lake (name not given) from which issues the R. Mandākinī, around which stands the picturesque ‘Nandan forest of vast dimensions’. The R. Mandākinī probably refers to the river Umā and the Zhong Chhu, which flow through Gaurī Kuṇḍa (lying on the eastern flank of Mount Kailāsa) into the Rākṣasa Tal (the twin lake of Mānasarovar).

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North-east of Kailāsa, the Purāṇas locate a mountain named Candraprabha, near which is a lake, called Acchodā. From it rises the R. Acchodā, on whose banks ‘the sacred Caitraratha forest’ is situated. This river too flows into another lake. This mountain appears to be the Surange La (another range of the Kailāsa region to its north-east), from which a number of streams and their tributaries discharge their waters into L. Kongys Tso (also called L. Gounche). The fact that Maṇibhadra, a general of Yakṣas, lives there with his retenue of Guhyakas, refers to the ancient settlement of Thokchan which is still an important centre of this region.

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The Pishang mountain located north-east of Kailāsa is evidently the Patchoung mountain shown on the Ta-Ching map by Dutrevil de Rhins near the source of the Indus (Senge Khambob of the Tibetans), about 35 miles north-east of Mount Kailāsa.

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The Lohita-Hemasṛṅga (of Vāyu and Sarvoṣadha of Matsya) below which is lake Lohita, from which the river Lauhita rises and which lies opposite Mt. Candraprabha is clearly the Kanglung Kangri (another range of the Kailāsa region to its south-east) from which, according to Swāmī Praṇavānanda* rises the Brahmaputrā (or Chema Yung-drung). This source river first enters a small lake (Lohita of the Purāṇas) and then enters Tamchok Khambah, the headwater of the Brahmaputrā. The Matsya Purāṇa on the other hand most probably refers to Tamulung Tso as the source of the river Lauhita.

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The Kursatviṣadha mountain which lies to the south of the Kailāsa and the associated Vaidyut mountain are evidently the Gurlā Māndhātā peaks. According to the Purāṇas, Lake Mānasarovar lies below the latter and R. Sarayū rises from it. Both these pointers confirm the identification of these mountains with Gurlā Māndhātā, since Lake Mānasarovar lies below their northern face and River Karṇālī (Map Chhu of the Tibetans), which is a major tributary of R. Sarayū, rises from its southern and western faces.

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The Aruṇa-Śṛṅgavān mountains, according to the Matsya, lie to the west of Kailāsa ('on the other side of Kailāsa' according to Vāyu). They are full of herbs, precious stones and metals and contain hundreds of groups of peaks dominated by the biggest of all mountains where Dhūmralohita, the 'King of Mountains' resides. Lake Sailoda lies at its foot from which a river rises and flows west between the Chakṣu and Sītā rivers into the salt ocean (Western Sea according to Matsya). The mountain to the west of Kailāsa and containing hundreds of high peaks must be the famous Ladakh or Leh range which is the principal feature of Ladakh and carries many peaks above 19,000 feet. This is the Aruṇa range of the Purāṇas and the Dhūmralohita, which lies near the Aruṇa and dominates the whole of the surrounding area, is the Naṅgā Parbāt. The grandeur of Naṅgā Parbāt and its significance as the 'King of Mountains' can be visualised from the following statement by Col. Tanner:

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Naṅgā Parbāt's summit is 26620 feet, a.s.l. and its base stands on the left side of the Indus valley, which at that point is but 3500 feet; it therefore exposes 23120 feet of its side to an observer, who standing as near as he may dare to the edge of perhaps the most lofty cliff of the world with the Indus valley 12000 feet below him, may regard at the distance of less than 40 miles, the unparalleled view presented by the vast snow fields, glaciers and crags of this King of Mountains.⁷

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The Naṅgā Parbāt is the Everest of the Western Himālayas⁸. Though it is lower than the Everest, it is much more prominent than the latter.

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Within a radius of 120 miles Nangā Parbāt surpasses all other summits by more than 9,000 feet, while the Everest is surrounded by a cluster of peaks which hide its immense height. As a detached peak it is the first to catch the early Sun's rays in the morning and the last to do so in the evening. Its snowy peaks therefore appear twice a day as a huge mass of red flame against a dull sky. It is a scene that is not grasped or taken in at once, but after a while the stupendous grandeur of the view is appreciated. It is quite overwhelming in magnitude: it is in fact one of the finest spectacles that Nature offers to the gaze of man. It is no wonder that the Purāṇas sum up the scene by associating it with the term Dhūmralohita or red or fiery smoke.

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The lake Sailodaya appears to be the Wular lake, which was formerly a big lake practically covering the whole of the Kashmir Valley. The R. Jhelum or R. Siloda of the Purāṇas still flows through it and it runs towards the west between the Indus and the Sutlej—the Chakṣu and the Sitā of the Purāṇas.⁹

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To the north of Kailāsa, the Purāṇas say, lies a golden-peaked range, rich in red orpiment (harital) below which lies the famous Vindu-Sarovara from which three rivers flow to the east, three to the west and one to the south. They are named as Nalinī, Hrādinī (or Hlādinī) and Pavanī in the east; Sitā, Chakṣu and Sindhu in the west and Bhāgīrathi in the south. This sacred lake is associated with the name of King Bhagīratha who by penance released the Southern River from the wrath of Lord Siva. The relevant paragraphs from the Vāyu Purāṇa which deal with these features are quoted below:

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From the Kailāsa Mountain towards the north there is a mountain full of living beings and beneficial herbs. Its name is the Gaura mountain. There is also a divine mountain full of diamonds called the Hiranya Śṛṅga (23).

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At the foot of that mountain, there is extremely sacred, excellent sand of gold, and there is also a beautiful lake named 'Vindu'. Here came Bhagīratha, who for the sake of the Gaṅgā, lived there for a number of years (24-25). There the goddess Tripathagā or the Gaṅgā was first initiated. Emerging from the foot of the Soma mountain, that river divided itself into seven currents (26). There are found 'Yūpa', diamonds, gold, etc. (27). In the clear sky, the innumerable stars (of the Milky Way) which look very close to each other and shine brightly in the night, are nothing but the goddess Tripathagā or the Gaṅgā (28). This Tripathagā, having flowed in the sky, came down upon the earth, and being checked by the Lord Sankara's yoga, she fell down upon the head of Lord Sankara (29).

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The few drops which fell upon the earth as a result of the anger of Lord Śankara created there the lake called 'Vindu'. Therefore it is now known as 'Vindu Sarovara' (30).

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Then having been checked by Lord Śankara, that river Tripathagā began to brood over her imprisonment by him (31). She felt like piercing the lower regions of the earth to reappear on its surface and circumvent Lord Śankara (32-33). Lord Śankara having come to know the evil design of Devi Gaṅgā, lifted and kept the entire mighty river over his own head. He then angrily threw her down with great force upon the earth.

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At the same time, Lord Śankara saw that King Bhagīratha had grown pale and thin on account of hunger and thirst, because of his love for his river. Lord Śankara who was pleased with the King, took pity on him and changed His anger to a boon (34). Having realised the strong desire of King Bhagīratha, the Tripathagā started flowing (35). And the current of that river divided itself into seven streams. Three of them went towards the east and three towards the west (36). In this way the entire course of the river Gaṅgā divided into seven parts. Nalinī, Hrādinī and Pavanī, went towards the east, Sītā, Chakṣu, Sindhu went towards the west. The seventh current of them, went towards the south under the name of Bhāgīrathī (37). This Bhāgīrathī entered the Lavana Sea. But all these offer devotion to Himādri Varṣa (40).¹⁰

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The above statement virtually repeats and supplements the Purāṇic notions regarding the Gaṅgā which have been discussed earlier in this chapter. It refers again to the celestial Gaṅgā, the snowy or glacial Gaṅgā and the fluvial Gaṅgā which included all the streams emanating from the snowy Gaṅgā. The statement may be translated as follows:

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(i) The snow-belt from the Pāmīrs (Meru) which runs towards the south covers the Northern Himālayan region including the Karakoram massif. So far it had remained one continuous broad belt of ice and snow. As it moved further towards the south—somewhere north of Kailāsa—it divided itself into three comparatively narrower belts, each covering a distinct high range which runs across Tibet from north-west to east-south-east. These ranges are, Tanglha, Aling Kangri and Nychenthangla which correspond to the Gaura, Hiranya Śṛṅga and Soma¹¹ of the Purāṇas.

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(ii) In the distant past, to which period the Purāṇic tradition goes, the basin between the Aling Kangri and the Nychenthangla was a big snow-field (probably during a glacial pulse) i.e., a 'lake' full of 'particles of frozen water'—a 'Vindu Sarovar' in the literal sense. In Purāṇic terminology, 'the goddess Tripathagā was confined in the tresses of Lord Śankara' since it was unable to move forward on account of glacial conditions and flow beyond the confines of these high mountains.

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(iii) In the post-glacial period which followed, the snow-field melted and so did the glaciers on the three ranges mentioned above, i.e., on the three prongs of the Gaṅgā, named collectively as Tripathagā by the Purāṇas. The waters of the snow-field naturally found their way out of the confines of the bounding ranges. This event is expressed by the Purāṇas as the ‘release’ by the Lord of the goddess Tripathagā on account of King Bhagīratha’s entreaties and penance.

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There can be two explanations of this description of the mysterious lake and both of them flow from the literal meaning of the words ‘Vindu Sarovara’—a collection of drops of water. Either it signifies a large snow-field, i.e., a basin full of snow (or in other words a ‘lake’ of ‘frozen particles of water’ or snow) or it refers to a large basin full of innumerable tiny lakes. If the former is correct then the golden-peaked mountain is the great Aling-Kangri range, which was probably known to the authors of the Purāṇas, and the Vindu-Sarovara refers to extensive snow-fields which probably in the past filled the basin between the Aling-Kangri and Kailāsa-Tanglha range. If the latter is correct, then the locations of Aling-Kangri and Kailāsa Tanglha remain the same and in place of the snow-field we have, as at present, the same basin dotted with innumerable small and large lakes between the two ranges mentioned above. In either case the Vindu-Sarovara of the Purāṇas coincides with the basin referred to above.

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(iv) The waters from the Vindu Sarovara not only flowed to the east, west and south through visible outlets but also through subterranean channels, which according to the Purāṇas were legitimate outlets for enclosed water sheets.

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(v) The three rivers which flowed to the east according to the Purāṇas and which still flow in the same direction are the Yangtse, Mekong and Salween rivers and those which flow towards the west are the Indus, the Shyok and the Yarkand. The southern river Bhāgīrathī is still known by its Purāṇic name. The identity of the eastern rivers is supported by the fact that they are mentioned as flowing through Indradwipa (Burma) while there is little doubt regarding the western and southern rivers.

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The chapter, ‘Gaṅgā Avtāra Varṇana’ of the Vāyu Purāṇa, referred to above, presents miscellaneous information regarding the lakes and rivers on other mountains, i.e., the Hemakūṭa, Niṣadha, Meru, Nila and Śweta. It is significant that all these lakes are glacial lakes situated on high mountains whose snow-covered summits radiate from Meru in all directions, i.e., they have been imagined as mere offshoots of the central reservoir of ice—the ‘Snowy Gaṅgā’—on it descent on Meru. The lakes and associated rivers mentioned under this head are detailed in a tabular form below.

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TABLE SHOWING THE HIGH LAKES (of the Purāṇas) NORTH OF HEMAKŪṬA

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(According to Vāyu & Matsya)

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North of the Hemakūṭa (Kailāsa) range there are numerous lakes so that the whole region is called the lake region of Tibet. But all the lakes in the north-east and east of this region receive the drainage of the surrounding area. There are, however, a few high lakes in the west (north of Hemakūṭa) from which rivers rise and flow towards the west. We should, therefore, look for the 'lake behind Hemaśṛṅga' in that area. In all probability the Lake Sayaṇā or Nāga of the Purāṇas is the Lake 'Nak Tso' which with Pangong Tso forms an extensive water-sheet. From this water-sheet rise a few small streams which join the Shyok at its south-eastern bend and their combined waters flow towards the 'Western Sea'.

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Meru is the abode of Viṣṇu and Niṣadha is the east-west range adjoining it in the south. Therefore we must look for L. Viṣṇupāda (lake at the foot of the abode of Viṣṇu) somewhere in the Wakhan region where the Meru and Niṣadha come closest to each other. The lake is evidently Lake Chakmaktin in modern maps from which rises the Wakhan river flowing west through the land of the Gandharvas.

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Similarly we must look for the Uttara Mānasa lake where Meru meets the northern east-west range, i.e., the Nila. A glance at any modern map of the Pāmirs will show that the Uttara Mānasa lake (or rather the Twin Lake resembling the twin lakes of Dakṣiṇa Mānasa) is certainly the Kara Kul of northern Pāmirs. The Kara Kul in fact consists of two lakes named as Payodā and Puṇḍarīka in the Purāṇas, adjoining each other just like the Mānsarovara and Rakṣasa Tāla of the Kailāsa region. Although the basin of these lakes is that of inland drainage (like that of Mānsarovara lakes), the Purāṇas extend the source of the rivers Maksu and Markus to these lakes. They assert that the rivers Mṛgayā and Mṛgakāntyā rise from it.

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L. Madhuvat Sarovara on the Śveta mountain is associated with the Madhumān mountain mentioned in the Purāṇas in connection with the Oxus basin (discussed in detail in the following chapter¹²). The lake is clearly the picturesque, mirror-like Iskander Kul glistening like a pearl from which rises the Iskandar Daryā.

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¹² [Text of the note not present on page]

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Like most of the mountain lakes in Tājikistān, this beautiful lake was formed as a result of a gigantic blocking up. In area and capacity it is not very large—its surface covers only three and a half square kilometres, and its depth does not exceed seventy-two metres. The wonderful thing about it is its gigantic power; in the course of a year it hurls down nearly 800 million cubic metres of water. It obtains this power from glaciers and snow on the mountains which tower above it.¹³

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¹³ [Text of the note not present on page]

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The main feature of the neighbouring mountains and valleys is the mulberry tree from which the Tājiks prepare Bekmes, a sweet syrup like honey crushed from fresh mulberry berries. In fact, this area is the ‘honey’ (Sk. Madhu) region of Tājikistān.

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The Purāṇas also mention, though cursorily, the lakes of the northern Siberian plains (i.e., of Uttara Kuru). There are twelve of these lakes, some of which according to them are like oceans. The natural inference is that the authors of the Purāṇas had an idea of the big northern lakes, i.e., the Balkhash and the Baikal, to which they give the common name ‘Vaijaya.’ Most probably their ‘Vaijaya’ was the Baikal of modern times. Further details of those regions need not detain us here since they will be discussed in the relevant chapters which follow.

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CHAPTER V Regions of Jambu Dwipa: Northern Regions (Ramanaka, Hiranmaya and Uttara Kuru)

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THE Purāṇic description of these regions is rather sketchy as compared with the descriptions of the western, eastern and southern regions of Jambū Dwipa. The best geographical account given in the Purāṇas is naturally that of Bhārata. In the case of Ketumāla and Bhadravaṛsa, full details of the mountainous region and some information about the streams and provinces of the Bhadravaṛsa proper¹ (i.e., the Hwang-Ho basin or North China) and Ketumāla (i.e., the Oxus basin)² are given. For the northern regions there is a list of mountains situated to the north of Meru, a brief, rather very brief, account of two or three intermountainous regions and a paragraph on the course of the Northern River. But even this sketchy description is so precise that it is not difficult to identify the topographical features of this region satisfactorily on a modern map in spite of lack of sufficient data or geographical facts in the Purāṇas.

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As mentioned earlier, the Purāṇas name three latitudinal ranges north of Meru (Pāmīrs)—i.e., the Nīla, the longest and nearest to Meru; the Śveta, slightly shorter than the Nīla and further north; the Śṛṅgavān, the shortest and farthest to the north. They have been identified in an earlier chapter as follows:

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Nīla³—Zarafshan, Trans Alai, Kokshal Tau, Tien Shan ranges.

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Śveta⁴—Nura Tau, Turkistan, Alai, Atbashi, Akshai, Irak ranges.

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Śṛṅgavān⁵—Kara Tau, Kirghiz, Zailai, Ala Tau, Ketman ranges.

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Between these ranges and the Northern Ocean (the Arctic) lie the following regions: Ramyaka or Ramanaka⁶ Varṣa (between the Nīla and the Śveta); Hiraṇmaya or Hiraṇyaka Varṣa⁷ (between the Śveta and the Śṛṅgavān) and Uttara Kuru or Śṛṅgāsaka⁸ (between the Śṛṅgavān and the Northern Ocean—the Arctic) (see Fig. 8).

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Conforming to the general pattern followed by many Purāṇas, the Vāyu Purāṇa describes the geography of these regions under five heads:

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(i) The mountains north of Mahābhadra, the Northern Lake (ch. 36);
(ii) The description of valleys or basins between the Northern Ranges (ch. 38);
(iii) Delightful places (or in other words, the inhabited regions) on (or in the vicinity of) the Northern Mountains (ch. 39);
(iv) The course of the Northern River, Bhadrasomā (ch. 42);
(v) A generalised account of the Northern Regions (ch. 45).

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Besides these, there are:
(vi) Incidental remarks regarding the Northern Regions in other chapters.

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The relevant descriptions in the Vāyu Purāṇa under these heads are quoted below:

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(a) The ranges which are located north of Mahābhadra Sarovara (the Northern Lake) which I have already discussed are in the following order:

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Mahā Saila, Saṅkakūṭa, Vṛṣabha, Haṃsaparvata, Nāga, Kapila, Sanumana, Indra Saila, Nila, Kanaka Śṛṅga, Sat Śṛṅga, Puṣpaka, Meghaśaila, Acalottamavirāja and Śailendra Jarudhi. The names of many mountains which are located in the north are mentioned (ch. 36, 30-32).

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(b) There is a Paraśakasthali between the Saṅkakūṭa and the Vṛṣabha mountains. Big, aromatic, luscious fruits fall on the ground and make it muddy. Respectable Charanganas drink the juice of ‘Paruṣa’ and get intoxicated. Kinnaras, Uragas and Saints live on that land.

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There is a region two hundred yojanas long and one hundred yojanas in breadth located between the Kapiñjala and Nāgaśaila mountains. It is full of forests containing different varieties of fruit and flowers. Here Kinnaras and Uragas reside. There are beautiful ‘Drākṣā-vana’, ‘Nāgavana’, ‘Kharjūravana’, ‘Nila’, ‘Aśokavana’, ‘Kadalivana’, tasty pomegranate ‘vana’, ‘Akhrote vana’, ‘Atasi Tilaka-vana’, and beautiful ‘Badarivana’. That land is also drained by fresh and cool water rivers.

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There is a land, one hundred yojanas in breadth and sixty yojanas in length between the Puṣpaka and Mahā Megha mountains. It is level and hard like palm and is devoid of trees, creepers, grasses, etc., and not a single creature lives in it. That land which is extremely dangerous and terrifying, bears the name Kānanasthali.

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Beyond, there are large lakes, tall trees and powerful men. Besides innumerable small lakes, forests and lands, there are innumerable important lands, valleys and lakes which are seven, eight, ten and twelve yojanas long. The region has a large number of dark caves and valleys which the sun’s rays never penetrate. For this reason they are always cold and inaccessible. Brahmins, there are thousands of lakes in the interior of mountains. The water of these lakes is always boiling (ch. 41, 66-73).

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(c) On the several peaks of the Jarudhi mountain in the North Country where saints reside there are thousands of cities inhabited by Yakṣas, Rākṣasas, Kinnaras, Gandharvas, Nāgas and Demons. On the central peak of that mountain decorated with beautiful jewels and served by Siddhas and Devarṣis, there is a lake named Ānanda-Jala containing the most sacred water. Its water is always crystal clear. Saints bathe in it. It is full of many creatures and the most beautiful birds. Swans and ducks have their home there. There are beautiful ghats beautified by lotuses and lilies. The lotuses are of blue colour. It is thirty yojanas in diameter. A dangerous Nāgapati named Chandra who resides there has a hundred heads with Viṣṇu's marks on its body (ch. 41, 66-73).

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(d) The above-mentioned river (the Northern River) after emerging by the side of Merukūṭa in the north of Supārśva mountains flows through the northern region of the Meru mountain.... From there the river falls and throws cascades of water like garlands. Served by Devas it descends several mountain slopes and flows through rich countries and after crossing large and several great forests including Sūryavana and Mahāvana this great river falls into lake Mahābhadra (Mahāpuṇya). After emerging from it, the great sacred river is known as the Bhadrasomā. The Bhadrasomā river is a very large and fast moving river. This river, after innumerable waterfalls in the lower part of the Saṅkhakūṭa mountain flows by the side of the same (Saṅkhakūṭa) mountain. From there it proceeds to Nāgaśaila, whence it falls on the great mountain Varṣaparvata Nila. From there the river falls on the Kapiñjala, passes on to Indraśaila and then makes for the Mahānila, Hemaśṛṅga mountains. It continues its journey from Hemaśṛṅga to Sveta, to Sunāga, and then to Ṣaṭ Śṛṅga. From Ṣaṭ Śṛṅga, the river falls on the flower-carpeted great mountain Puṣkara, then passes on to Dvirāja and from there to the Varāha mountain and to Mayūra. It then falls on the peak of the Jarudhi mountain which has numerous caves. In this way, this great river, after crossing thousands of mountains falls on the Saṃyukta Trśṛṅga peak named the Maryāda mountain. After this, the river travels from the base of the Trśṛṅga and helped by the wind it leaves the side of the Merukūṭa mountain. Then this clear water river falls on the Jarudhi mountain and after crossing that mountain it falls in the Western Sea.¹⁹

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On the northern side of Meru in the Supārśva country this river is split into branches before falling into the sea. This large and sacred river flows across the plains and flows along the Uttara Kuru. After flowing through the central part of that continent it falls into the Northern Sea.

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(e) 1. Sūta said: South of the Sveta mountain and north of the Nila mountain there is a country named Ramaṇaka Varṣa, where people are born.

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2. Who are workers in all the seasons and live without growing old. They are excellent people, always eager to see good things.

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3. There is also a great divine tree named Rohin, the juice of whose fruit those people drink all their lives.

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5. From the north of the Sveta mountain to the south of the Śṛṅgavān mountain there is a country named Hiraṇyavat Varṣa through which the river Hiraṇyavatī flows.

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6. It is the abode of hefty people who work in all seasons. They are rich, prosperous and always eager to see excellent things.

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8. In that country there is the Lakuch tree yielding 6 juices. The inhabitants of the country enjoy a healthy vigorous life drinking the juice of its fruit.

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9. The Śṛṅgavān mountain has three very high summits. One of them is full of diamonds, the second, full of gold and the third, full of all kinds of jewels. All the three provide excellent habitation.

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10. South of the North Sea live the Kurus. Consequently, their land is known Kuru Varṣa, which is served by pious Siddhas.

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11. The trees of this region provide flowers and sweet fruits throughout the year and even clothing and ornaments.

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13. There are other trees named Chirin, which always furnish nectar-like milk containing six juices.

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14. There the entire earth is full of diamonds. At a few places there is gold in sand which is pleasant to touch. The land is free from impurities and thorns.

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18. Like the couples of 'Chakarvak' they live together very closely. And they enjoy life, not knowing disease, sorrow or suffering.

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20. Now let us listen carefully to the account of the Kurus living towards the north of the Jarudhi mountain.

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21. Where, there are meadows beautified by caves, valleys and falls and also by precious metals which are served by Siddhas and Caraṇas. In that place there are two Kul mountains with hundreds of summits.

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25. There are Candrakānta and Sūryakānta mountains but the great river Bhadrasomā does not flow between them.

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26. But thousands of other rivers are full of pure water, sufficient for drinking and bathing for the Kuru people.

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31. There are also the forests of Tamāla and Aguru Sandal, rich in fragrance, colour and juice.

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32. There are ever green forests full of trees, bushes and creepers and most suitable for habitation.

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33. There are also thousands of lakes full of lotuses admired by the Brahmans and others.

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38. There is a city which has windows of gold, adorned with a net-work of diamonds, and thousands of big trees. People wear fine clothes and posses drums, flutes, *vinas*, etc. Kalpa trees provide fruit in profusion. The city is everywhere like this, so are its gardens.

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41. Which is full of the men and women of all the Dwipas and where the wind blows laden with the fragrance of different flowers.

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42. That land is always the abode of happiness, providing relief from fatigue. There the gods descend from the heaven in the shape of human beings and take their birth there. In this way this excellent land is like Heaven.

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44. The people of that country are as powerful and as great as gods, and they are seen moving about all over.

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45. They decorate themselves with garland-like ornaments and big ear rings.

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48. All of them are equally prosperous, but they have neither love nor affection. There is neither Dharma nor Adharma there.

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49. They know neither disease nor old age, neither mental confusion nor labour. They disappear like bubbles of water on completing their full length of time.

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50. Thus they are extremely happy, not knowing any kind of suffering or pain. Always living in prosperity they do not care for Dharma, but they understand that suffering creates Adharma.

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51, 52, 53. To the south of Uttara Kuru, there is a moon-shaped dwipa known as Candradwipa, which is the residence of Devas. It is one thousand yojanas in area and is full of various kinds of fruits and flowers.

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54. In its centre there is a mountain, in shape and lustre like the moon, named Kumudprabhā, served by Siddhas and Cāraṇas.

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55. This Kumudprabhā mountain is beautified by Svetavaidūrya lotuses, gardens, streams and caves.

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56. In this mountain the Candravantā river has its origin. From it this river flows on, full of pure and holy water, bright like the moon's rays.

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57. It is an abode of the Moon, the Lord of the Stars. The leader of planets, the moon, always comes here.

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58. Therefore, after the name of the moon that mountain and land are named as Candradwīpa and Candra mountain. By this name it is well-known in heaven as well as on the earth.

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We shall first analyse statement (d) above, since it gives the location of mountain ranges with reference to the northern river Bhadrasomā, as it flows from the south to the north across the many mountains mentioned in (a) above. Besides, the sequence of ranges in (d) is somewhat definite and one has only to fix their relative positions on either side of the river. Once this is done, the remaining mountains contained in statement (a) and not mentioned in (d) can be easily located.

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The first point and the most important one which emerges from (d) above is that the author is attempting to describe two rivers and not one which flow towards the north from the Meru (Pāmīr) region. One of these, which is the main river and of which a description is given in para 1 of (d) above, flows towards the north, then towards the west to fall into the Western Sea which is obviously the Aral Sea in this case. (It is to be borne in mind that the Aral and the Caspian Sea formed one sea and were separated in the not very distant past). The other river which, according to the Purāṇas (see para 2 of statement (d) above), branched off the main river in Supārśva country, took an entirely northerly course and flowing through Uttarakuru fell into the Northern Sea (the Arctic Ocean). The conclusion is inescapable that one of these rivers is the Syr Darya which falls into the Aral Sea and the other is the River Irtysh which rises from the Tarbetagai and falls into the Arctic Ocean.

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If these assumptions are correct, which is very probable, the course of the River Syr Daria (with its affluents) can be traced from its headwaters to the Sea of Aral. The lake Son-Kul appears to be the Sombhadra or Mahābhadra of the Purāṇas. It is a beautiful lake perched on a high plateau north of the Pāmīrs in the Kirghiz S.S.R. which more or less coincides with the basin of the River Naryn, or the upper Syr Daria. This basin has been recognised by the Purāṇics as a definite regional unit and named as the 'Supārśva' country.

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The Supārśva country (Kirghistan) is a mountainous region of lower relief than that of the Pāmīrs and where the mountains are more rounded and less indented than those in the latter. The Vṛṣabha mountain, mentioned as one of the mountains of this region, is typical and suggestive of the topography of the Supārśva country while the mountains named as Sahasra Sekhara, Ṣaṭśṛṅga or Mayūra at once bring to one's mind the highly indented ridges of the regions which lie to its west and its south and in which they have been included. It is to be noted that the Purāṇic names of mountains mostly embody their prominent features or their physical appearance, e.g., height, colour or tint, form or profile; bare, forested or snow-covered.

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The Supārśva country (Kirghistan) has, in general, less steep rocks and canyons and wider mountain valleys that have gentle slopes and for the most part sufficient moisture. Those valleys abound in rich alpine meadows which cover almost 80 per cent of the whole area. The Purāṇics, therefore, in describing the upper course of the river Bhadrasomā correctly say that ‘the river falls and throws water like garlands... and comes down several mountain slopes and flows through rich countries (i.e., rich in vegetation) and after crossing large and several great forests including Sūryavana and Mahāvana, this great river falls into a lake named Mahābhadra....’

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Having fixed the position of the Northern Lake (Son-Kul) it is possible, with the help of a good large-scale topographical map of the Syr Daria-Naryn basin to locate the various mountains and ranges which occur in the Purāṇic description of the course of the River Bhadrasomā given in (d) above and, with reference to these, to find the relative position of others mentioned in (a) above. It should, however, be understood that wherever the words ‘the river falls on’ such and such mountain occur in the Purāṇic accounts, they mean that ‘the river receives a tributary from’ that mountain.

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It will be seen from the topographical map that Saṅkhakūṭa is that range which lies south of Lake Son and runs parallel to the right bank of the Naryn river. As the river flows in the shadow of this range it receives tributaries from the northern slopes of the Tien-Shan (Nila of the Purāṇas). These are the headwaters of the River Naryn which are clearly shown on the map.

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Nāga Śaila is the Farghana Range (formerly known as the Kugart Range). As the Naryn crosses this range and enters the Farghana valley, it receives tributaries from the north and the north-west which come down the Kuramin Range (which represents the Kapiñjala mountain of the Purāṇas). At the same time the River Naryn meets the Kara Darya which joins it from the south-east. Thereafter the combined waters of the Naryn and Kara Darya form the Syr Darya. The headstreams of Kara Darya rise from the two northern spurs of the great Tien-Shan range, which are named as the Mahānīla and Indranīla in the Purāṇic description.

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The Syr Darya now makes a westerly sweep and approaches the northern spurs of the Turkistan Range (Śveta Mountain) and receives Isfarion, Sokh and other tributaries on its left bank, including one from the Sunāg Mountain, a spur of the Turkistan Range indicated on the map. As the river turns north-west beyond the Kuramin Mountain, it leaves the mountainous region consisting of many parallel ranges running transverse to the axis of the Syr. It, however, receives tributaries which flow over the synclines between these parallel ranges. It first of all receives an important tributary, Angren, which rises from the Chatkal range called the Śat Śṛṅga Mountain by the Purāṇics. The Chatkal is a highly dissected and indented range with conspicuous peaks and rightly deserves the name of ‘Śat Śṛṅga’. Further down the river Syr, other streams Chatkal, Pskem, Chirchik and Keles flow from the east to the main river. According to the Purāṇas they rise from the Puṣkara, Dvirāja, Varāha and Mayūra respectively and have, therefore, been marked on the map accordingly.

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Linked texts (9)

Matsyapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Bhāgavatapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Brahmapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Garuḍapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Vāyupurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Mahābhārata — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Purāṇa — Sanskrit
Viṣṇupurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit