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History of Dharmashastra (Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Law in India) v6: Volume 6

History of Dharmaśāstra (Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Law in India) v6

Language
English

Contents

Volume 6

Front matter

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PREPARED UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF THE PUBLICATION DEPARTMENT OF THE BHANDARKAR ORIENTAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE POONA

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INSTITUTE POONA FOUNDED 1917 ॥ तेजस्वि नावधीतमस्तु ॥

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POONA

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Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona

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(ANCIENT AND MEDIÆVAL RELIGIOUS AND CIVIL LAW IN INDIA)

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BY MAHĀMAHOPĀDHYĀYA PANDURANG VAMAN KANE, M. A., LL. M., D. Litt. (All.), M. P. SENIOR ADVOCATE, SUPREME COURT OF INDIA, AND ADVOCATE, HIGH COURT, BOMBAY, FELLOW OF THE BOMBAY ASIATIC SOCIETY AND OF THE LONDON SCHOOL OF ORIENTAL AND AFRICAN STUDIES, AUTHOR OF 'HISTORY OF SANSKRIT POETICS' ETC.

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Vol. V, Pt. I

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(VRATAS, UTSAVAS AND KĀLA ETC.)

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Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona Copies can be had direct from the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona 4, India.

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Price Rs. 25 per copy, exclusive of postage.

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Revised Price Rs. 40-00

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Printed by Mr. K. G. Sharangpani, at the Aryabhushan Press, 915/1 Shivajinagar, Poona 4 and Published by Dr R. N. Dandekar, M A., Ph D., Hon. Secretary,

Publisher's Note

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The Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute has great pleasure in publishing the first part of the fifth and last volume of Mahāmahopādhyāya Dr. P. V. Kane's monumental *History of Dharmaśāstra* This part comprises two sections The first section deals at length with many important vratas and utsavas such as Kṛṣṇajanmāṣṭamī, Durgotsava, Diwālī, Saṅkrānti, Mahāśivarātrī, Holikā, and also includes brief notices of about 1100 vratas, pūjās and utsavas with references, the second section deals with Kāla (Time), and its philosophic conceptions from Vedic times downwards; Indian Astronomy and Astrology and the theories of Western scholars about them; nakṣatras and astrology based on them; *muhūrtas* and their employment in religious rites; the Zodiacal signs; planets and week-days, principles laid down in Indian astrological works, calendar, eras and intercalary month; Yuga, Manvantara and Kalpa; Yoga and Karaṇa; and reform of our calendar.

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The second part of this volume will treat of such topics as śāntis-Vedic and post-Vedic; Purāṇas and their influence on Dharmaśāstra, society and Buddhism; Tantras and Dharmaśāstra'; Pūrvamīmāmsā and other darśanas in relation to Dharmaśāstra, cosmology; the theory of *punarjanma*; the essential characteristics of our culture through the ages, and future trends.

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All prefatory matter, including list of abbreviations, brief synopsis of the contents, list of works consulted, etc., as also General Index for the whole volume, will be given in the second part, which we hope to publish before long.

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R. N. DANDEKAR
*Honorary Secretary.*

Brief Synopsis of the Contents of Volume V

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| | Pages |
| *Section I. Vratas (religious vows) and Utsavas (religious festivals)* | 1–462 |
| Chapter I. Vrata in the Ṛgveda. | 1–21 |
| Chapter II. Vrata in the Vedic Literature, Sūtras, Smṛtis, definition and importance of Vratas. | 22–50 |
| Chapter III. Persons entitled to engage in Vratas, objects desired by means of Vratas, classifications of Vratas, Literature on Vratas, times for Vratas. | 51–80 |
| Chapter IV. Individual vratas, Caitra Pratipad, Rāmanavamī, Akshayya-tṛtīyā, Paraśurāmajayantī, Daśaharā, Sāvitrīvrata. | 81–94 |
| Chapter V. Ekādaśī. | 95–121 |
| Chapter VI. Cāturmāsya. | 122–123 |
| Chapter VII. Vratas called Nāgapañcamī, Manasāpūjā, Rakṣābandhana, Kṛṣṇajanmāṣṭamī | 124–143 |
| Chapter VIII. Vratas of Haritālikā, Gaṇeśacaturthī, Ṛṣipañcamī, Anantacaturdaśī. | 144–153 |
| Chapter IX. Navarātra or Durgotsava. | 154–187 |
| Chapter X. Vijayādaśamī and Divālī. | 188–210 |
| Chapter XI. Makrasaṅkrānti and Mahāśivarātri. | 211–236 |

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Chapter XII. Holikā and Grahaṇa (Eclipses) 237-250

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Chapter XIII. List of other Vratas and Utsavas. 251-462

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*Section II. Kāla, Muhūrta, the influence of Astrology on Dharmaśāstra and Calendar* 463-718

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Chapter XIV. Conception of Kāla (Time) 463-485

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Chapter XV. Units of Kāla. 486-536

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Chapter XVI. Muhūrta. 537-603

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Chapter XVII. Muhūrtas for religious rites 604-640

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Chapter XVIII. Calendar, eras, various reckonings about years, months etc. 641-685

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Chapter XIX. Kalpa, Manvantara, Mahāyuga, Yuga. 686-718

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*Section III. Śānti (propitiatory rite for averting the deity's wrath, a calamity or an unlucky event.* 719-814

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Chapter XX. Vedic meaning and procedure of Śāntis. 719-747

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Chapter XXI. Individual Śāntis. 748-814

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*Section IV. Purāṇas and Dharmaśāstra.* 815-912

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Chapter XXII. Origin and development of Purāṇa literature. 815-886

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Chapter XXIII. Brief notes on individual Purāṇas and Upapurāṇas. 887-912

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*Section V. Purāṇas and disappearance of Buddhism.* 913-1030

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Chapter XXIV. Influence of Purāṇas on Dharmaśāstra. 913-1002

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Chapter XXV. Causes of the disappearance of Buddhism from India. 1003–1030

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*Section VI. Tāntrik doctrines and Dharmaśāstra, Nyāsa, Mudrā, Yantra, Cakra, Maṇḍala.* 1031–1151

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Chapter XXVI. Tāntrik doctrines and Dharmaśāstra 1031–1119

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Chapter XXVII. Nyāsas, Mudrās, Yantra, Cakra, Maṇḍala and Appendix on Works on Tantra. 1120–1151

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*Section VII. Pūrvamīmāṁsā and Dharmaśāstra.* 1152–1351

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Chapter XXVIII. Mīmāṁsā and Dharmaśāstra. 1152–1201

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Chapter XXIX. Some fundamental doctrines of Pūrva-mīmāṁsā. 1202–1282

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Chapter XXX. On Mīmāṁsā principles and rules of interpretation in relation to Dharmaśāstra; appendix on Nyāyas. 1283–1351

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*Section VIII. Relation of Sāṅkhya, Yoga and Tarka to Dharmaśāstra.* 1352–1482

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Chapter XXXI. Dharmaśāstra and Sāṅkhya. 1352–1384

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Chapter XXXII. Yoga and Dharmaśāstra. 1385–1467

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Chapter XXXIII. Tarka and Dharmaśāstra. 1468–1482

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*Section IX. Cosmology and the doctrine of Karma and Punarjanma.* 1483–1612

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Chapter XXXIV. Cosmology. 1483–1529

Chapter XXXV. The doctrine of Karma and Punarjanma. 1530-1612

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Section X. The fundamental conceptions and characteristics of Hindu (Bhāratīya) Culture and civilization from Vedic Times to about 1800 A. D., and future trends* 1613-1711

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Chapter XXXVI. Fundamental and leading characteristics and conceptions of Hindu culture and civilization. 1613-1657

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Chapter XXXVII. Future trends. 1658-1711

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Epilogue; Acknowledgments and Thanks. I-XXII

Section I. Vratas (Religious Vows) and Utsavas (Religious Festivals)

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VRATA IN THE ṚGVEDA

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*Vrata* is one of many Sanskrit words, the use and history of which extend over several thousand years. The derivation and semantic development of the word vrata have been the subject of great controversies. These questions have been dealt with by me at some length in the JBBRAS, vol. 29 (1954) pp. 1-28. I shall here summarise the discussion contained therein.

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In the great St. Petersburg Dictionary the word vrata is derived from the root ‘vṛ’ (to choose) and the important senses of the word given in that Dictionary are: (1) will, command, law, prescribed order; (2) subservience, obedience, service; (3) domain; (4) order, regulated succession, realm; (5) calling, office, customary activity, carrying on, custom; (6) religious duty, worship, obligation; (7) any undertaking, religious or ascetic performance or observance, vow, sacred work; (8) vow in general, fixed purpose; (9) other specialized senses. Max Muller derived it from vṛ ‘to protect’ and held that it meant originally what is enclosed, protected, set apart, then what is settled or determined, law, ordinance and then ‘sway or power’. Whitney, in a note on this word in the Proceedings published in J. A. O. S. vol. XI pp. 29-31, after setting out the treatment of the word in the St Petersburg Dictionary, brushed aside Max Muller’s etymology as unsatisfactory and as possessing little plausibility and declared that he did not accept the derivation of the word from vṛ ‘to choose’, that ‘vṛ’ did not signify willing or command, but only choice or preference, though he admitted that there is a relationship between ‘choose’ and ‘command’. He objected that ‘*ta*’ as an affix (except in the formation of past passive participles) was very rare and that the only analogous word he could think of would be ‘marta’ from ‘mṛ’ to die. He preferred to derive the word from ‘vṛt’ ‘to proceed’ and, though he admitted that the form vrata from ‘vṛt’ with affix *a* would be exceptional, he thought that the words ‘vraja’ and ‘trada’ supported the derivation and put forward the ground that the word ‘vrata’ occurs frequently in the Ṛgveda with verbs of motion such as '*car*', '*saśc*' or '*sac*'.

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Prof. V. M Apte contributed a long article on vrata to the 3rd volume of the Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute at Poona (pp. 407–488) Prof Apte agreed with Whitney in deriving the word vrata from '*vṛt*', boldly asserted that the derivation of the word from '*vṛ*' to choose or '*vṛ*' to guard or enclose is impossible (p 410), that there is not a *single vrata* passage in the Ṛgveda which favours the meaning 'will, command, obedience or fixed purpose', that '*vṛt*' not only means 'to proceed' (as Whitney holds) but also 'to turn, to turn oneself, turn round, revolve, move on' and that therefore '*vrata*' means not only procedure, course of action, conduct, but also 'circular movement' and then 'route or circular path' (pp. 411–412).

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My own view is that both Whitney and Prof Apte are wrong in deriving the word *vrata* from '*vṛt*'. I further hold that passages in which '*vṛt*' occurs with *upasargas* such as *abhi*, *ā*, *ni*, *pari*, *pra* or *vi*, would not be helpful in determining the original meaning of '*vṛt*' by itself, since *upasargas* often totally change the meaning of the root¹, that it is doubtful whether the root '*vṛt*' standing by itself means in the Ṛgveda 'to proceed' (as Whitney thought) and I deny that '*vṛt*' occurring by itself without *upasargas* in the Ṛgveda ever means 'to turn round, move on' (as Prof Apte asserts) In my opinion the root '*vṛt*' by itself (and not used in a causal or frequentative sense) means simply 'to be, to remain, to abide' Occurrences of the root '*vṛt*' without any upasarga before or after it are few in the Ṛgveda. Some typical examples may be given 'When, O Indra, thou didst strike down the wiles of Svarbhānu (the demon Rāhu) that remained below the sky²' (Ṛg V 40. 6), 'the wheel does not affect (jolt) your chariot (O Aśvins!) that is followed by songs one after another and that remains possessed of food' (Ṛg VIII. 5. 34); 'they (the dice) remain downwards (lie down on the board or ground) but they throb or strike above (i. e they shake or terrify the hearts of gamblers), though they have no hands yet they defeat those that are endowed with hands' (Ṛg X. 34 9). Vide also Ṛg X. 27 19, X 107 11 for other verses where '*vṛt*' occurs without an upasarga and means 'to remain or abide'. Even with an upasarga like '*sam*' *vṛt* means simply 'to be or to abide' and not 'revolve or turn' or 'move on'. Vide Ṛg. VI. 41. 2, X. 90. 14, X. 121. 1 and 7, X. 129. 4, in which '*sam-vartatām*' or '*samavartata*' simply means 'let it remain' or 'it was or existed'. Simply because '*vṛt*' with '*abhi*' means 'to turn towards or attack' (as in Ṛg. IV. 43. 5 or V. 31. 5) or with '*ni*' means 'come down or return' (as in Ṛg X. 19. 1, 3, 5, X. 95. 17) or with '*pari*' means 'roam over or round' (as in Ṛg. I. 164. 11 and IV. 36. 1), or with '*pra*' means 'to proceed' (as in Ṛg. V. 30. 8 or X. 89. 12), or with *vi* means 'roll or revolve' (as in Ṛg I. 185. 1, V. 30. 8, V. 53 7, VI 9. 1) it does not at all follow that the original sense of '*vṛt*' is, as Prof Apte asserts (p. 411 end), 'to revolve or roll on'. Besides, the last two senses are somewhat contradictory.

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¹ उपसर्गेण धात्वर्थो बलादन्यत्र नीयते। नीहाराहारसंहारप्रतिहारमहारवत् ॥

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² स्वर्भानोरध यदिन्द्र माया अवो दिवो वर्तमाना अवाहन्। ऋ V 40 6; रथे वामनुगातयसं य इषा वर्तते सह। न चक्रमभि बाधते॥ ऋ VIII 5.34. नीचा वर्तन्त उपरि स्फुरन्त्यहस्तासो हस्तवन्तं सहन्ते। ऋ. X. 34. 9.

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Prof. Apte complains that scholars were content as to *vrata* with the meanings 'law, statute, command, sacrifice, vow, fixed purpose, duty' and did not take enough notice of the important part that the sense of 'route or circular path' plays in the Ṛgveda. He opines that the divine vratas often mentioned in the Ṛgveda rather mean 'the heavenly routes, the divine rounds, the periodical movements round the sky closely adhered to by the gods themselves' rather than 'holy laws' laid down by a particular deity. Adopting a suggestion of Tilak in 'Orion' (p. 154) that the path of ṛta sometimes mentioned in the Ṛgveda is the broad belt of the Zodiac which the luminaries never transgress, Prof. Apte sets out to prove that the word 'ṛta' in the Ṛgveda primarily means the belt of the Zodiac (vide his paper in the Silver Jubilee volume of the Annals of the B O. R. I., pp 55–56). This theory has failed to appeal to eminent Vedic scholars In my humble way I endeavoured to show in the 4th vol of the H. of Dh. (pp 2–5) that 'ṛta' has three senses in the Ṛgveda, one of which is 'the course of nature or the regular general order in the cosmos'. "The path by which the group of Ādityas reaches ṛta' in Ṛg. I. 41. 4³ or the statement in Ṛg I. 164. 11 'the wheel of ṛta, that has twelve spokes (12 constellations or months), continually goes round the sky without being worn out' are only illustrations of the first meaning of ṛta But this meaning of ṛta by itself sheds hardly any light on the meaning of vrata Ṛta and vrata are not synonyms and it is difficult to see how, conceding for argument that 'ṛta' is the belt of the Zodiac, vrata means, as Prof. Apte obviously thinks, the same thing. Ṛta is an Indo-European word but so far as I know 'vrata' is not even shown to be Indo- Iranian, much less Indo-European.

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³ सुगः पन्था अनृक्षर आदित्यास ऋतं यते। ऋ. I. 41. 4, द्वादशारं नहि तज्जराय वर्वर्ति चक्रं परि द्यामृतस्य। ऋ. I. 164. 11.

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Prof. Apte advances the theory that there are two parallel phases of the semantic evolution of the word 'vrata' viz a 'divine phase' and a 'human' phase. I feel no hesitation in denying the existence of any such distinction in the meaning of the word 'vrata'. Prof Apte arranges (pp. 414-415) the so-called divine phase of the meaning of vrata into six groups, viz. (I) turning round, passage, procedure, physical activity, (II) circular path, settled or beaten route, (III) sphere or region of movement or influence, (IV) routine, laws of movement; periodic appearance or visit, customary activity, recurring march, (V) victorious advance or strength, (VI) ordinance, law, rule or code of conduct. In the so-called 'human phase' of semantic development he sets out four groups of senses, viz. (I) physical activity (as distinguished from mental), duty, profession; (II) the sum total of those peculiar ethical and religious duties and practices which made up the culture pattern of the Aryans; (III) the specific social and religious duties of the three classes of Aryan society; (IV) devotion to duty in general on the part of men and women.

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I have summarised Prof Apte's long list of meanings in ten groups. The very fact that Prof. Apte had to marshall over sixty English equivalents for the meaning of the word 'vrata', which occurs in the Ṛgveda only about 220 times by itself or in combination with other words is enough to make scholars suspicious about the correctness of the entire scheme. Though he had the hardihood to assert in one place (p. 410)⁴ that no passage in the Ṛgveda favours the meaning 'will or command' he admits (on pp. 476-477) that in three passages (Ṛg II. 38 7, X. 10 5, X. 33. 9) the meaning of vrata as 'ordinances laid down by a divinity for devotees or human beings' is quite acceptable to him and further that in about 25 passages (which come under groups II to IV of the so-called human phase of Prof. Apte) vrata either means 'ethical or religious code of practices of the three classes of Aryans' or 'beneficent sway or devotion'.

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⁴ Hereafter up to note 23 wherever only pages are mentioned and no work, the reference is to the pages of the 3rd vol. of the Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute.

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I shall now state my own views on the derivation and the meanings of the word vrata in the Ṛgveda. I derive the word from the root ‘vṛ’ (to choose). From this root comes the word ‘vara’ (bridegroom who is chosen from among several men by a maiden or her guardian), which occurs in Ṛg IX. 101. 14 and X. 85. 8 and 9. Choosing involves willing or volition on the part of the person choosing. Hence ‘vṛ’ also means ‘to will’. Therefore, when the word vrata is derived from ‘vṛ’ with the suffix ‘ta’, the meaning of vrata can be ‘what is willed’ or simply ‘will’. The will of a person in power or authority is a command or law unto others Devotees believe that gods have laid down certain commands to be followed by themselves as well as by all beings. Thus comes the sense of ‘law or ordinance’. A command of a superior imposes and implies a corresponding duty to obey. When commands are obeyed or duties are performed in the same way for long, they become the patterns of obligations i. e. customs or practices When persons believe or feel that they must perform certain acts as ordained by gods, then arises the sense of religious worship or duty. If a man imposes upon himself certain restrictions as to his behaviour or food to win the favour of gods that becomes a sacred vow or religious observance. Thus the several meanings of the word ‘vrata’, which I derive from the root ‘vṛ’, are command or law, obedience or duty, religious or moral practices, religious worship or observance, sacred or solemn vow or undertaking, then any vow or pattern of conduct. It should not be supposed that these several meanings followed one another in a time sequence Two or more meanings might have been simultaneously in vogue such as ‘ordinance, duty or obedience’. These meanings of vrata set out by me are quite sufficient for the interpretation of almost all Ṛgveda passages in which the word occurs.

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When Whitney derived the word ‘vrata’ from ‘vṛt’ with affix ‘a’, he could cite only two words ‘vraja’ and ‘trada’ as parallel. But it is quite possible to argue that ‘vraja’ is not analogous to vrata (if derived from ‘vṛt’). *Vraja* (cowpen) occurs in the Ṛgveda in II. 38. 8, IV. 1. 15, IV. 16. 6, V. 6. 7, V. 33 10, can very well be derived from ‘vraj’ to go and Pāṇini III. 3 119 appears to derive⁵ it from ‘vraj’ in the sense of ‘karaṇa’ or adhikarana. The root ‘vraj’ occurs in the Ṛgveda⁶ If *vraja* is derived from the root ‘vraj’, it is not on all fours with vrata derived from ‘vṛt’. Whitney probably derived ‘vraja’ from ‘vṛj’. But the meaning of ‘vraja’ (cowpen) can hardly arise from the root ‘vṛj’ (to give up, abandon). The word ‘trada’ occurs only once in the Ṛgveda (VIII. 45 28)⁷ and is applied to Indra It is difficult to say from what root, if any, it is derived. Whitney probably derived it from ‘tṛd’ to injure or pierce. The word ‘tṛdilāḥ’ (crushing) is applied to the stones (grāvānaḥ) which crush *soma* stalks⁸ (Ṛg. X. 94 11) Whitney says he knows only one word ‘marta’ derived from ‘mṛ’ (to die) with the affix ‘ta’ which is analogous to vrata if the latter be derived from ‘vṛ’ But Whitney failed to notice other words with the affix ‘ta’ (not past passive participles) such as ‘karta’ (deep hole, cavern) (in Ṛg. I. 121. 13, II 29 6, IX. 73. 8 and 9) and ‘garta’ (cavity or seat in a war chariot) (in Ṛg. II. 33 11, V. 62. 5 and 8, VI. 20 9, VII. 64. 4), vāta (wind) from ‘vā’ (Ṛg. V 31. 10, X 168. 1 &c.), dhūrta and several others.

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⁵ गोचरसञ्चरवहव्रजव्यजापणनिगमाश्च। पा. III. 3 119 on which सि. कौ. explains ‘घान्ता निपात्यन्ते’.

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⁶ आपश्चिदस्मा अरमन्त देवीः पृथग् व्रजन्तीः परि दीमृञ्जन् ॥ ऋ III. 56. 4.

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⁷ तरणिं वो जनानां त्रदं वाजस्य गोमतः। समानमृ म शंसिषम्॥ ऋ VIII. 45. 28, गोमतः। वाजस्य त्रद would mean ‘(Indra) who is the injurer of pinc,’ which would be absurd. Indra sets free cows imprisoned by Vṛtra.

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⁸ तृदिला अतृदिलासो अद्रयोऽश्रमणा अश्रथिता अमृत्यव.। ऋ. X. 94. 11.

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Prof Apte cites the word *vartani* (which means ‘way’ in Ṛg I. 23 9, V 61 9, VII 8 16, VIII. 23. 19, VIII 63 8) as analogous to vrata (from vṛt) But that word lends very little help. In ‘vartani’ there is *guṇa* (vṛt becomes vart), besides vartani cannot be derived from ‘vṛt’ meaning ‘turn round or revolve’ (which Prof Apte gives as the original meaning), but from the meaning ‘to abide’ or at the most ‘to proceed’ and further ‘vartani’ has practically only one meaning in the Ṛgveda, while vrata has to be paraphrased by sixty different words in English by Prof Apte

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Prof Apte following Whitney relies on the fact (p 409) that vrata is frequently employed in the Ṛgveda with verbs of motion such as *anu-i*, *anu-car*, *anu-gā*, *anu-vṛt*. But these roots take on another meaning (viz ‘to follow or observe’) owing to the presence of ‘anu’ and in almost all the passages where the forms of these roots with *anu* occur there is no indication whatever of physical motion, but only that of ‘obeying or observing’ Besides, the root ‘*car*’ itself is not used in the sense of physical motion in several passages of the Ṛgveda, but in the sense of ‘performing’ and 'observing'. Vide⁹ Ṛg. I. 52. 6, III. 54. 2, VI. 9.6, VII. 89. 5. Moreover, in words like *brahmacārī* (Ṛg X. 109. 5) and *vratacāriṇaḥ* (Ṛg VII. 103. 1) the meaning of a physical motion, if it was the original one at all, is totally absent and the meaning 'performing' or 'observing' is the only one possible. Some occurrences of the roots 'saśc' and 'sac' in which the meaning of physical motion is inapplicable but the meaning 'resort to, accept or be united to' appears to be intended are found in Ṛg. II 1 13, VII. 28. 4 (for forms of 'saśc') and IV. 12. 2., VII. 85. 5, VIII. 4 9, IX. 95. 4 (for forms of 'sac').

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⁹ परीं घृणा चरति तित्त्विषे शवोऽपो वृत्नी रजसो बुध्नमाशयत्। ऋ. I 52 6, महि महे दिवे अर्चा पृथिव्यै कामो म इच्छंश्चरति प्रजानन्। ऋ. III. 54. 2; वि मे मनश्चरति दूरआधीः किंस्विद्वक्ष्यामि किमु नू मनिष्ये। ऋ. VI. 9 6.

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It is now necessary to examine the contention of Prof. Apte that *vrata* means in the Ṛgveda the tracks or routes that the various luminaries trace in the heavens Vratas are spoken of not only in relation to Agni, Indra, Mitra, Soma, Uṣas, Savitṛ and Ādityas but also in relation to Varuṇa (in Ṛg I. 25. 1, III. 54. 18, V. 69 4, VII 83. 9), Bṛhaspati (in II 23.6), Indra and Brahmaṇaspati (II. 24. 12), Aditi (I. 144. 12, VII 87 9), Parjanya (V. 83. 5) and Aśvins (I 183 3) Conceding for a moment that by some stretch of imagination or some linguistic acrobatics one can speak of the vratas of Agni, Ādityas, Mitra, Indra, Savitṛ and Uṣas as referring to the tracks of luminaries in the heavens, the mid regions and on the earth, one should like to know whether Aditi, Aśvins, Varuṇa, Bṛhaspati or Brahmaṇaspati are luminaries and what tracks they were supposed to trace in the heavens or elsewhere. Scholars are not agreed as to the meaning of Aditi or as to the physical or celestial phenomena Varuṇa or the Aśvins were supposed to represent. Aditi is a riddle, being identified with the heaven and the mid regions and also spoken of as the father, mother or the son or as the mother of Dakṣa and also his daughter; vide Ṛg. I. 89. 10, II 27. 1, X 72. 4-5 and Nirukta XI 23 as to Aditi and Ṛg. II 1 11 where Agni is identified with Aditi Long before the times of the Nirukta there was difference on the question of the nature of Asvins, some identifying them with Heaven and Earth, or day and night, or the Sun and the Moon or two meritorious kings (Nirukta XII 1), while some Western scholars hold them to be the Morning and the Evening star or Castor and Pollux The endeavour of interpreters of the Ṛgveda should be to assign such a derivation and meaning to the word vrata as would be appropriate in all cases where the word vrata is brought in relation to some gods. In my opinion the only meanings that can be well construed with all passages in which the vratas of the several gods mentioned above are referred to is ‘commands or ordinances, religious or moral practices or worship or vows’ One does not understand what Prof. Apte means when he remarks at (p. 442) in a tone of ridicule that observing or obeying the ‘ordinances or religious worship of gods’ is a soft job and looking after the paths or the tracks of luminaries is a strenuous one If anything, the reverse of this should be true

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The word ‘samrāj’ appears to be applied to a human king in Ṛg ¹⁰ VII. 58 4 ‘the sovereign, protected by you, O Maruts! kills the enemy’, and in Ṛg. X. 85 46 the newly married girl has the blessing ‘be you a queen’ (samrājñī). Varuṇa, Mitra, Indra, Agni, Viśve-devāḥ and Ādityas are called kings (*rājan*) and emperors (samrāj) in Ṛg. II. 41. 6, III 10 1, III. 54 10, V. 85 1, VII. 38. 4, VIII 27 22, X. 63. 5. Varuṇa (who is praised in about 12 hymns) is called *samrāj* oftener than even Indra praised in about 200 hymns What is more natural than to suppose that the gods called kings and emperors were believed to have laid down commands or ordinances to be obeyed by all. Though Ṛgvedic sages extol several gods they had already arrived at the conception that there was only one Supreme Being that was addressed under different names such as Indra, Mitra, Varuṇa, Agni and assumed several forms (Ṛg I 164. 46, VI. 47 18, X. 121. 1, X 129. 1-2) Vratas are spoken of as *dhruva* (immutably fixed) as in II. 5 4, III 56 1, V. 69 4 and as *adabdha* (unharmed, unassailable) as in I. 24 10, II. 9 1, III 54 18, VII. 66. 6 and *daivya* (divine) as in Ṛg I 70 1, I 92 12, VII 75 3. One must carefully remember these facts when ascertaining the exact meaning of *vrata* mentioned in connection with almost all the prominent gods of the Ṛgveda It is often stated in the Ṛgveda that the vratas of the god whom the sage for the moment praises are not violated by other gods Some striking examples¹¹ may, be given here: Ṛg. III. 7. 7 ‘the gods observe the vratas of gods’ (devā devānām-anu hi vratā guḥ); II. 38 9 ‘I invoke for my welfare with salutations god Savitṛ whose vrata is not violated by Indra, Varuṇa, Mitra, Aryaman, or Rudra or by the (god's) enemies’; III. 56. 1 ‘the primeval and immutably fixed vratas are not destroyed by the wily (demons), nor by the wise (sages), nor by the well-disposed Heaven and Earth and the firmly fixed mountains are not there for being bent down’; VIII. 42. 1 ‘the all-knowing and powerful (Varuṇa) made Heaven firm, he measured (created) the expanse of the earth; the great king sits over (rules) all the worlds; all these are the vratas of Varuṇa’. Vide also Ṛg. I. 101. 3, II. 24. 12, II 38. 2, III. 30. 4, V. 69. 4.

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¹⁰ युष्मोत. सम्राळुत हन्ति वृत्रं प्र तद्वो अस्तु धूतयो देष्णम्। ऋ VII. 58 4.

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¹¹ न यस्येन्द्रो वरुणो न मित्रो व्रतमर्यमा न मिनन्ति रुद्रः । नारातयस्तमिह स्वस्ति हुवे देव सवितार नमोभि.॥ ऋ II. 38 9; न ता मिनन्ति मायिनो न धीरा व्रता देवानाम प्रथमा भुवानि। न रोदसी अदृहा वेद्याभिर्न पर्वता निनमे तस्थिवांस ॥ ऋ. III 56. 1. अस्सम्भ्राट् द्याममुरो विश्ववेदा अमिमीत परिमाण पृथिव्याः। आसीदद्विश्वा भुवनानि सम्राड् विश्वेत्तानि (*Continued from last page*) वरुणस्य व्रतानि॥ VIII. 42 1. the word *vrata* occurs five times in II 38 (verses 2, 3, 6, 7, 9) and should be construed according to the general rules of interpretation in the same sense in all verses of the same hymn at least Prof. Apte admits (on p 476) that the meaning ‘ordinances’ would be appropriate in Ṛg. II. 38. 7 (नकिरस्य तानि व्रता देवस्य सवितुर्मिनन्ति) and accepts that meaning in that verse, but on II. 38. 9 (p. 468) his obsession about the original meaning being ‘tracks’ leads him to say “that in that verse the word vrata means ‘Savitṛ's fixed movements in the heavens.”

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The above mentioned passages clearly show that the Vedic sages believed that not only did the several gods observe or carry out the immutably fixed ordinances laid down by themselves or by any one of them but that even wily demons had to observe them and that waters or rivers flow as ordained by gods We have to take into account along with these beliefs that the Ṛgveda often adverts to the fact that human beings also break (or violate) the *vratas* of gods, are liable to be punished therefor and pray to the gods to pity them and to withhold the punishment. For example,¹² Ṛg I. 25. 1-2 ‘Whatever ordinance (vrata) of thine, O Varuṇa! we may break day to day as people (subjects) do (i. e. break the king's law) do not reduce us to death &c.’; X. 25. 3 ‘O Soma! if I transgress your perfect (lit well-baked) vratas, then in thy exhilaration (at our sacrifices) take pity on us as a father does towards his son’. Vide also VII. 89. 5, VIII. 48 9.

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¹² यच्चिद्धि ते विशो यथा प्र देव वरुण व्रतं मिनीमसि द्यविद्यवि। मा नो वधाय हत्नवे जिहीळानस्य रीरधः। ऋ. I 25 1-2. उत व्रतानि सोम ते माहं मिनानि पाकथा। अथां पितेव सूनवे शं यो भवे सुळा नो अभि चष्टृष्टाद्विवक्षसे ॥ X 25. 3. At the end of all verses in X. 21 and X. 25 and in X. 24. 1-3 the word विवक्षसे occurs and is explained as महान् भवसि by सायण. But this is unsatisfactory. वि वो मदे and विवक्षसे appear to be refrains with some recondite meaning.

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It would have been noticed that in some of the passages quoted above (in note 11) on vrata, verbal forms of the root ‘mī’ or ‘mī’ occur For the correct understanding of these passages the exact meaning of the root ‘mī’ is very important The Nighaṇṭu (II 19) includes ‘mināti’ among verbs meaning ‘vadha’ (killing or harming) In the Dhātupāṭha the meaning of the root ‘mī’ is hiṃsā’ (killing, annihilating, breaking) Vide Pāṇini VII 3 81 (mināter-nigame) The forms of ‘mī’ or ‘mī’ with or without the preposition ‘ā’ or ‘pra’ occur more than 50 times in the Ṛgveda and often in connection with *vrata* Whitney felt that the occurrences of the forms of ‘mī’ or ‘mī’ presented some difficulty about his theory of the derivation of vrata and its meanings, but Prof. Apte, who derived his inspiration from Whitney, feels no such misgivings as Whitney felt, holds, relying on his own interpretation of Ṛg I 124 3, that ‘mī’ or ‘mī’ is a verb of *motion* and has the primary sense of ‘miss, deviate, wander or stray from’ (p 411) Over a dozen verses at least will clearly show that Prof. Apte has been led astray by his preconceived theory about vrata meaning ‘tracks of luminaries’ and that ‘mī’ or ‘mī’ cannot at all be construed in the sense of ‘miss’ or ‘deviate’ in the Ṛgveda Ṛg I. 71. 10 ‘old age destroys me as (the dark or clouded) sky destroys (distinctness of) forms’ (nabho na rūpam jarimā mināti’); I. 124 2¹³ ‘(the dawn) which does not violate divine laws but destroys the spans of human life’, I. 179. 1 (Lopāmudrā says to Agastya) ‘old age destroys the beauty of limbs’ (mināti śriyaṃ jarimā tanūnām); VII 84 4 (Varuṇa) who is an Āditya, who destroys the false ones and who, the valiant one, imparts immeasurable wealth’. Vide also Ṛg I 92 11, I. 117 3, III. 32 8, IV. 30 23, V 7. 4, V 82. 2 for other examples where forms of ‘mī’ or ‘mī’ occur It is unnecessary to adduce more examples about ‘mī’. It is impossible, if Prof Apte is to be followed, that old age misses or deviates from beauty or that Aśvins miss or deviate from the wiles of the demon or that Varuṇa misses falsehood (or false men) Prof Apte relies (p 411)

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¹³ अमिनती दैव्यानि व्रतानि प्र मिनती मनुष्या युगानि। ऋ I 124. 2, प्र य आदित्यौ अनृता मिनात्यमिना शूरो दयते वसूनि। VII 84 4 One may compare with I 124 2, मर्तस्य देवी जरयन्त्यायु in ऋ. I 92. 10 The contrast between अमिनती दैव्यानि व्रतानि and प्रमिनती मनुष्या युगानि is most striking and places the sense of ‘mī’ in a clear light and beyond dispute.

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on Ṛg. I. 124. 3.¹⁴ as decisively establishing that originally 'mi' was a verb of motion. In the first place, one verse cannot demolish what many verses quoted above convey. Besides, there is nothing in Ṛg. I. 124. 3 that establishes what Prof. Apte thinks it does That verse says 'Here this daughter of heaven wearing a garment of light is seen in the east (by us) simultaneously; she (Dawn) well follows the path of ṛta (cosmic order), she like (a woman) knowing well does not annihilate the several quarters'.

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¹⁴ एषा दिवो दुहिता प्रत्यदर्शि ज्योतिर्वसाना समना पुरस्तात् । ऋतस्य पन्थामन्वेति साधु प्रजानतीव न दिशो मिनाति ॥ ऋ I. 124. 3. The meaning of the last quarter is that Uṣas always rises in the east and that she does not annihilate the separateness of the four quarters by sometimes rising in a direction other than the east. In this the dawn simply follows the law laid down for her in the order of nature (ṛtasya panthām). The idea about the confusion of quarters is well expressed in Ṛg V. 40. 5 Vide also X. 32 7.

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The sense of 'command or law' is quite appropriate in more than half the Ṛgvedic passages in which the word vrata occurs. In some passages the sense of 'religious practices or modes of sacred worship' is suitable. For example, Ṛg. X. 65. 11 says '(the Viśve-devas) that are good donors make the sun rise in heaven and spread about the Ārya vratas over the earth'. Vide also Ṛg. VI. 14. 3.

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There are several places in the Ṛgveda in which the words 'avrata' (11 times), 'apavrata' (in Ṛg. I. 51. 9, V. 42. 9, V. 40. 6), 'anyavrata' (in V. 20. 2, VIII. 70. 11, X. 22. 8) occur and in almost all of which *vrata* must be taken to mean 'mode of worship or ethical and religious practices of the Vedic worshippers'. Prof. Apte has to admit this (pp. 479, 483). It will not do to ignore these passages in finding out the derivation and meanings of the word vrata or to clap them in a separate group (as Prof. Apte does on p. 413) and distinguish them from other passages supposed to indicate the divine phase. There is nothing to show that Vedic sages distinguished between divine vratas and other vratas meant to be followed by Heaven and Earth, rivers, mountains and human beings. Some of these passages in which the word 'avrata' occurs strongly militate against the theory of Prof Apte. For example,¹⁵ in Ṛg. I. 101. 2 Indra is said to have killed Pipru who was *avrata* and in the very next verse it is said that Varuṇa and Sūrya abide in the vrata of Indra and the rivers also accept his vrata Therefore, vrata in this hymn must mean something akin to the meaning of vrata in *avrata* and not akin to 'tracks of luminaries'. Compare IX. 73 5 and 8 where avrata occurs with 'rakṣati vratam' in IX. 73 3 (both being verses about Soma)

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¹⁵ Ṛg I. 101. 2 is यो व्यंसे जाहृषाणेन मन्युना यः शम्बरं यो अहन् पिप्रुमव्रतम् ; while I. 101. 3 is यस्य द्यावापृथिवी पौंस्यं महद् यस्य व्रते वरुणो यस्य सूर्यः । यस्येन्द्रस्य सिन्धवः सश्चति व्रत &c.

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There are seven passages in the Ṛgveda where the word 'vivrata' occurs In six of them 'vivrata' is applied to the horses of Indra. According to Prof. Apte, the only natural meaning is 'moving or wandering along diverse paths' (p 419) But this is arguing in a circle They can be explained if vrata is taken to mean 'ordinance, duty or practice', when applied to horses 'vivrata' may be held to mean no more than this that two horses are yoked on two sides of the chariot and obey the various orders indicated through the pulling of the reins The 7th passage X. 55. 3 in which 'vivrata' occurs as an adjective of 'jyotiḥ' is difficult to construe and Prof. Apte has not succeeded in satisfactorily explaining it

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In several passages of the Ṛgveda phrases like 'tava vrate' occur. Whitney (p 409) stated that the phrase should rather mean 'in thy established or approved course, following thy lead or example', than 'under thy control or protection' or 'in thy service' as some scholars hold. Prof. Apte thinks that the translation of 'tava vrate' as 'abiding in thy ordinance' (by Macdonell) misses the point and avers that the proper meaning is 'dominion, authority, region or sphere' Some of the passages containing the words 'tava vrate' are Ṛg. VI 54. 9, IX. 102 5, X. 36 13, X. 57 6 In my opinion 'tava vrate' means 'while we abide by your ordinances'. In X. 36 13 the first half¹⁶ is a relative clause without a verb and we have to supply a form of the root 'as' (to be) or of 'bhū'. In some verses such a form of 'as' does occur with the words as in Ṛg. I 124 15¹⁷ Therefore wherever the words 'tava vrate' occur, we should generally understand that the meaning is 'while abiding by your ordinances'. This is further supported by the fact that there are passages where the word 'vrata' and other words like ‘sumati’ in the locative are used with the forms of the root ‘as’ to be or of verbs meaning to abide or dwell Vide Ṛg. I. 83 3 (‘vrate te kṣeti’, ‘abides in thy vrata’), II 27. 13 (‘ya ādityānām bhavati praṇītau’, ‘who is within or under the lead of Ādityas); X. 14. 6¹⁸ ‘may we be in the good will of them (the *pitṛṣ*) that deserve to have sacrifices offered to them and also in their beneficent grace’. Vide also Ṛg III 1. 21 and III 59 4, VI 47. 13, X. 131. 7 (tasya vayam sumatau ..syāma)

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¹⁶ ये सवितुः सत्यसवस्य विश्वे मित्रस्य व्रते वरुणस्य देवाः । ते सौभगं वीरवद्गोमदग्ने दधाना द्रविणं चित्रमस्मे ॥ ऋ. X. 36 13.

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¹⁷ अथा वयमादित्य व्रते तवानागसो अदितये स्याम । ऋ I. 24.15, वाज सं. 12 12, अथर्व VII. 83 (88) 3.

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¹⁸ तेषां वयं सुमतौ यज्ञियानामपि भद्रे सौमनसे स्याम । ऋ. X 14. 6.

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There are eight passages in the Ṛgveda in which the word ‘śucivrata’ occurs and is always applied to some god or gods In three passages VIII. 43. 16, VIII. 44 21, X. 118 1 ‘śucivrata’ is an attribute of Agni and Prof Apte renders it as ‘(Agni) with a blazing trail, track or sphere’ (p 421) He says ‘śuci’ is derived from ‘śuc’ (to shine or flame up), that the word ‘śuci’ can only mean ‘brilliant or flaming’, that the meaning ‘pure’ is purely figurative and secondary and is found only in about *six* or *seven* out of a total of over a hundred or more in the Ṛgveda when it is an epithet of ‘*manīṣā*, *stoma*, *mati* or *giraḥ*’. These remarks are mis-statements; ‘śuci’ in the sense of ‘pure’ is not so rare as Prof. Apte tries to make out (6 or 7 times out of 100). In one verse alone addressed to the Maruts (Ṛg. VII. 56. 12) the word¹⁹ ‘śuci’ occurs six times and should ordinarily be taken only in one sense in those six and can only mean ‘pure’, since ‘śuci’ is there applied to offerings (havya) and sacrifice In VIII. 44. 21 Agni is styled ‘śucir-vipraḥ’ and ‘śuciḥ’ and ‘kaviḥ’. The word ‘śuci’ occurs in that verse four times out of which ‘śuci’ as applied to ‘vipra’ and ‘kavi’ can only mean ‘pure or holy’. Vide II 27 13, where the *yajamāna* (sacrificer) is called ‘śuci’, I 142. 9 where the three goddesses Bhāratī, Iḷā and Sarasvatī are said to be ‘śuci’. Conceding for argument that the root ‘śuc’ originally meant ‘to shine or blaze’, the distinction of two meanings (primary and secondary) in ‘śuci’ had disappeared long before the Ṛgvedic hymns were composed, as Ṛg. VII. 56. 12 and other verses establish Vide Ṛg. III. 62. 5 (where Bṛhaspati is called śuci), I 181 2 (where the horses of the Aśvins are styled ‘śuci’), II 33. 13 (where the herbs or drugs of Maruts are spoken of as śuci), VII 49. 2 and 3 where waters are called ‘śuci’ and VII 89. 3 (where Varuṇa is addressed as ‘śuci’) In the above passages the word śuci in at least a dozen cases is clearly used in the sense of ‘pure’, is applied to offerings, sacrifices, drugs, horses, waters or rivers and is not restricted to *manīṣā*, *stoma*, *mati* and *giraḥ* as Prof Apte wrongly asserts Prof Apte minimises the number of times that ‘śuci’ means ‘pure’, and observes a discreet silence about its being an attribute of the physical objects mentioned above Therefore, there is no difficulty in holding ‘śucivrata’ as applied to gods meaning ‘whose ordinances are pure or holy’ In I 15 11 and I. 182 1 the word ‘śucivrata’ is an attribute of the Aśvins, in III 62 17 and VI 16 24 of Mitra and Varuṇa and in VI 70 2 of Heaven and Earth. Besides, we have the analogous word ‘śucikranda’ (the loud laud addressed to whom is pure) applied to Bṛhaspati in VII. 97 5.

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¹⁹ शुची वो हव्या मरुतः शुचीनां शुचिं हिनोम्यध्वरं शुचिभ्यः । ऋतेन सत्यमुतसाप आयञ्छुचिन्जन्मानः शुचयः पावका ॥ ऋ. VII. 56. 12 The word शुचि thrice applied to the Maruts may mean ‘pure’ or ‘brilliant.’ अग्निः शुचिव्रततमः 'शुचिर्विप्रः शुचिः कविः। शुची रोचत आहुतः ॥ VIII. 44. 21.

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The word ‘mahivrata’ occurs five times and is applied to Soma (IX. 97 7, IX 100. 9), to Agni (I 45. 3, X. 115. 3) and to Varuṇa (VI 68 9) and the word ‘mahāmahivrata’ to Soma (IX. 48 2). In all these cases the meaning ‘whose commands or laws are great or many’ would be quite appropriate The word ‘mahi’ by itself occurs in over 110 passages in the Ṛgveda, in all of which ‘mahi’ stands for ‘mahat’ and qualifies words like ‘śravas’ (food or fame), kṣatra (‘prowess’ as in I. 54 8 and 11), namaḥ, śarma (in I. 93 8), dātra (‘gift’, as in I. 116 6), enas (in II 12. 10), karma (II. 22 1), Mahitvana (in II 23 4), varūtha, draviṇa (III. 1 22), rakṣas (IV 3 14) Prof Apte (p 475) quite unnecessarily suggests three separate meanings of ‘mahivrata’, the first of which is ‘of great dominion’, ‘of great tracks’, ‘of great exploits’ and expands that meaning by interpolating the words ‘mighty or resplendent sway or sphere’. ‘Mahi’ hardly ever means ‘resplendent’ by itself

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The word ‘priyavrata’ occurs only once in the Ṛgveda (in X. 150 3), is applied to gods and means ‘to whom the ordinances laid down by them are dear’ Prof Apte (p 472) criticizes people who explain the word as ‘whose laws we love’; but he names no one who does so Similarly, the word ‘puruvrata’ occurs once only in Ṛg IX 3 10, is applied to Soma and means ‘whose ordinances are many’. Both these words do not at all help Prof. Apte in his interpretation and are rather against his pet theory (of tracks of luminaries &c )

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The word ‘dhunivrata’ occurs twice (in Ṛg V 58 2 and V. 87 1) and is applied to Marut or the band of Maruts Prof Apte (p. 435 section 47) takes ‘dhuni’ as an adjective, and as meaning ‘roaring, storming’ and translates ‘dhunivrata’ as ‘whose paths are characterised by roaring or raging’. The word ‘dhuni’ occurs about ten times in the Ṛgveda and when an adjective means ‘one that shakes his enemies or clouds’ or is a noun meaning ‘river’ (as in II. 15. 5). Dhuni is also the name of a demon (in Ṛg. VI. 18. 8, VII. 19. 4, X. 113. 9). In I. 174. 9, V. 34 5 and 8, VI. 20. 12 ‘dhuni’ is an attribute of Indra and in I. 79. 1 of Agni The Nirukta (V. 12) while explaining Ṛg. X. 89. 5 (in which both Soma and Indra are praised) explains ‘dhuni’ as derived from ‘dhū’ to shake Therefore ‘dhunivrata’ should mean ‘whose ordinances are such as make others (breakers) tremble’.

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It is not necessary to examine separately each of the verses in which the word ‘vrata’ occurs and Prof Apte's interpretations thereof. The preceding discussion is sufficient to show what vrata means in almost all passages in the Ṛgveda In his zeal to buttress up his theory, Prof. Apte commits mistakes in the construction and translation of some verses On p. 420 (section 29) he renders Ṛg. VIII. 94. 2²⁰ as ‘she (Pṛśni) in whose lap all the gods maintain their vratas, the Sun and the Moon also, in order that they may be seen’, explains that the Sun and the Moon are seen only when they keep their vratas and concludes that vratas must mean tracks followed by the Sun. Prof. Apte takes ‘sūryāmāsā’ as the subject of ‘Dhārayante’ along with Viśve-devāḥ’, but ‘Sūryāmāsā’ is in the objective case in relation to ‘dṛśe’, the proper translation being ‘in the lap of whom (i. e. of Pṛśni, the mother of Maruts), all the gods uphold their laws in order that (people) may see the Sun and the Moon’. What is meant is that the Sun and the Moon rise at the proper times because the gods uphold their ordinances If we compare VIII. 94.2 with I 23.21 (=X.9.7), I. 50.1, I. 52.8, X. 57 4, X. 60 5 it would be clear that my translation is the only correct one and if that be so no question of ‘tracks of light’ will arise.

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²⁰ यस्या देवा उपस्थे व्रता विश्वे धारयन्ते। सूर्यामासा दृशे कम्॥ VIII. 94. 2. Compare आपः पृणीत भेषजं वरूथं तन्वे॒ ३ मम। ज्योक् च सूर्यं दृशे॥ I. 23. 21 (=X. 9 7). दृशे विश्वाय सूर्यम् in I. 50. 1, दिवीव सूर्यं दृशे in X 60 5. In all these cases सूर्य is the object of दृशे and in VIII. 94. 2 the dual सूर्यामासा is used with दृशे.

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Misinterpretations of words like ‘kṣitiḥ’ in III. 3. 9 as meaning dwellings (rather it means “the common mass of people” as in III. 14. 4, VI. 65. 1, VII. 65. 2, VII. 75. 4, VII 79. 1

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&c) and of '*śruṣṭim*' (on p 450) are passed over here On VI. 70 5 Prof. Apte remarks (p 420, Sec 17) that to take '*vrata*' in '*madhuvrata*' applied to the deities Heaven and Earth as mean-ing 'law, duty or will' is almost absurd One fails to see why it would be absurd to hold, when heaven and earth are spoken of as '*dropping*²¹ *madhu*' (madhuścutā) and '*yielding madhu*' (madhudughe), that the Vedic poet thinks that the laws of Heaven and Earth as deities are sweet (and not harsh).

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²¹ मधु नो द्यावापृथिवी मिमिक्षता मधुश्रुता मधुदुघे मधुव्रते। ऋ VI 70. 5

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We have next to turn to the word '*dhṛtavrata*' which occurs eighteen times in the Ṛgveda Out of these Varuṇa is certainly called dhṛtavrata in seven passages viz in I. 25 8 and 10, I 44. 14, I. 141 9, II 1. 4,²² VIII 27 3 and X 66 5 Both Mitra and Varuṇa are styled '*dhṛtavrata*' in I 15 6, VIII 25 2 and 8 (and also '*kṣatriyā*' in verse 8), Indra and Varuṇa are said to be dhṛtavrata in VI. 68 10, Indra alone in VI 19. 5 and VIII 97 11, the Ādityas in II 29. 1, Viśvedevāḥ in X 66. 8 (and also '*kṣatriyāḥ*'), Agni in VIII. 44 25 and Savitṛ in IV. 53 4 Prof.

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Apte (p 430 para 37) avers that Varuṇa is pre-eminently called dhṛtavrata (this is not quite accurate as more than half the passages in which the word '*dhṛtavrata*' occurs refer to gods other than Varuṇa), because he maintains intact the paths he has excavated for the luminaries or he sees that the fixed laws of the movements of luminaries are properly observed Unless one has made up one's mind that vrata signifies tracks of luminaries or their fixed movements, these '*dhṛtavrata*' passages are of no help in settling the original meanings of vrata They can all be well construed by taking '*dhṛtavrata*' in the sense of '*one who upholds or supports his ordinances*' Supposing that Prof Apte is right in thinking that the epithet pre-eminently applies to Varuṇa it is quite arguable that what is mainly aimed at in calling Varuṇa '*dhṛtavrata*' is the high moral level Varuṇa is held by the Ṛgvedic sages to maintain by punishing sinners, by looking into the truth and falsehood of men (VII 49 3 '*satyānṛte avapaśyan janānām*'), by the fact that he is styled '*kṣatriya*', '*rājan*' and '*samrāj*' (who exacts obedience to his laws) as shown above Therefore, the view that *vrata* means ordinances in connection with Varuṇa is far more appropriate than the theory about his seeing that the luminaries follow their tracks In this connection the word '*dhṛtavrata*'²³ in I 25 6 becomes very important.

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Almost all scholars hold that that verse means '(Mitra and Varuna) fond of the donor who observes the laws of religious worship partake of the same offering (made by the donor) and they are not heedless about it (or do not miss it)'. Scholars hold that in this verse the word 'dhṛtavrata' applies to a human worshipper and not to a god as in all other passages. Prof. Apte (p 430 para 37) explains that the words 'dhṛtavratāya dāśuṣe', mean 'donor who makes a gift to (Varuṇa) that is dhṛtavrata.' This construction is objectionable for several reasons There are two deities referred to in the principal sentence (the verb is 'āśāte), while dhṛtavratāya, being singular, can only be construed with one deity. Prof. Apte further relies on VIII. 94. 2 of which he gives an interpretation which as shown above is wrong. Constructions parallel to 'dhṛtavratāya dāśuṣe' and containing an adjective of the word 'dāśuṣe' are found in other Ṛgveda passages. For example, in I 142 1 we have²⁴ 'O Agni! spread the ancient thread (i. e. sacrifice) for the worshipper who has extracted Soma juice'. Here the words 'sutasomāya dāśuṣe' do not mean 'to the worshipper who gives offerings to the god who extracts soma'. Similarly, in VIII. 5.6 the words 'sudevāya dāśuṣe' mean 'to or for the worshipper (or donor) who worships god' (or for donor to whom gods are beneficent). These several considerations make it highly probable that 'dhṛtavratāya' is an attribute of a human being in I. 25.

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6 and not necessarily of Varuṇa. If that be so, vrata in 'dhṛtavrata' must mean 'ordinances or mode of religious worship' and not 'tracks of luminaries'. We have the word 'dhṛtadakṣa' (who upholds strength i. e. who is strong or constant) applied to a priest in X. 41. 3. It is worthy of note that the Śatapatha Br in explaining²⁵ 'niṣasāda dhṛtavrato Varuṇaḥ' in Ṛg. I. 25. 10 (= Vāj. S. X. 27) remarks that the king and a brāhmaṇa deeply learned in the Veda are both 'dhṛtavrata'. It is probable that even in the times of the Ṛgveda people had come to assign the same meaning to the word 'dhṛtavrata' that the Śat. Br. ascribes to it. Conceding for argument that dhṛtavratāya in I. 25. 6 refers to Varuṇa, that does not at all solve the problem of the derivation and meaning of vrata. The word 'vratanīḥ' occurs only once in Ṛgveda X.

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²² त्वमग्ने राजा वरुणो धृतव्रतस्त्वं मित्रो भवसि दस्म ईड्यः । ऋ II. 1 4.

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²³ तदित्समानमाशाते वेनन्ता न प्र युच्छतः। धृतव्रताय दाशुषे॥ ऋ. I. 25. 6.

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²⁴ समिद्धो अग्न आ वह देवाँ अद्य यतस्रुचे । तन्तुं तन्वन् पूर्व्ये सुतसोमाय दाशुषे ॥ I. 142. 1, ता सुदेवाय दाशुषे सुमेधामवितारिणीम्। धूर्तयेन्त्वभिस्रुतम्॥ VIII 5. 6

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²⁵ निषसाद धृतव्रत इति धृतव्रतो वै राजा ..एष च श्रोत्रियश्चैतौ द्वौ मनुष्येषु धृतव्रतौ । शतपथ V. 4. 4.5, द्वौ लोके धृतव्रतौ राजा ब्राह्मणश्च बहुश्रुतः। गौ. ध सू VIII. 1,

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65. 6 and probably means '(the cow) that is the carrier of vrata' i. e. of the milk on which a sacrificer has to subsist. In T. S. VI. 2. 5 2-3 it is said that milk is the Brāhmaṇa's vrata. On p. 442 Prof. Apte refers to Sūrya being called 'vratapā' very aptly. Vratapa occurs nine times in the Ṛgveda, but the Sun is called 'vratapā' only once in I. 83. 5. Vratapā means nothing more than vratapati, which word occurs in T. S. I. 6. 6. 3²⁶, I. 6. 7. 2 and Vāj. S. I. 5 and is applied to Agni. In these passages 'vrata' means a religious vow such as that of a Vedic student who undertakes to study Veda after Upanayana. There is no reason why the word 'vratapā' in the Ṛgveda should not be deemed to have been used in the sense in which 'vratapati' is employed in the T. S. and Vāj. S. Similarly, in Ṛg VII. 103. 1²⁷ it is said that the frogs lying silent for a year (in crevices), like brāhmaṇas observing a vrata, send forth their croaking inspired by the rains. Here 'vrata' has the meaning 'a sacred vow or observance' which is the sense in which the word is used in medieval times and is so used even upto this day.

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