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History of Dharmashastra (Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Law in India) v6.c82: Section II. Kāla, Muhūrta, the influence of Astrology on Dharmaśāstra and Calendar

History of Dharmaśāstra (Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Law in India) v6.c82

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Section II. Kāla, Muhūrta, the influence of Astrology on Dharmaśāstra and Calendar

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Conception of Kāla

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Among the first of the great problems of philosophy is that of the nature of Space (*dik*) and Time (*kāla*).

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The questions that arise are: Are Space and Time ultimately real? Is the world we apprehend spaceless and timeless or has the universe a beginning in time; are Space and Time themselves things or real, attributes or relations of things. Great divergence of views has prevailed on these problems from ancient times to this day. It is therefore advisable to indicate briefly the speculations on Time contained principally in Sanskrit works.

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The word Kāla occurs only once in the Ṛgveda⁶⁵¹ 'as a gambler collects the *kṛta* (highest stake) at the (proper) time' (Ṛg. X. 42. 9, 'Kṛtaṁ yac śvaghni vicinoti kāle'). The Atharvaveda contains two hymns (XIX. 53 1-10 and XIX. 54. 1-5) embodying a most sublime conception of Kāla. A few striking verses⁶⁵² are translated here. 'Kāla (Time) carries (as) a horse with seven reins, thousand-eyed, ageless, endowed with plentiful seed (power); the wise poets mount him (as one mounts a chariot); all worlds are his wheels (53 1); he (Kāla) himself brought together the worlds and he himself went round (all) worlds together, being the father, he became the son of them (worlds); there is indeed no other brilliance that is higher (or beyond) him (53 4); in Time is mind, in Time is breath, in Time is placed name, all these beings are glad by time when it arrives (53. 7), Time created beings, in the beginning Kāla (created) Prajāpati, the self-existent Kaśyapa sprang from Kāla and (so did) *tapas* spring from Kāla (53. 10); Kāla, the son, created past and the future, from Time arose the ṛk (verses) and the *yajus* (sacrificial formulas) were born from time (54. 3), this world and the highest world, holy worlds and holy *vidhṛtis* having completely conquered these worlds by the *brahman* Time goes on (abides) as the highest god’ (54 5).

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⁶⁵¹ Compare कृतं न श्वघ्नी विचिनोति देवने। ऋ X 43 5 (= अथर्व. XX. 17 5) with ऋ. X 42 9 (= अथर्व VII 50 6 and XX 89.9 कृतमिव श्वघ्नी विचिनोति काले); *vide also* 'श्वघ्नीव यो जिगीवाँल्लक्ष्ममादत्' ऋ II 12 4. Ṛg. X 43 5 is explained by Chān. Up IV 1 4 'यथा कृताय विजितायाधरेया संपन्ति ' (as the lower throws of dice all go to the highest throw, to the winner'.

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⁶⁵² कालो अश्वो वहति सप्तरश्मिः सहस्राक्षो अजरो भूरिरेताः। तमा रोहन्ति कवयो विपश्चितस्तस्य चक्रा भुवनानि विश्वा ॥ स एव सं भुवनान्याभरत् स एव सं भुवनानि पर्येत्। पिता सन्नभवत्पुत्र एषां तस्माद्वै नान्यत्परमस्ति तेजः ॥ काले मनः काले प्राणः काले नाम समाहितम्। कालेन सर्वा नन्दन्त्यागतेन प्रजा इमाः ॥ कालः प्रजा असृजत कालो अग्रे प्रजापतिम्। स्वयम्भूः कश्यपः कालात्तपः कालादजायत ॥ अथर्व XIX. 53 1, 4, 7, 10. कालो ह भूतं भव्यं च पुत्रो अजनयत्पुरा। कालादृचः समभवन्यजुः कालादजायत ॥ इमं च लोकं पर मं च लोकं पुण्यांश्च लोकान् विधृतींश्च पुण्याः। सर्वांल्लोकानभिजित्य ब्रह्मणा कालः स ईयते परमो नु देवः ॥ अथर्व. XIX. 54 3. कश्यप is styled a ऋषि in ऋ IX. 114.2 and is in later mythology the husband of अदिति who is called mother, father and son in ऋ, I 89.10; so probably कश्यप here is the same as प्रजापति In अथर्व. VIII. 5 14 कश्यप is said to have created the amulet jewel 'कश्यपस्त्वामसृजत कश्यपस्त्वा समैरयत्'. विधृति probably means here 'boundaries separating the worlds'.

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From these passages it appears that the word Kāla was used even in very early Vedic times in two senses, viz time in general (as in modern Sanskrit and modern Indian languages) and Time as identical with the Supreme Being or the source of creation. This latter sense, it will be shown a little later on, is also emphasized in many Sanskrit works (including the Purāṇas).

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In the Śatapatha-brāhmaṇa the word Kāla is often used in the sense of ‘time’ or ‘proper time’⁶⁵³ e g. ‘he (Rudra angry because he was excluded from a share in offerings) flew up towards the north at the time when *sviṣṭakṛt* offering was to be made’ (I. 7. 3. 3); Prajāpati (when cattle approached him) said ‘whenever you may get anything at the (proper) time or at an improper time you may eat it’ (II. 4 2 4)

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⁶⁵³ स आयततयोत्तरत उपोल्वेदे य एव स्विष्टकृतः कालः । शत ब्रा I 7 3 3; यद्वैव यूय कदा च लभाम्वै यदि काले यद्यनाकालेऽथैवाश्नीयाथेति ॥ II. 4. 2 4.

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A few passages from some of the Upaniṣads regarded as ancient by most scholars may be cited here; the Chān. Up. II.⁶⁵⁴ 31. 1 (while speaking of Vāmadevya Sāman and its parts) uses the word Kāla as equal to ‘end’ or ‘finish’ The Bṛ⁶⁵⁵ Up I. 2.4 says "He desired 'would that a second self of me were produced' ... He bore him for a time as long as a year; after that long time he brought him forth". In the dialogue between Gārgya and king Ajātaśatru in the same Upanisad Gārgya put forward several objects which he reverenced (*upāsana*) as brahma when the king replied as to those cases in these words '*Prāna* (breath) does not leave him before the time' and 'death does not come to him before time'. Here the word '*Kāla*' is used in the sense of 'proper or appointed time'. In the passage of the Kausītaki Br. that corresponds to Br Up II. 1 10 and 12 the words are 'neither he himself nor his progeny pass into unconsciousness before the time' and 'neither he nor his progeny dies before the time'. In some passages of the Śvetāśvatara Up. some thinkers are stated to have put forward Kāla as the cause or source of creation e g. 'what is the cause?⁶⁵⁶ Is it Brahma? Whence are we born? Whereby do we live? On what are we established (or where are we going?) .. Time or inherent nature or necessity or chance or elements or *yoni* (prakrti) or the person, it is to be considered (whether one of these is cause)'; 'Some sages discourse upon inherent nature (as the cause) while other deluded persons speak of Time (as the cause).' Here Kāla is represented as the cause of creation, which is the 2nd meaning of the word Kāla set out from the Atharvaveda. In another passage⁶⁵⁷ of the same Up. Kāla is said to have been generated by Him who is intelligent and omniscient The first meaning of Kāla (time in general) is also found in Śvetāśvatara Up. 'He (God) is the beginning, the efficient cause of (all) combinations, He is beyond the three times and is also without parts'. The Māndūkyopanisad avers that Omkāra is beyond the threefold time viz. past, present and future.

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⁶⁵⁴ कालं गच्छति तन्निधन पार गच्छति तन्निधनमेतद्वामदेव्य मिथुने प्रोतम्। छा. उप II. 13 1.

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⁶⁵⁵ सोऽकामयत द्वितीयो म आत्मा जायेवेति न पुरा ततः संवत्सर आस समेतावन्तं कालमबिभ । थावान्संवत्सरः । तमेतावन्त कालस्य परस्तादसृजत । बृह उप I. 2 4, नैनं पुरा कालात् प्राणो जहाति । … नैन पुरा कालान्मृत्युरपगच्छति । बृह II 1 20 and 21, नो एव स्वय नास्य प्रजा पुरा कालात्संमोष्येते । … 'नो एव स्वय नास्य प्रजा पुरा कालात्प्रमीयते । कौषी उप. IV. 12 and 13.

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⁶⁵⁶ किं कारणं ब्रह्म कुतः स्म जाता जीवाम केन क्व च संप्रतिष्ठाः। काल स्वभावो नियतिर्यदृच्छा भूतानि योनिः पुरुष इति चिन्त्यम्। श्वे उप I 1-2, स्वभावमेके कवयो वदन्ति कालं तथान्ये परिमुह्यमानाः। श्वे उप VI 1 The बृहत्संहिता of वराह appears to refer to this last when it says (in I. 7) 'कालं कारणमेके स्वभावमपरे परे जगुः कर्म'

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⁶⁵⁷ येनावृतं नित्यमिदं हि सर्वं ज्ञ. कालकारो गुणी सर्वविद्य । श्वे उप. VI. 2, आदि. स संयोगनिमित्तहेतुः परस्त्रिकालादकालोपि दृष्टः । श्वे उप VI. 5, compare माण्डूक्योप० 'भूतं भवद्भविष्यमिति सर्वमोङ्कार एव । यच्चान्यत्त्रिकालातीतं तदप्योङ्कार एव ॥.

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The Maitrī Upanisad⁶⁵⁸ has a long but somewhat rambling disquisition on time (VI. 14-16). It first says "Then it has been said elsewhere 'Food is indeed the source of this whole world, and time of food; the Sun is the source of time'. Then a little later on it proceeds "Thus one has said 'From Time flow beings, from Time they reach growth, and in Time they come to disappear; Time is a form (i. e has definite shape or limits) and is (also) formless" Then it propounds 'There are indeed two forms of *brahma*, Time and Timeless. That which is prior to the Sun is Timeless (form of Brahma) and it is without parts. But that which begins with the Sun is Time that has parts, year is the form of the Time that has parts All these beings are produced from the year, through the year these beings when born grow, and they disappear in the year Therefore the year is Prajāpati, is time, is food, is Brahma nest (or abode) and is Ātman And it has been said 'Time cooks (ripens or digests) all beings in the Great Self, that man knows the (real import of) Veda who knows that in which Time is cooked". Here the Maitrī Up speaks of Time in its two senses, contains the germ of the later conception of the experience of Time as due to the actions or movements of the Sun, and refers to Time in the same terms in which the Tai. Up (III 1) speaks of *brahma* It is unnecessary to set out passages from other Upaniṣads such as the Mahānārāyaṇa (XI 14 aham-eva kālo nāham kālasya) where Kāla is identified with God (Nārāyaṇa)⁶⁵⁹

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⁶⁵⁸ अथान्यत्राप्युक्तं अन्नं वा अस्य सर्वस्य योनिः कालश्चात्नस्य सूर्यो योनिः कालस्य । ... एवं ह्याह । कालात्स्रवन्ति भूतानि कालाद् वृद्धिं प्रयान्ति च। काले चास्तं नियच्छन्ति कालो (*Continued from last page*) मूर्तिरमूर्त्तिमान्॥ द्वे वाव ब्रह्मणो रूपे कालश्चाकालश्चाथ यः प्रागादित्यात्सोऽकालोऽकलोऽथ य आदित्याद्य स कालः सकल सकलस्य वा एतद्रूपं यत्संवत्सरः संवत्सरात्खल्विमा प्रजा प्रजायन्ते संवत्सरेणेह वै जाता विवर्धन्ते संवत्सरे प्रत्यस्त यन्ति तस्मात्संवत्सरो वै प्रजापति कालोऽन्नं ब्रह्मनीड-मात्मा चेत्येव ह्याह। काल पचति भूतानि सर्वाण्येव महात्मनि। यस्मिंस्तु पच्यते कालो यस्तं वेद स वेदवित्॥ मैत्री VI 14-15 With कालात्स्रवन्ति etc and संवत्सरात्खल्विमा etc compare 'यतो वा इमानि भूतानि जायन्ते येन जातानि जीवन्ति यत्प्रयन्त्यभिसंविशन्ति॥ तद्वि-जिज्ञासस्व तद् ब्रह्मेति।; तै उप III 1

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⁶⁵⁹ काल सृजति भूतानि काल संहरते प्रजाः। संहरन्त प्रजा काल कालः शमयते पुन ॥ कालो हि कुरुते भावान् सर्वलोके शुभाशुभान्॥ काल संक्षिप्त सर्वो. प्रजा विसृजते पुन ॥ काल सुप्तेषु जागर्ति कालो हि दुरतिक्रम.। आदिपर्व 1 248-250, काल पचति भूतानि काल संहरते प्रजाः। कालः सुप्तेषु जागर्ति कालो हि दुरतिक्रमः॥ स्त्रीपर्व 2 24 The words कालो " क्रमः occur in शान्ति 221. 41 and गरुड I 108 7.

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The Mahābhārata recurs to the theme of Kāla time and again In the Ādiparva it is said 'Kāla creates beings and Kāla destroys people, Kāla extinguishes Kāla that is engaged in destroying people; Kāla brings about good or evil states (or things); Kāla reduces all people and again sends them forth; Kāla is (the only one) awake when all are asleep (i e dead or liberated). for Kāla is invincible'. The Strīparva has the following ' Kāla cooks all beings and Kāla destroys people; Kāla is invincible'. The Śāntiparva⁶⁶⁰ in chapters 224 and 227 contains a long disquisition on the formidable influence of Kāla on all including gods like Indra In the Śāntiparva it is asserted 'beyond the mind is the Great Intelligence and beyond the latter, is the Great Time; beyond Time is the adorable Viṣṇu to whom belongs the whole world'. In another place the Śāntiparva, after detailing nineteen *guṇas* the last being *dvandva-yoga* (pairs of opposites such as pleasure and pain), remarks that the 20th *guṇa* beyond the nineteenth is Kāla and that one should know these twenty to be the source and end of all beings. The Aśvamedhika-parva describes (chap. 45) the wheel of Time in an elaborate metaphorical way (verses 1-9) and remarks that the man who well knows the action of Kāla and its sublation is never deluded and reaches the highest goal In Vanaparva Kṛṣṇa is identified with Brahmā, Rudra, the Sun, the Moon, Dharma, Yama, Kāla &c. Vide for further references Śāntiparva 25. 5 ff, 224-225.

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⁶⁶⁰ मनसो महती बुद्धिर्बुद्धेः कालो महान् स्मृत । कालात् स भगवान् विष्णुर्यस्य सर्व-मिदं जगत्॥ शान्तिपर्व 206 13 (= cr ed 199 11); ऊर्ध्वं चैकोनविंशत्या कालो नामा-परो गुणः । इतीमं विद्धि विंशत्या भूतानां प्रमवाप्ययम् । शान्ति० 320. 108-109, स त्वं नारायणो भूत्वा हरिरासीत् परन्तप । ब्रह्मा सोमश्च सूर्यश्च धर्मो धाता यमोऽनल । वायुर्वैश्रवणो रुद्रः कालः खं पृथिवी दिश । वनपर्व 12 21-22, काल कलयतामहम् । गीता X 30 (here the word काल is derived from the root कल् 10th conj. to compute, to grasp)

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In the Bhagavadgītā the word kāla is used in the sense of 'time in general or proper time' in several passages (such as IV. 2, VIII 7 and 27, VIII. 23, XVII. 20) and Kāla is identified with Kṛṣṇa as Supreme Lord in one of his super-eminent manifestations in X. 30 and 33 (I am Kāla among those that seize and I am Kāla that is imperishable) and XI. 32 (I am Kāla, that has increased (in strength) and that brings about the destruction of the worlds)

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Pāṇini employs the word kāla in his sūtras many times, but in the sense of time in general or the divisions of time or proper time Patañjali on Pāṇini III. 3. 167 (Kālasamayavelāsu tumun) quotes a half verse about Kāla, which is the same as the one quoted above from the Mahābhārata (in note 659) and which appears to have been cited by Patañjali as a well-known verse. In another place Patañjali while explaining Vārtika 2 on Pāṇini (II. 2. 5) states a very important theory about Kāla.

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He says⁶⁶¹ "People speak of that as Kāla whereby the increases (or growths) and decreases in solid bodies are observed and the same (time) is called day and night when conjoined with some activity. What is that activity? (the reply is), the motion of the Sun When that (motion of the Sun) is repeated again and again there is a month and a year" This means that Kāla does not exist except as a convenient name or word for the manner of measuring change or becoming in what we observe by comparing one series of changes with another

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⁶⁶¹ येन मूर्तीनामुपचयाश्चापचयाश्च लक्ष्यन्ते त कालमाहु । तस्यैव हि कयाचित्क्रियया युक्तस्याहरिति च भवति रात्रिरिति च । कया क्रियया। आदित्यगत्या । तयैवासकृदावृत्त्या मास-इति भवति संवत्सर इति च । महाभाष्य on वार्तिक 2 on पाणिनि II. 2 5 'काला. परिमाणिना' (Kielhorn's ed vol I p 409 ).

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In the Manusmṛti the Supreme⁶⁶² Lord is said to have created time and its divisions (I 24 Kālam kālavibhaktiśca) and to have, after He produced the universe, disappeared in himself again and again, squeezing one period of time by means of another period (I. 51).

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⁶⁶² आत्मन्यन्तर्दधे भूयः काल कालेन पीडयन् ॥ मनु० I 51. The idea is that creation is destroyed by the time of pralaya, as Kullūka says 'सृष्टिकाले प्रलयकालेन नाशयन् '

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Coming to the philosophical systems, it may be noted that the Sāṅkhya system does not include Kāla as a separate *tattva* in its twenty-five tattvas But Kāla was not altogether forgotten in that system. The Sāṅkhyakārikā⁶⁶³ states that the *karaṇas* are thirteen, three being *ābhyantara* (internal i. e. inside the body) and ten being *bāhya*, the latter are concerned with the present, while the former are concerned with the three times (past, present and future)

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⁶⁶³ अन्त करण त्रिविधं दशधा बाह्यं त्रयस्य विषयाख्यम् । साम्प्रतकाल बाह्यं त्रिकाल-माभ्यन्तर करणम् ॥ साख्यकारिका 133. The साख्यतत्त्वकौमुदी of वाचस्पति explains 'अन्त'-करण त्रिविधं बुद्धिरहङ्कारो मन इति । शरीराभ्यन्तरवर्तित्वादन्तःकरणम् । 'तत्र बुद्धीन्द्रि-याण्यालोचनेन कर्मेन्द्रियाणि तु यथास्वं व्यापारेण ।।' (Nirn. ed 1940) p 372.

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The Vaiśeṣika-sūtra treats⁶⁶⁴ Kāla as included in the nine dravyas (substances, I. 5) and states that the indications of the existence of Kāla are the apprehensions of a thing as posterior or prior, the apprehension of simultaneity of certain things, the apprehension of a thing as lasting long or as being momentary, that it is *nttya*, one and the (efficient) cause of all things that are created. Praśastapāda gives the instance of an old man and a young man being seen by a person in one place and direction or in different directions, who apprehends after looking at a young man that another man called old differs from a young man as regards a grown-up moustache or beard, wrinkles on the body and baldness and so apprehends that the old man is remote from the young man and therefore apprehends him as beyond (*para*) while he thinks of the young man as near, posterior and so *apara*.

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⁶⁶⁴ द्रव्य is one of the seven (in ancient times six) पदार्थाs. पदार्थ means any object that can be named and is known and not merely things that are physically apprehended अपरस्मिन्नपरं युगपच्चिर क्षिप्रमिति कालाङ्गानि । द्रव्यत्व-नित्यत्वे वायुना व्याख्याते तत्संभावेन । नित्येष्वभावादनित्येषु भावात्कारणे कालाख्येति । वैशे-पिकसूत्र II 2 6-9. प्रशस्तपाद comments in his भाष्य as follows. 'काल' परापरव्यति-करयौगपद्यायौगपद्यचिरक्षिप्रप्रत्ययलिङ्गम् ।' p. 26 and 'कालकृतयो (परत्वापरत्वयोः) {*Continued from last page*} कथम् । वर्तमानकालपोरनियतदिग्देशसयुक्लयोर्युवस्थविरयो रूढश्मश्रुकार्यद्रयवलिपलितादि-सान्निध्ये सत्येकस्य द्रष्टुर्यूवानमवधिं कृत्वा स्थविरे विप्रकृष्टा बुद्धिरुत्पद्यते । ततस्तामपेक्ष्य परेण कालप्रदेशेन संयोगात् परत्वस्योत्पत्तिः।' pp. 77-78 The न्यायवार्तिक on न्यायसूत्र II. 1. 36 (p. 255) remarks 'यथैकस्मिन् पुरुषे अनेकसम्बन्धमेदाद्बहुविधाविन्त्यभिन्ने पिता पुत्रो भ्रातेति प्रत्यया भवन्ति तद्वदेक. कालः कार्यकारणविशेषापेक्षः परापरादिप्रत्ययहेतुरिति । एवमुप-पादितः कालः।'

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There were certain philosophers who held that Time is either past or future and denied that there is present time (*vartamāna*). The Nyāyasūtra refutes this view and holds that time is either past, present or future (II. 1. 39-43) From Patañjali's⁶⁶⁵ Mahābhāṣya it appears that even in his day there were philosophers that held that there was no time called present and that those people quoted certain verses in support.

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⁶⁶⁵ अपर आह नास्ति वर्तमान' काल इति । अपि चात्र श्लोकाञ्छुदाहरन्ति । "अपर आह । अस्ति वर्तमानः काल इति । आदित्यगतित्रजोपलभ्यते । महाभाष्य on बार्तिक 4 (सन्ति च कालविभागाः । on पा III. 2 123 वर्तमाने लट्).

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The Nyāyamañjarī⁶⁶⁶ of Jayantabhaṭṭa (K. S. S. 1936) has a long discussion on Kāla It first sets out the views of those who deny the very existence of Kāla as a separate entity. These latter say that Kāla is not perceptible like a jar &c and that the ideas of quickness or slowness depend merely on the observed effects. The same theorists raise the further objection that if Kāla is a *dravya* (substance) that is all-pervading and permanent, as the Vaiśeṣikas assert, then how is it that Kāla is spoken of as past, present and future. To these objections some reply: Kāla is directly perceived, since it appears to the mind as distinguishing the various perceptions of effects, that the several experiences such as 'these matters happened simultaneously, this happened after long, this happened quickly' cannot be perfectly explained if one denies the existence of Kāla and holds that these experiences depend solely on the perceived objects or actions Others hold that Kāla is really inferred and not directly perceived They argue merely because Kāla is not directly perceived it does not follow that it does not exist; to infer that Kāla exists is proper as it is proper to infer that the other side of the moon exists though we see only that face of the moon that is below the earth; therefore Kāla exists as a separate entity to which is due the common experience of simultaneity, quickness or slowness &c. The differing observations about persons being young or old cannot be well explained without admitting the existence of Kāla, which like *ākāśa* is one, all-pervading and permanent. To the objection how, if Kāla is one, all pervading and *nitya*, it is spoken of as having three divisions, the reply is: in reality there are no divisions in Kāla, but divisions are imagined in Kāla on account of the *upādhi* (a limiting or restrictive adjunct) viz. *kriyā* (activity). When we speak of a man as cooking rice in the present (*odanam pacati*), that is due to the distinguishing nature of the result (boiled rice) which is brought about by several activities (*kriyās*) beginning with the placing of the cooking pot on the fire up to its being taken down on the ground. Then we use the word 'present'. But when we bear in mind the series of activities that produced the boiled rice we use the expression 'he cooked' (in the past tense) for the activities that have ended. In this way we speak of time also as past on account of the distinguishing characteristic of the activities that have ended

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⁶⁶⁶ अत्र चोदयन्ति । काले सति त्रैकाल्य चिन्त्यम् । स एव तु दुरुपपादः, तदभावे कस्य वर्तमानादिविभागो निरूप्यते । न तावद् गृह्यते काल. प्रत्यक्षेण घटादिवत् । चिरक्षिमादि-बोधोपि कार्यमात्रावलम्बनः ॥ 'यदि त्येको विभुर्नित्यः कालो द्रव्यात्मनो मतः । अतीतवर्तमानादि-भेदव्यवहृतिः कुत ॥ एवमाक्षिप्ते सति, प्रत्यक्षगम्यतामेव केचित्कालस्य मन्वते । विशेषणतया कार्य-प्रत्यये प्रतिभासनात् ॥ क्रमेण युगपत्क्षिप्रंचिरात्कृतमितिदृशः । प्रत्यया नावकल्पन्ते कार्यमात्राव-लम्बना ॥ अनुमेय एव कालः । अप्रत्यक्षस्वभावेन न च कालरूप नास्तिता । युक्ता पृथिव्यधोभाग-चन्द्रम परभाघवत् ॥ तस्मादस्ति युगपदादिग्यवहारहेतुः कालः । तस्मादेकोऽप्ययं कालः क्रियाभेदाद् विभिद्यते ॥ न्यायमञ्जरी (K. S S., 1936) pp. 123-127.

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It may be noted that Raghunātha on 'Padārtha-nirūpaṇa' (a work of Navyanyāya school) held the view that Space, Time and God are all one and the same thing and not separate substances ⁶⁶⁷

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⁶⁶⁷ Vide Prof Ingalls' 'Materials for the study of Navyanyāya' (Harvard) p. 38 n. 36.

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In the Yogasūtrabhāṣya on III. 51 there is a brief but very interesting and abstruse disquisition on Kāla The sūtra runs667a 'by constraint (*saṃyama*) upon moments (*kṣaṇa*) and their sequence (or succession) (arises) knowledge due to discrimination'. The bhāṣya explains. just as an atom is substance or matter (*dravya*) reaching the limit of minuteness, so a *kṣaṇa* (moment) is time that reaches the highest limit of minuteness, or a kṣaṇa (moment) is time taken by an atom in leaving the position in space it occupies or the time taken in reaching the next point in space; *krama* (sequence) is the non-cessation of the flow of moments; moments and their succession do not form a collection (or combination) of actual (or perceptible) things. Muhūrta (30th part of day and night), day and night and others are combinations made by the mind (or by mental conceptions). This time, though devoid of being a real thing by itself, is indeed only a creation of mental conceptions and results from knowledge derived from words (alone) and appears as if it were an actual object to ordinary people whose doctrines are divergent (or confused) But kṣaṇa (moment) falling among (i e. being mixed up with) real perceptible things appears (to the human mind) as dependent on or constituting sequence (or succession). *Krama* (sequence) is of the nature of uninterrupted succession. This sequence is called Kāla by Yogins who know (the real nature of) time. For, two kṣaṇas cannot exist together (simultaneously) It is impossible that there should be a sequence of two moments that exist simultaneously. When a later moment comes after an earlier one without interruption, that is called *krama* In the present there is only one moment and there are no earlier and later moments in the present Therefore there can be no combination of two moments (in reality). -But those moments that have passed away and those that are yet to come are to be interpreted or described as connected with the (constant) flux of changes (in the world). Therefore the whole world experiences change in each single moment So all these (external) aspects of the world are dependent on one moment (in the present).

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667a क्षणतत्क्रमयोः संयमाद्विवेकजं ज्ञानम् । योगसूत्र III.52; भाष्य on this is. यथा अपकर्षपर्यन्तं द्रव्यं परमाणुःएवं परमापकर्षपर्यन्त कालः क्षणो यावता वा समयेन चलितः परमाणुः पूर्वदेशं जहात्युत्तरदेशमुपसपद्येत स कालः क्षण तत्प्रवाहाविच्छेदस्तु क्रम. क्षणतत्क्रमयोर्नास्ति वस्तुसमाहार इति। बुद्धिसमाहारो मुहूर्ताहोरात्रादयः । स खल्वयं कालो वस्तुशून्योऽपि बुद्धिनिर्माणशब्दज्ञानानुपाती लौकिकानां व्युत्थितदर्शनानां वस्तुस्वरूप इवावभासते । क्षणस्तु वस्तुपतित क्रमावलम्बी । क्रमश्च क्षणानन्तर्यात्मा तं कालविद काल इत्याचक्षते योगिनः । न च द्वौ क्षणौ सह भवत । क्रमश्च न द्वयो. सहभूतयोरसम्भवात् पूर्वस्मादुत्तरस्य भाविनो यदानन्तर्यं क्षणस्य स क्रमः । तस्माद्वर्तमान एवैकः क्षणः न पूर्वोत्तरक्षणा सन्तीति तत्नान्नास्ति तत्समाहार । ये तु भूतभाविन क्षणास्ते परिणामान्विता व्याख्येयास्तेनैकेन क्षणेन कृत्स्नो लोक परिणाममनुभवति तत्क्षणोपारूढा खल्वमी सर्वे धर्मास्तयो क्षणतत्क्रमयो सयमत् तयो साक्षात्करणे ततश्च विवेकजं ज्ञानं प्रादुर्भवति ॥ विवेक in the सूत्र means प्रकृतिपुरुषविवेक

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This disquisition shows that the Yogasūtra and its bhāṣya held that time was not a *dravya* and not a tangible reality, but that it was merely a word, a mental concept inseparable from the perception or experience of physical objects as a characteristic (*viśeṣaṇa* or *upādhi*), that it attaches itself to the changing realities, that we measure it according to the movements of or changes in things and that it was not merely like a hare's horn.

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I have confined myself to Sanskrit works and particularly to works of the Vedic school type.⁶⁶⁸ Buddhist and Jaina thinkers had to say a good deal on Kāla. For example, the *Pramāṇa*⁶⁶⁹-*vārtika-bhāṣya* or *Vārtikālaṅkāra* of Prajñākaragupta (about 700 A D.) combats the view of the Vaiśeṣikasūtra and Praśastapāda (quoted above) and holds that there is no separate entity like Kāla, that it is not possible to have the ideas of distant time and near time if Kāla be without beginning and be endless, that the ideas of being distant or near or quick are not distinct from the activities about which they are predicated This Buddhist view practically amounts to saying that time is not a thing, but only an idea, only a subjective condition of human sensorial experiences and intuitions and is non-existent in itself, apart from the subject. On the other hand Jaina⁶⁷⁰ writers hold that there are six *padārthas* viz *jīva*, dharma, adharma, ākāśa, *pudgala* and kāla i. e. Time has separate existence.

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⁶⁶⁸ It is surprising that in the two volumes of 'the History of philosophy, Eastern and Western, ' published under the auspices of the Govt of India (London, 1952), and compiled by an Editorial Board presided over by such a world-famous philosopher as Dr S Radhakrishnan, not a word is said about the conception of Time in the Vedic Literature and in the Vaiśeṣika and other systems and only a meagre account is given of the Buddhist and Jain ideas on the subject (vol I pp 159, 175-76 and p 144)

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⁶⁶⁹ अनादिनिधनात्कालात्कथ क्षिप्रादिबुद्धय. । चिराक्षिप्रविबुद्धीना ग्राह्य कालो यदीष्यते ॥ verse 35, चिरादयोपि नैवामी क्रियातो व्यतिरेकिणः। चिर कृतमितीत्थं हि क्रियारूपमवेक्षत ॥ 40, pp. 476-497 of प्रमाणवार्तिकभाष्य ed by Rāhula Sānkṛtyāyana (1953).

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⁶⁷⁰ अजीवकाया धर्माधर्माकाशापुद्गला । जीवाश्च । कालश्च । सोऽनन्तसमय' । तत्वार्थसूत्र of उमास्वाति ed with वृत्ति of श्रुतसागरसूरि (1949, Benares) in the Jñānapīṭha Jain-granthamālā.

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Some of the Purāṇas contain disquisitions on Kāla. The nature of Time is described in the Kūrmapurāna as follows : This adorable⁶⁷¹ Kāla is without beginning and without end, it is ageless and immortal, it is a great Lord because it is all-embracing, it is independent and is the self of all, there may be many Brahmās, Rudras and Nārāyaṇas and other gods. It is declared that the divine Lord is one and is omniscient and is Kāla; they (the gods) are created by Kāla, which again swallows (or makes them disappear), the gods Brahmā, Nārāyaṇa and Īśa (Śiva) are said to undergo *prākṛta* disappearance by the power of Kāla and also spring again therefrom as highest Brahma, the elements, Vāsudeva and Śaṅkara Therefore the whole world has its soul in Kāla He alone is the highest Lord ' The Viṣṇudharmottara⁶⁷² has a similar long disquisition on Kāla the gist of a few verses of which may be set out here ' Kāla is without beginning and without end, it is Rudra that seizes all (or it is Saṅkarṣaṇa); it is called Kāla because it carries off or drives all beings. Kāla is great and the highest Lord, because it is beginningless and endless; it is more subtile than the winking of one's eye, very much more subtile than the subtilest. Its subtileness cannot be understood even by Yogins When a thousand lotus leaves are pierced by a needle ignorant people think that the piercing of all leaves is at the same time, but really the leaves are pierced at separate units of time. This is the subtileness of Kāla. But though Kāla is very very subtile, it is also great and measurement of it can be computed because of the motions of planets' The Vāyu and Kūrma both say 'Time creates beings and again destroys them; all are under the rule of Time, while Time is not under the dominance of any one ' The Viṣṇupurāṇa⁶⁷³ holds that Brahma which is one, unborn, permanent, ageless appears in the form of Kāla, which is without beginning or end The Bhāgavatapurāṇa⁶⁷⁴ also regards Kāla as inferred in regard to its minuteness and its grossness is all-pervading, and holds that it is supposed to have units from the subtlest (atom) to the highest

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⁶⁷¹ अनादिरेष भगवान् कालोऽनन्तोऽजरोऽमरः । सर्वगत्वात् स्वतन्त्रत्वात् सर्वात्मत्वा-न्महेश्वरः। बह्मणो बहवो रुद्रा ह्यन्ये नारायणाइयः । एको हि भगवानीशः कालः कविरिति स्मृतः । कालेनैव च सृज्यन्ते स एव ग्रसते पुन । ब्रह्मन्नारायेशाना त्रयाणां प्राकृतो लयः। प्रोच्यते कालयोगेन पुनरेव च सम्भवः । परं ब्रह्म च भूतानि वासुदेवोऽपि शङ्करः । तस्मात् कालात्मकं विश्वं स एव परमेश्वर । q by हे on काल p 6 from कूर्मपुराण These are कूर्म I chap. 5 but the order of verses is different For प्राकृतलय vide विष्णुपुराण I. 2.25

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⁶⁷² अनादिनिधन कालो रुद्रः सङ्कर्षणः स्मृत । कलनात् सर्वभूताना स कालः परिकीर्तित । अनादिनिधनत्वेन स महान् परमेश्वर । निमेषादपि सूक्ष्मत्वात् सूक्ष्मात्सूक्ष्मवरो ह्यति । तस्य सूक्ष्मातिसूक्ष्मस्य कालस्य परमेष्ठिनः । दुर्विभाव्या महाभाग योगिनामपि सूक्ष्मता पद्मपत्रसहस्त्रं हि सूच्या वै भिद्यते यदा । समकालं तु तद्धिन्त्रमबुधो मन्यते जन. । कालक्रमेण तद्भिन्नं सा तस्य द्विज सूक्ष्मता । तस्य सूक्ष्मातिसूक्ष्मस्य तथापि महतो द्विजा. । मानसंख्या बुधैर्ज्ञेया ग्रह-गत्यनुसारत ॥ q by हे. on काल pp 6-7 from विष्णधर्मोत्तर I 72 1-7. कालः सृजति भूतानि कालः संहरते प्रजा । सर्वे कालस्य वशगा न कालः कस्यचिद्वशे ॥ कूर्म II 3. 16, वायु 32. 29-30 (reads पुन: संहरति क्रमात्).

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⁶⁷³ तद् ब्रह्म परमं नित्यमजमक्षयमव्ययम्। 'तदेव सर्वमेवैतद् व्यक्ताव्यक्तस्वरूपवत्। तथा पुरुषरूपेण कालरूपेण च स्थितम्॥ परस्य ब्रह्मणो रूपं पुरुष प्रथमं द्विज। व्यक्ताव्यक्ते तथैवान्ये रूपे कालस्तथापरम्॥' अनादिर्भगवान्कालो नान्तोस्य द्विज विद्यते। विष्णुपुराण I 2. 13-15, 26. [^674] एवं कालोप्यनुमित सौक्ष्म्ये स्थौल्ये च सत्तम । संस्थानभुक्त्या भगवानव्यक्तो व्यक्तभुग्विभु । स काल परमाणूर्वे यो भुङ्क्ते परमाणुताम् । ततोऽविशेषभुग्यस्तु स काल. परमो महान् । अणुर्द्वा परमाणु स्यात्त्रसरेणुस्त्रय. स्मृत । जालान्तरगते खमेवानुपतन्नगात् । त्रसरेणुत्रिकं भुङ्क्ते य काल स त्रुटि स्मृत. । शतभागस्तु वेध स्यात्तैस्त्रिभिस्तु लव स्मृत. । निमेषस्त्रिलवो ज्ञेय आम्नातस्ते त्रय क्षण । भागवत III 11 3-7 [^675] लोकानामन्तकृत्काल कालोन्य कलनात्मक । स द्विधा स्थूलसूक्ष्मत्वान्मूर्तमूर्त उच्यते ॥ प्राणादि कथितो मूर्तस्त्रुट्याद्योऽमूर्तसंज्ञक । षड्भि प्राणैर्विनाडी स्यात् तत्षष्ट्या नाडिका स्मृता । नाडीषष्ट्या तु नाक्षत्रमहोरात्रं प्रकीर्तितम् ॥ सूर्यसिद्धान्त I. 10-11.

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Among astronomical works the Sūryasiddhānta states⁶⁷⁵ 'Kāla is the destroyer of worlds; another (kind of time) is of the nature of calculation; Kāla is of two kinds, gross and subtile, which are also called *mūrta* (physically apprehensible) and *amūrta* (not so apprehended); (the divisions of) time called *prāṇa* (respiration) and the like are mūrta, while *truṭi* and the like are *amūrta*' The Caraka-saṃhitā⁶⁷⁶ includes Kāla among nine dravyas and holds that it is *acetana* (non-sentient) Thus it agrees with the Vaiśeṣika view. In the Suśrutasaṃhitā it is declared 'Kāla is indeed self-existent, without beginning, middle or end; the poverty or richness of substances that have (one or more of the six) flavours (rasas) and the life and death of human beings are dependent on Kāla It is called Kāla because it does not remain sticking to even the smallest division or because it heaps together (beings by leading beings to death) or drives them together. Of that adorable Kāla which assumes the character of year, the divine Sun produces by his special movements the divisions called twinkling of the eye, kāṣṭhā &c.

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⁶⁷⁶ खादीन्यात्मा मन कालो दिशश्च द्रव्यसङ्ग्रह । चरक, सूत्रस्थान I. 480, कालो हि नाम स्वयम्भूरनादिमध्यनिधनः। अत्र रसव्यापत्तपत्ती जीवितमरणे च मनुष्याणामायत्ते। स सूक्ष्मा मपि कलां न लीयत इति काल सङ्कलयति कालयति वा भूतानीति काल । तस्य संवत्सरात्मनो भगवान्दित्यो गतिविशेषेणाक्षि निमेषक ष्ठाकलामुहूर्ताहोरात्रपक्षमासर्त्वयनसंवत्सरयुगप्रविभागं करोति । तत्र लघ्वक्षरोच्चारणमात्रोऽक्षिनिमेष । पञ्चदशाक्षिनिमेषा काष्ठा।त्रिंशत्काष्ठा कला विंशतिकलो मुहूर्तः। कलादशभागश्च त्रिंशन्मुहूर्तमहोरात्रं पञ्चदशाहोरात्राणि पक्ष.। सुश्रुत II. or 5.

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Similarly, philosophical grammarians like Bhartṛhari⁶⁷⁷ (author of the Vākyapadīya) holds that Kāla is a substance (dravya), all-pervading and permanent apart from activities, that it is the efficient cause of all created things, that it is divided into years, seasons &c. on account of the different activities, just as the same man may be called a carpenter or a blacksmith &c. (on account of his different activities). For reasons of space it is not advisable to pursue the subject of the nature of time from other Sanskrit works of medieval and modern times. For those who desire to make a further study of this subject I would recommend the 'Kālasiddhānta-darśinī' composed and published by Shri Haranchandra Bhaṭṭācārya of Calcutta in 1941, which exhaustively deals with the philosophical conceptions about Kāla held by different sects, schools and Sanskrit writers.

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⁶⁷⁷ व्यापारव्यतिरेकेण कालमेके प्रचक्षते । नित्यमेकं विभु द्रव्यं परिमाणं क्रियावताम्॥ उत्पत्तौ च स्थितौ चैव विनाशे चापि तद्गताम्। निमित्तं कालमेवाहुर्विभक्तेनात्मना स्थितम्॥ क्रियाभेदाद्यथैकस्मिंस्तक्षाद्याख्या प्रवर्तते। क्रियाभेदात्तथैकस्मिन्नृत्याख्याप्युपजायते॥ वाक्यपदीय, प्रकीर्णककाण्ड, कालसमुद्देश, verses 1, 3, 32.

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There is a great temptation to compare Indian ancient and medieval conceptions about Time arrived at more than a thousand years ago with similar or corresponding conceptions on the same subject in modern Western philosophical works such as Kant's 'Critique of pure reason', Prof S. Alexander's 'Space, Time and Deity' (1927, London, two volumes), 'Time and Western Man' by Wyndham Lewis (London, 1927), Pierre Burgelin's 'L' Homme et Le Temps' (1945), Bergson's 'Time and Freewill', S. G. F. Brandon's 'Time and Mankind' (1953). But as this volume has already grown to large proportions, comparisons with Western philosophical views have to be given up.

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From very ancient times minute divisions of time have been mentioned. The Vāj. S. states⁶⁷⁸ 'that all winkings of the eye (and similar units of time) were produced from the (supreme). Person that is brilliant (like lightning)'. This half verse occurs in the Mahānārāyaṇa Upaniṣad also. It is stated in the Bṛ. Up.⁶⁷⁹ that under the dominion of this imperishable *brahma* the Sun and the Moon are held apart, as also *nimeṣas*, *muhūrtas*, days, and nights, half months, months, seasons, and years stand apart The Mahānārāyana Upaniṣad' (I. 8-9) mentions as units of time 'Nimeṣas, Kalā, muhūrta, kāṣṭhā, ahorātra, half months, months, ṛtus, year' Manu I. 64 provides that 18 nimeṣas are equal to kāṣṭhā, 30 kāṣṭhās to kalā, 30 kalās to muhūrta, 30 muhūrtas are equal to one day and night Early and very exhaustive enumeration of the several units of time from subtlest to the highest are contained in Bṛhat-saṁhitā of Varāha and in the bhāṣya of Praśastapāda on Vaiśeṣikasūtra⁶⁸⁰ viz 'Kāla is the cause of the popular usage about the units being *kṣaṇa*, *lava*, *nimeṣas*, *kāṣṭhā*, *kalā*, muhūrta, yāma (prahara or ⅛th of a day), ahorātra (day and night), ardhamāsa (half month), māsa (month), ṛtu (season), ayana, saṁvatsara (year), yuga, manvantara, kalpa, pralaya and mahāpralaya. The Purāṇas also dilate upon the units of time from nimeṣa to pralaya or kalpa. Vide Brahma 231. 6-12, Kūrma I. 5 6-14, Padma V 3. 4-20, Vāyu 57 6-35. Nimeṣa (lit.

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winking of the eye) is defined by the Vāyu and Viṣṇudharmottara as the time required for pronouncing a short letter and the latter adds that a smaller unit than it cannot be (physically) apprehended. There is great divergence of views about the number and names of the minute units of time and their mutual relations. A few examples alone can be cited. Manu (I. 64) furnishes the following table: 18 nimeṣas = kāṣṭhā, 30 kāṣṭhās = kalā, 30 kalās = muhūrta, 30 muhūrtas = ahorātra (day and night). The Arthaśāstra⁶⁸¹ of Kauṭilya provides. 2 truṭas (i?) = lava, 2 lavas = nimeṣa, five nimeṣas = kāṣṭhā, 30 kāṣṭhās = kalā, 40 kalās = nāḍīkā, 2 nāḍīkās = muhūrta, 30 muhūrtas = ahorātra Some of the purāṇas contain the same⁶⁸² verse on the names and relations of small units of time viz 15 nimeṣas = kāṣṭhā, 30 kāṣṭhās = kalā, 40 kalās = nāḍikā, 2 nāḍikās = muhūrta, 30 muhūrtas = day and night together. It should be noticed that here the relation of nimeṣas to kāṣṭhā is different from that in Manu and Kauṭilya. The Arthaśāstra⁶⁸³ of Kauṭilya does not stand alone in speaking of *truti* (*ṭṛṭi*) as the smallest unit of time. The Sūryasiddhānta (quoted above) provides that truṭi is the smallest unit of time, that it is *amūrta* (not apprehended physically), that the prāṇa is the first *mūrta* (physically apprehended) unit of time, that 6 prāṇas are equal to a vināḍī, that 60 vināḍīs are equal to a nāḍikā, 60 nāḍīs are equal to an ahorātra. Utpala⁶⁸⁴ on Bṛ. S.

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quotes verses from Pauliśa-siddhānta and Brāhmasphuṭa-siddhānta to the effect that six prāṇas are equal to a vināḍikā, 60 vināḍikās are equal to a nāḍikā or ghaṭikā and 60 ghaṭikās are equal to a day (i. e. ahorātra). A smṛti quoted in the Tithitattva states that two truṭis make a lava, 2 lavas make a nimeṣa, so that truṭi is equal to ¼th of nimeṣa. Hemādri on Kāla (p. 7) quotes a verse that truṭi is equal to two nimeṣas and 10 truṭis are equal to prāṇa. The Amarakośa follows Manu as to eighteen nimeṣas being equal to kāṣṭhā, but it introduces a unit called kṣaṇa between kalā and muhūrta, so that its scheme is: 18 nimeṣas = kāṣṭhā, 30 kāṣṭhās = kalā, 30 kalās = kṣaṇa, 12 kṣaṇas = muhūrta, 30 muhūrtas = ahorātra. The Bhāgavata-purāṇa (III. 11. 3-10) puts forward a far more elaborate scheme: two atoms (of Time) = aṇu, 3 aṇus = trasareṇu, 3 trasareṇus = truṭi, 100 truṭis = vedha, 3 vedhas = lava, 3 lavas = nimeṣa, 3 nimeṣas = kṣaṇa, 5 kṣaṇas = kāṣṭhā, 15 kāṣṭhās = laghu, 15 laghus = nāḍikā, 2 nāḍikās = muhūrta, 30 muhūrtas = ahorātra. In the Ātharvaṇa-jyotiṣa the table is: 12 nimeṣas = lava, 30 lavas = kalā, 30 kalās = truṭi, 30 truṭis = muhūrta. This agrees with none. Further units of time from ahorātra to *pralaya* will be dwelt upon a little later.

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⁶⁷⁸ सर्व्वे निमेषा जज्ञिरे विद्युत पुरुषादधि। वाज. सं 32. 2, महानारायण-उप. I. 8.

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⁶⁷⁹ एतस्य वा अक्षरस्य प्रशासने गार्गि सूर्य्याचन्द्रमसौ विधृतौ तिष्ठतः। 'एतस्य वा अक्षरस्य प्रशासने गार्गि निमेषा मुहूर्ता अहोरात्राण्यर्धमासा मासा ऋतवः संवत्सरा इति विधृतास्तिष्ठन्ति। बृह उप. III 8 9.

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⁶⁸⁰ (स कालः) क्षणलवनिमेष-काष्ठा-कला-मुहूर्तयामाहोरात्रार्धमास-मासर्तृयनसंवत्सर-युग-कल्प-मन्वन्तर-प्रलय-महाप्रलय-व्यवहारहेतुः । प्रशस्तपादभाष्य on वैशेषिकसूत्र II. 2. 6 p. 27 (Kashi S series, 1923), तत्र ग्रहगणिते पौलिशरोमकवासिष्ठसौरपैतामहेषु पञ्चस्वेतेषु सिद्धान्तेषु युगवर्षायनर्तुमासपक्षाहोरात्रयाममुहूर्त-नाडीप्राणत्रुटित्रुट्यवयवाद्यवयवादिकस्य कालस्य क्षेत्रस्य च वेत्ता ॥ बृह सं II. p. 22. निमेषकालतुल्य हि विद्याल्लघ्वक्षरं च यत् । वायु 57.6., लघ्वक्षरसमा मात्रा निमेषः परिकीर्तितः । अतः सूक्ष्मतरो कालो नोपलब्धो भृगूत्तम ॥ विष्णुधर्मोत्तर I. 73. 1 q by हे (on काल) p 7.

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⁶⁸¹ कालमानमत ऊर्ध्वम् । त्रुटो लषो निमेषः काष्ठा कला नाडिका मुहूर्तंः पूर्वांणपरभागा दिवसो रात्रिः पक्षो मास ऋतुर्वने संवत्सरो युगमिवि कालाः । द्वौ त्रुटौ लवः । द्वौ लचौ निमेषः । पञ्च निमेषाः काष्ठा । त्रिशत्काष्ठाः कला । चत्वारिंशत्कलाः नाडिका । ० ० द्विनाविका मुद्रर्तः । पञ्चदशमुहूर्तो दिवसो रात्रिश्च चैत्रे मास्याश्वयुजे मासे च भवतः । अर्थशास्त्र II chap. 20 (41 from beginning), pp 107-108 (of Shamshastri's edition ).

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⁶⁸² काष्ठा निमेषा सङ्ख्या पञ्च चैव त्रिंशच्च काष्ठा गणयेत्कलास्ताः । त्रिशत्कलाश्चैव भवेन्मुहूर्तस्तत्त्रिंशता रात्र्यहनी समेते ॥ वायु 50. 169 = वायु 57. 7 = मत्स्य 142 4, विष्णुपुराण II. 8. 59, ब्रह्माण्ड II 29 6, शान्तिपर्व 232 12

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⁶⁸³ द्वौ निमेषौ त्रुटिर्ज्ञेयो प्राणो दशत्रुटिः स्मृतः॥ विनाडिका तु षट् प्राणास्ताः षष्टिर्नाडिका मता॥ विष्णुधर्मोत्तर I 73. 2-3 q by हे. (on काल) p. 7.

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⁶⁸⁴ तथा च पौलिशे। षट्प्राणास्तु विनाडी तत्षष्ट्या नाडिका दिनं षष्ट्या। एतासां संत्रिंशन्मासस्तैर्द्वादशभिर्ब्दः॥ उत्पल on बृह. सं. II. p. 24. भागवत (III. 11. 5) remarks that त्रसरेणु is visible (while परमाणु and अणु are not) and is the speck that is seen floating in the air when a pencil of the sun's rays comes through a window (जालाकर्करश्म्यवगतः खमेवानुपतन्नगात्).

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Before proceeding further clarification is required on certain points. At least several centuries before Christ Jyotiṣa had attained the position of being one of the six *aṅgas* (auxiliary studies) of the Veda The Muṇḍakopaniṣad⁶⁸⁵ states that the *aparā vidyā* (inferior exoteric knowledge) comprises Ṛgveda, Yajurveda, Sāmaveda, Atharvaveda, Śikṣā (Phonetics), Kalpa (ritual texts), Vyākaraṇa (grammar), Nirukta (Etymology), Chandas (metrics) and Jyotiṣa (astronomy and mathematics). The Āpastamba-dharmasūtra enumerates the same six aṅgas of the Veda In the Pāṇinīya Śikṣā⁶⁸⁶ the science of the movements of heavenly bodies is said to be the eye of the Veda. The Jyotiṣa which is Vedāṅga (of the Ṛgveda and Yajurveda) was concerned with purely astronomical matters. In the Vedāṅga-Jyotiṣa⁶⁸⁷ it is remarked 'the Vedas arose for the purpose of (use in) sacrifices; sacrifices are enjoined according to the order of times; therefore he who knows Jyotiṣa which is the science laying down the (proper) times knows sacrifices. Just as a tuft of hair stands on the head of peacocks or a jewel (in the heads) of cobras, so *gaṇita* (astronomical calculations) stand at the head of all the sciences that are (spoken of as) Vedāṅgas'. This shows that the words Jyotiṣa and *gaṇita* are used as synonyms in the Vedāṅga-jyotiṣa The Vṛddha-vāsiṣṭhasiddhānta (Benares S. Series) says 'this śāstra is indeed the eye of the Veda, therefore, among the *aṅgas* (limbs, subsidiary lores of Veda) it has got pre-eminence; a man endowed with all other limbs and therefore appearing to be perfect is worth nothing, if he is devoid of eyes' Gradually, however, Jyotiṣa came to include three distinct branches (*skandhas*) viz the determination of the motions of planets by means of calculations which was called Tantra, the second called *horā* that deals with horoscopes and (was also called *jātaka*) and the third called Śākhā which was an extensive branch and included many topics of divination which are summarised in Br. S. chap. II. A work embodying complete presentation of the three branches was called *saṃhitā*⁶⁸⁸ and he who well knew the three branches, viz Gaṇita, Horā and Śākhā was called, as Garga says, 'Saṃhitāpāraga' (master of saṃhitā). Varāhamihira⁶⁸⁹ himself tells us in the Bṛhaj-jātaka, that, for the benefit of astrologers, he compiled a comprehensive work on Jyotiṣa in its three branches The word Saṃhitā appears to have been used in two senses, the first⁶⁹⁰ (a wider sense) referring to a complete presentation of Gaṇita, Horā and Śākhā, while the second (a narrower sense) refers only to the Śākhā part Why the third branch was called śākhā is not satisfactorily explained anywhere. It was so called probably because it had to deal with numerous circumstances, such as the fruits of the simple and retrograde movements of planets; the movements of Agastya (Canopus) and *saptarṣis* (Ursa Major), the conjunctions and oppositions of planets, haloes, meteors. earthquakes, lore about the movements and cries of birds, *nīrājana*, removal of the evil effects of *utpātas*. In this sense saṃhitā was what is called *natural astrology*. Horā again had three sub-sections, viz. *jātaka* or *janma* (judicial astrology, predictions from the situations of the zodiacal signs and planets at a person's birth), Yātrā or Yātrika (Bṛhaj-jātaka 28.4-5) that dealt with prognostications on starting on a journey or on a king's marching against an enemy derived from the tithi, nakṣatra, the week-day, the muhūrta, the moon's position, dreams, throbbing of limbs, the cries of birds, and *vivāha* i. e examining the horoscopes of the parties to a marriage (called Vivāhakāla or Vivāhapaṭala).

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⁶⁸⁵ द्वे विद्ये वेदितव्ये इति ० परा चैवापरा च। तत्रापरा ऋग्वेदो यजुर्वेदः सामवेदोऽथर्ववेदः शिक्षा कल्पो व्याकरणं निरुक्तं छन्दो ज्योतिषमिति। अथ परा यया तदक्षरमधिगम्यते। मुण्डकोप I 1. 4-5, षडङ्गो वेदः। छन्दःकल्पो व्याकरणं ज्योतिषं निरुक्तं शिक्षा छन्दोविचितिरिति। आप ध. सू II 4 8 11 छन्द कल्प means कल्पसूत्राणि and छन्दोविचिति means the science of metres.

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⁶⁸⁶ छन्दः पादौ तु वेदस्य हस्तौ कल्पोऽथ पठ्यते। ज्योतिषामयनं चक्षुर्निरुक्तं श्रोत्रमुच्यते। शिक्षा घ्राणं तु वेदस्य मुखं व्याकरणं स्मृतम्। तस्मात्साङ्गमधीत्यैव ब्रह्मलोके महीयते॥ शिक्षा verses 41-42.

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⁶⁸⁷ वेदा हि यज्ञार्थमभिप्रवृत्ताः कालानुपूर्व्या विहिताश्च यज्ञाः। तस्मादिदं कालविधानशास्त्रं यो ज्योतिषं वेद स वेद यज्ञम्। यथा शिखा मयूराणां नागानां मणयो यथा। तद्वद्वेदाङ्गशास्त्राणां गणितं मूर्धनि स्थितम्॥ वेदाङ्गज्योतिष (of यजुर्वेद) verses 3, 4. = verses 35, 36 of (ऋग्वेदज्योतिषवेदाङ्ग) in Pandit Siddhesvara Daivedi's ed (1906, Prabhākarī Press)

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⁶⁸⁸ ज्योतिःशास्त्रमनेकभेदविषयं स्कन्धत्रयाधिष्ठितं तत्कात्स्योर्पिनयनस्य नाम मुनिभिः संकीर्त्यते संहिता । स्कन्धेऽस्मिन् गणितेन या ग्रहगतिस्तन्त्राभिधानस्तसौ होरान्योऽङ्गविनिश्चयश्च कथितः स्कन्धस्तृतीयोऽपरः॥ बृह. सं. I. 9; गणितं जातकं शाखां यो वेत्ति द्विजपुङ्गवः । त्रिस्कन्धज्ञो विनिर्दिष्टः संहितापारगश्च सः ॥ गर्ग q by उत्पल on बृह. सं I 9, वेदस्य चक्षुः किल शास्त्रमेतत्प्रधानताङ्गेषु ततोद्विजाता । अङ्गैर्यतोऽन्यैः परिपूर्णमूर्त्तिश्चक्षुर्विहीनः पुरुषो न किंचित्॥ वृद्धवासिष्ठसंहिता I. 3, vide सिद्धान्तशिरोमणि of भास्कर (I) for a similar verse.

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⁶⁸⁹ विवाहकालः करणं ग्रहाणां प्रोक्तं पृथक् तद्विपुला च शाखा । स्कन्धैस्त्रिभिर्ज्योतिषसंग्रहोऽयं मया कृतो दैवविदां हिताय ॥ बृहज्जातक 28.6. विवाहकाल refers to his work called विवाहपटल, करण to the पञ्चसिद्धान्तिका and शाखा to his बृहत्संहिता. पटल means section or chapter of a work (as in the ऋक्प्रातिशाख्य or आप ध. सूत्र). वक्राद्यनुवक्रास्तमयोदयाद्यास्ताराग्रहाणां करणे मयोक्ताः। होरार्गतं विस्तरशश्च जन्म यात्र्राविवाहैः सह पूर्वमुक्तम्॥ बृह सं. I. 10.

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⁶⁹⁰ Vide (n. 688) the verse ज्योति शास्त्र etc, for the second sense, vide the qualifications of the Sāṁvatsara (the king's astrologer in बृहत्संहिता chap. II prose), one of which was 'who had mastered the works on the computations of planetary movements, Saṃhitā and Horā' (ग्रहगणितसंहिताहोराग्रन्थार्थवेत्ता) and also chap. II verse 21 'यस्तु सम्यग्विजानाति होरागणितसंहिताः । अभ्यर्च्य. स नरेन्द्रेण स्वीकृतव्यो जयैषिणा ॥'.

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The usual practice of the Gṛhyasūtras and Dharmaśāstra works was to take their astronomical requirements and knowledge from astronomers. The Gobhila-gṛhyasūtra⁶⁹¹ provides 'the work on this point is separate; one should study it or should obtain information about (the exact time of) the parvan (New moon and Full moon) from those who know it'. The astronomical knowledge of ancient and medieval India has been a subject riddled with acute controversies Somewhat reluctantly I have come to the conclusion that discussions about the theories and practice of astronomy in ancient and medieval India should be omitted from the History of Dharmaśāstra An adequate treatment of ancient and medieval Indian astronomy and discussion of the theories advanced by Western scholars (some of them quite unwarranted) would require a large volume by itself. Here and there I may have to refer to pure astronomical matters for certain purposes. But the two other branches of Jyotiṣa, viz Horā (astrology) and Śākhā have exerted a vast influence on Dharmaśāstra and will have to be discussed within limits. Though Dharmaśāstra writers took their astronomy from astronomers, they did not hold that astronomers had the last word, but they rather held that if there was some conflict or contradiction between strict astronomical theory and Dharmaśāstra, the latter was to prevail An example may be cited for illustrating this: Suppose that a man has resolved to undertake 'ekabhakta-vrata' on 7th tithi The saṅkalpa for a vrata is as a general rule to be made in the morning. Suppose that 7th is mixed with 6th and 8th tithis and that 7th commences about 10 A M. on a certain week-day, then according to Yugmavākya (vide p 75 note 191 above) 7th mixed with 6th is to be preferred for the vrata and the saṅkalpa would have to be repeated in the morning when according to correct astronomical calculation the tithi might be only the 6th at that time Devala declares that a tithi is, for the purposes of religious bath, gifts and vratas, to be regarded as covering the whole day if the Sun sets during the period⁶⁹² of that tithi. Vide Kṛtyaratnākara p. 299 and Smṛti-kaustubha (on tithi p. 12) for other examples.

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⁶⁹¹ पृथगेवैतस्य ज्ञानस्याध्यायो भवति, अधीयीत वा तद्विद्वद्भ्यो वा पर्व आगमयॆत । गोभिलगृह्य I 5 13 अध्यायो ग्रन्थः ज्योतिःशास्त्ररूपः, हे on काल p. 378 quotes गोभिलगृह्य

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⁶⁹² एकभक्तादीनां सङ्कल्पस्तु प्रातः सङ्कल्पयेद्विद्वाञ्छुपवासव्रतादिकम्-इति वचनात् प्रातः-काले ज्योतिःशास्त्रसिद्धयाह्यतिथिसत्त्वाभावेपि, यां तिथिं समनुप्राप्येत्यादिसाकल्यप्रतिपादक-वचनापादिततिथिसत्त्वमादाय प्रातःकाल एव कर्तव्य । शु चि p 53, अत -अमासे भास्करे कन्यां सन्निभागैर्विमर्दिने. -इत्यादिवाक्य ज्योति शास्त्रीयमनादेयं धर्मशास्त्रस्य ततो बलवत्त्वात् महा-पुराणार्थपरत्वेनैव नेतव्यं यथायथम्। कृ र p 299.

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About Astronomy and Astrology as developed in India Western scholars such as Weber, Whitney, Thibaut have propounded many sweeping and unwarranted theories based on flimsy data. Here and there I may have to refer to them. But I must say in one place how and why their conclusions are often unacceptable In the first place, they do `not attach due importance to the fact that a vast literature in Sanskrit has perished beyond recovery (as it is admitted was the case in Greece after Ptolemy composed his Almagest)⁶⁹³ and what we now have is a mere fraction of what once existed. In the second place, they forget or ignore that much of the literature that survives is religious and not intended to be a historical and full treatment of any topic i.e. most of the references to astronomical matters found in the Vedas and Brāhmaṇas are not made of set purpose but are incidental or casual. They hardly seem to be aware of the rule of caution and common sense that in ancient literature what is expressly stated may be used for drawing inferences, but the non-mention of certain matters cannot necessarily be a valid reason for arriving at the conclusion of non-existence, unless the subject matter was such that if something connected with it existed it should ordinarily have been mentioned. Further, and most important of all, mere similarities in institutions, usages and other matters should not be regarded as evidence of borrowing by one people from another people.

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