Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c10: 2. Minerals and Metals in the Pre-Harappan India

Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c10

Language: English

v1.c10.s1 Mehargarh — 10 parts
v1.c10.s2 Mundigak — 3 parts
v1.c10.s3 Nuclear Zones East of Indus — 7 parts
v1.c10.s4 Conclusion — 15 parts
v1.c10.s5 References — 44 parts

2. Minerals and Metals in the Pre-Harappan India

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The story of minerals and metals in ancient India is tied up with the ever unfolding history of human civilization in the sub-continent. In the nineteenth century our knowledge of the Indian history extended only up to the first millennium BC Buddhist and epic eras. With the discovery of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, the information went back to the later part of the third millennium BC. Even this date was not too ancient compared to some of the archaeologically discovered dates in the Middle East. This prompted Sir Mortimer Wheeler (1953) to make his famous observation that the Indus (Harappan) civilization is a book whose first (before third millennium BC) and last (the second millennium BC) chapters are missing. Fortunately we would be able to report through this research that parts of the ‘missing chapters’ are being gradually recovered.

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Summing up the proceedings of the 1979 international conference of archaeologists in Kashmir, R.H. Dyson (1982) reported the ‘paradigm changes in the study of the Indus civilization’. Some of the earlier concepts (Piggott, 1950) such as sudden origin and sudden collapse of the Indus civilization, the latter ‘caused by the invasion of the Indo-Aryans in second millennium BC’, are being universally abandoned.

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The above remarkable ‘change in the paradigm’ has been caused by the discoveries of a large number of Pre-Harappan (vide Table 2.1), Mature-Harappan and Late-Harappan sites. The earliest site discovered so far is that of Mehargarh (also spelled as Mehrgarh) whose antiquity (vide Table 2.2) goes back to the seventh millennium BC. (Jarrige, 1979, 1980, 1982, 1984) A brief summary of the findings at Mehargarh may be presented below:

Mehargarh

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The site of Mehargarh is located in the northern region of Kachhi plains, at the foot of Bolan pass in Baluchistan, Pakistan. The French Archaeological Mission started excavations in 1974, and the diggings have brought to light a continuous sequence of occupation ranging from the seventh millennium BC to the middle of the third millennium BC (Table 2.2). So far this is the only site which has revealed such continuous sequence of cultures in Baluchistan.

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The cultural sequence of Mehargarh is as follows. There are altogether seven periods. The first period, i.e., Mehargarh I is aceramic neolithic settlement dated seventh millenium BC. Mehargarh II is ceramic neolithic dated sixth-fifth millenium BC. Mehargarh III is early chalcolithic settlement dated first half of the fourth millennium BC; Mehargarh IV is advanced chalcolithic settlement dated from the middle of fourth millennium BC. Mehargarh V is a transition period dated third quarter of the fourth millennium BC, Mehargarh VI is Early Bronze settlement (towns) dated from the end of fourth millennium BC and beginning of the third millennium BC, and Mehargarh VII is advanced bronze age settlement dated middle of the third millennium BC.

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Table 2.1

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Early Dates of the Pre-Harappan Sites (MASCA BC)

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Table 2.2

Mehargarh Phases

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| Period | Dates (millennium BC) | Special Features |
| Ia-c | 7th-6th | Pre-ceramic neolithic culture; human figurines; 20,000 flint tools, grinding stones, barley, wheat, cereal cultivation, cakes of red ochre, beads of shell, turquoise, *lapis lazuli*, a cylindrical shaped copper bead. Sea-shell belt. |
| II | 6th-5th | Workshop for soapstone beads, flint drills, waste flakes, beads of shell, use of red ochre. Copper ring and bead. |
| III | 1st half 4th | Earliest used green cylindrical jasper drills and micro-drills for *lapis lazuli*, turquoise and carnelian beads. Stone implements. First evidence of metallurgy. Several crucibles used for melting copper-some metal still adhering. |
| IV | Middle 4th | Wheel-thrown pottery. Female figurines. |
| V | End 4th | Use of white pigment. |
| VI | Beginning 3rd | Mass production of pottery. Figurines on terracotta. Pottery kilns, Semi-industrial for a large market. Double spiral headed copper/bronze pin. *Pipal* leaves painted on red ware. More specialized female figurines. Terracotta bulls. |
| VII | Middle 3rd 2700-2500 BC | Grave with skeletons. Beads of kaolin, carnelian and *lapis lazuli*. Zhob mother goddess. Figure of a ram carved from alabaster, Kot Dijian pottery. Advanced Bronze Age. |

Lithic Objects

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From Period I comes the first evidence of lithic tools; stone tools including grinding stones and small flint blades and flakes are found. The artefacts recovered from Period I are most abundant — flint tools alone are 20,000 in number. Geometrically shaped flint bladelets such as trapezes and triangles represent 4 per cent of the total. In the Period III the number of lithic tools was increased. Stone implements including blades, bladelets, burins, notched blades, truncated blades, borers, sickles, ring-stones and grinding stones are of prominence. This is again found in the Period VI; almost the same lithic materials have been brought to light with a few microliths added with it. Thus the lithic industry survived at the site till the middle of third millennium BC. Flint implement included blades, bladelets, microliths, sickle elements, lunates, triangles, trapezes, burins, scrapers and drills. On the whole, the excavations at Mehargarh has unearthed 2052 stone objects. Of the total assemblage tools, cores and waste constitute 13.32 per cent (276), 2.77 per cent (57) and 83.36 per cent (1721) respectively.

Gem Minerals

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At Mehargarh, gem minerals are noticed from the very early Period. In the Period I, the gem minerals have been marked, although very little in quantity. In this level, among the grave goods, beads have been unearthed. These beads are made out of various local stones and imported turquoise. Sometimes a basket coated with bitumen was included and placed near the body filled with perishable goods. Apart from this, there were personal ornaments also, such as string of beads, several of them made of imported turquoise and lapis lazuli. In the Period II, although no such evidences of bead has been found, yet one interesting thing, viz., a workshop where beads were manufactured out of soapstone has been uncovered. The flint drills and wasted flakes conclusively prove the presence of local industrial workshops. Beads were indeed found in different manufacturing stages. Beads made out of shell were also recovered. An open space was found covered with layers of animal bones mixed with ashes. The space yielded more than 100 bone awls and several grooved stones used in shaping their points. The area clearly shows certain characteristics of an industrial establishment. A workshop for soapstone beads was established in Period II. Flint drills and waste flakes were noticed.

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In the Period III crafts show marked development; lapis lazuli, turquoise and carnelian were worked into beads with green cylindrical jasper drills. The jasper bits of this period are the earliest specimen known of a type that was used later during the third millennium BC at Shahr-i-Sokhta, Shahdad and at Chanhu-Daro. These are some very fine micro-drills indicating the use of low-drills working and engraving ornaments in shell.

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After the two barren periods, viz., Period IV and V, the evidence of the use of gem minerals comes in the Period VI. In this period both beads of lapis lazuli and turquoise have been found. In the next period some grave goods included one necklace of white baked kaolin beads alternating with carnelian and lapis lazuli beads and bracelets of white tiny beads. The Period VIII is a post-pre-Harappan level. Its remains have largely been found in the graveyards with objects of semi-precious stones.

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Thus, it is found that Mehargarh has yielded lapis beads from pre-ceramic neolithic levels to Pre-Harappan chalcolithic levels. In the Period III (chalcolithic levels) of Mehargarh we have ample evidence of lapis working. Like lapis lazuli, turquoise was also an important item of luxury. There was a workshop of turquoise at Mehargarh. So it is found that these two gem minerals were very much used and even processed by the inhabitants of Mehargarh.

Metals

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The first evidence of metal at Mehargarh comes from the Period I which yielded one cylindrical shaped copper bead. In the second period also, the metal remains showed one copper ring and one copper bead. No evidence of any metallurgical activities was however obtained.

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It was Period III which brought a real change at Mehargarh as far as metallurgy is concerned. During this period the pottery was mass produced. Metal production is evident here by findings of the fragments of several crucibles that had been used to melt copper. Traces of the metal still adhered to them. In the next two phases the metal findings were limited. In the Period VI we have one chisel, one flat axe and double spiral headed copper/bronze pins.

Mundigak

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The site of Mundigak is situated in the valley of the Kushk-i-Nakhud Rud near Kandahar in South Afghanistan. Here excavations have brought to light the remains of seven major occupational periods. Chronologically these periods represent the time-span of approximately 3000 years, starting from the ceramic Neolithic (fifth millennium BC) to the Harappan period. During this period, Mundigak developed from a small agricultural village to an important urban centre; it was abandoned in the early iron age.

Lithic Artefacts

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Stone artefacts have been recorded from all the occupational Periods I to IV. Amongst them rectangular milling stones, rectangular to oval hard-stones or ground-stones and large trapezoidal holes retouched for hafting are worth noting. The milling stones or saddle querns, sometimes with one raised end, were made from a medium to coarse grain basalt. Hard-stones or pestles were manufactured from a medium to fine grain basaltic pebbles and had grinding scars on one or both surface. Another important type worth mentioning is a large knife-like scraper made of large cortex flakes, which has been found through the entire sequence at Mundigak. These flakes were usually retouched along one edge and were occasionally polished through use.

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The tools of Period I were still in use in Period II. Flint blades and points were used in Period II for the first time. These blades are large and have triangular and trapezoidal cross-sections. Bifacially flaked lanceolate flint point found in Period II continues throughout the sequence.

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The main lithic artefacts remained unchanged through different periods. Stones with a long axes groove appeared in phase III and increased in later periods. In phases V and VI microlithic blades were introduced in quantity and then continued through the remaining periods of occupation.

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Technological activities increased, tanged lozenge shaped point was located along with luxury items e.g., copper pins with flat ends and twisted shafts. Utilitarian objects like small curved knives or sickles and chisels have also been recorded. Besides these, two socketed axes and one adze were the important metal objects. Of the artefacts from Period III which were analysed, only the axes and adze had a composition approaching that usually associated with low grade bronze. These artefacts had a tin content of nearly 5 per cent, the highest recorded at Mundigak. Other artefacts had lower tin content. By Period III, the differential characteristics of various alloying compositions had been clearly understood by the smiths, and metallurgy was led into a new phase of sophistication and specialization.

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The types of spindle whorls prevalent in Periods I and II were changed in Period III. Conical types are found replaced by disc-shaped whorls, both of terracotta and steatite.

Gem Minerals

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At Mundigak, materials made out of gem minerals are available from the Period I. 3-II yielded a limited quantity of beads. These are simple discs, tabular trapezoidal, cylindrical, bio-conical and lozenge shaped. Various stones have been used for these — white limestone, lapis lazuli, jade, quartzite, and even shell and pottery. It is again noticed in the Period IV where beads of lapis lazuli, carnelian, shell and bronze were found. One etched carnelian bead with figure 8 has also been reported.

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Simple alabaster bowls with straight angular sides were very popular with the people. It was first noticed in Period I.2, and it continued on a large scale till Period IV.

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Period I.2 at Mundigak has yielded the first metal artefact — a flat blade like instrument. Period I.4 has given simple type of bronze point or punch with a circular cross-section which was found throughout the habitation. Metallurgy started in Period I.5 where one bronze artefact was found. It has been chemically analysed: 1 per cent tin; 0.5 per cent iron and rest copper.

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Period II yielded the same material as was found in the late levels of Period I. It shows the continuity of culture. However, these levels represent the chalcolithic settlement which was advancing in technology, trade and other aspects of culture growth. It is evidenced by the finding of somewhat complicated metal tools, seals and luxury items.

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The metal tools in this period were lanceolate in shape with elliptical cross-section; this type became increasingly frequent in later period. The first example of luxury type metal artefacts were located in phase II.3. There were pins, one with a double volute and the other with a flattened and perforated end. The most frequent metal artefact of the Mundigak sequence is a bronze point or punch with circular cross-section. An oval shaped tanged point, a large lance head, a knife, sickles, and chisels were reported in Period IV. The greatest number of variety of luxury items was found in phase IV.1. These included mirrors, handles for mirrors, double spiral headed pins and a buckle.

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No radio-carbon date is available for Period IV. Still, cultural evidence suggests that late Mundigak III.6 and IV might have encompassed the entire third millennium BC.

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Other Pre-Harappan sites West of Indus

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Figs. 2.1-2.3 show how the nuclear zone around Mehargarh propagated itself during 5000 to 2500 BC, heralding the advent of the Mature-Harappan civilization.

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Period I of the mound of Kile Gul Mohammad, located about 3 km north-east of Quetta city can be dated as seventh-sixth millennium BC. During that time the nomadic people used ground-stone tools and chipped flints and also blades of chert, jasper and chalcedony. Period III (fourth millennium BC) shows the first chalcolithic culture. Damb Sadaat situated 13 km west of Quetta town has produced radio-carbon dates between 3630-2630 BC. Period II shows a stone blade industry, mainly of chert and alabaster bowls. Clay seals as well as copper artefacts such as dagger, knife etc. were found.

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It is evident from Table 2.1(and figs. 2.1-2.3) that Mehargarh must have been the nuclear zone for propagating the neolithic and chalcolithic culture towards [Figure: SOUTH ASIA CHALCOLITHIC (5000 BC - 3200 BC) 50 0 100 200 300 400 KILOMETRE INDIA TO SOVIET CENTRAL ASIA TO SHAHR - 1 SOKHTA MUNDIGAK KILE GUL MOHAMMAD GUMLA PERIANO GHUNDAI RANA GHUNDAI DABAR KOT MEHRGARH DAMB SADAA T ANJIRA NAL AMRI BALA KOT ARABIAN SEA]

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Fig. 2.1: Map of South Asia showing Chalcolithic Sites (5000-3200 BC). (Asthana, 1985 : 61)

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[Figure: SOUTH ASIA EARLY BRONZE AGE (3200-2500 BC) 50 0 100 200 300 400 KILOMETRE POTWAR SITES SARAI KHOLA LEWAN RAHMANDHERI GUMLA BANNU BASIN SITES ZHOB-LORALAI SITES PERIANO GHUNDAI MUNDIGAK NUCLEAR ZONE KILE GUL MOHAMMAD MEHRGARH QUETTA SITES ANJIRA NAL KULLI KULLI SITES NINDOWARI AMRI MOHENJO-DARO KOT DIJI SIND SITES ARABIAN SEA TO PERSIAN GULF INDIA SARASWATI SITES SOTHI JALIL PUR RAVI BASIN SITES HARAPPA KALIBANGAN SISWAL MITATHAL]

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[Figure: Fig. 2.2 : Map of South Asia showing early Bronze Age Sites (3200-2500 bC). (Asthana, 1985 : 68)]

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Fig. 2.3: Map showing important Pre-Harappan Sites. (Asthana, 1985 : 80)

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the north-west. Mundigak and other Afghanistan sites may be considered to belong to this nuclear zone of the Indian sub-continent, Mundigak’s culture has been noted earlier. The cultural sequence of Deh Morasi Ghundai, located on the edge of the great desert of South-West Afghanistan, may be equated with those of Mundigak. In Period II, milling stones, and pestles, angular walled alabaster bowls and steatite seals were used. Copper tube samples have been recovered from this stratum.

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Said Qala Tepe, 100 km south-east of Mundigak, near Kandahar city also exhibits Mundigak culture of the third millennium BC. Beads of semi-precious stones such as steatite, alabaster, marble, carnelian, rock crystal, lapis lazuli and terracotta have been reported from the habitational levels II-IV. Angular walled alabaster vessels have also been found. Bronze artefacts such as sickle blade fragments, lanceolate or lozenge tanged point with circular cross-section, double spiral head pins, etc. were found in the same structure.

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Mehargarh culture distinctly spread towards the north and the north-east. Clear continuity has been observed in the sites of Sur Jangal and Rana Ghundai of the fifth and fourth millennium BC. Further north, the site of Rehman Dheri is located about 23 km north of Dera Ismail Khan on the Gomal Plains. This is clearly a proto-urban site of the fourth millennium BC, which has its initial settlement in 3500 BC when Amri and Kot Diji settlement appeared in Sind. Apart from Kot Dijian pottery, the site exhibits chert blades, stone tools etc. One drill was found intact in an unifinished carnelian bead. A number of unifinished beads in lapis lazuli, turquoise, carnelian, agate and the lumps of raw material reveal the evidence of its being a manufacturing centre. It might have acted as a trading centre. An ivory seal with depiction of animals and special markings on it are clear precursors of the Harappan tradition and writing.

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The site of Gumla which is 8 km south of Rehman Dheri was a rural extension of the proto-urban complex. It specialised in fine painted wheel-turned pottery terracotta and shell bangles, bronze tools such as antimony rod, nail parer, etc. Barrel-shaped jasper beads were found.

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Further north is the site of Sarai Khola, which is about 2 km south-west of the Bhir Mound, the earlier city state of Taxila. Period II here marked the use of Kot Dijian pottery and use of carnelian, lapis lazuli and agate blades, and of faience bangles. Copper was used; antimony rods, pins, bangles, needles, nail parers and spearheads have been found.

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South of Mehargarh, the neolithic-chalcolithic tradition spread through Anjira and Nal. Although Anjira shows only stone tools and no metal or gem mineral, the cemeteries at Nal (near Sohr Damb) exhibit a large number of protourban culture objects. This Pre-Harappan third millennium BC site contained semi-precious stones and beads of agate, carnelian, lapis lazuli and paste. Copper and silver objects were found in the necropolis. Copper was used to make long narrow flat axes, chisel, other tools and weapons, beads and seals; silver was used for fabricating ceremonial spearheads, finger ring etc. There is the evidence of lead-alloying.

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The pre-historic sites of Kulli is one of the largest single culture sites in the South Baluchistan area. The temple complex contained black-on-red potteries, painted bulls, female figurines. The rooms also contained fragments of copper, lapis lazuli beads, bone bangles etc.

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In southern Baluchistan, the number of copper objects found even in the trenches is comparatively very large. Kulli has produced a copper awl and a small copper fragment, whereas Mehi has yielded apart from copper bowls, discs and bangles (some bronze) also a new type: copper/bronze mirrors, some with elegant handles. (Stein, 1931; Piggott, 1950)

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The site of Balakot is near the sea-coast, 88 km north-west of Karachi. The Pre-Harappan phase I exhibits lithic objects such as chert/flint blades, edge tools, chipped stone tools etc. and beads of lapis lazuli, shell, paste etc. Period II (Mature-Harappan phase) showed copper-bronze objects, native lead and a shell bangle industry. Apart from utilizing the fish and mollusc, shells were used for manufacture of bangles and also probably inlays for wooden furniture. Working floors were covered with large quantities of shell bangles in all stages of manufacture.

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Amri and Kot Diji developed distinct Pre-Harappan cultures on the banks of the Indus. Amri is situated 130 km south of Mohenjo-Daro, on the western bank of the Indus and opposite Chanhu-Daro. Pottery witnessed evolutionary stages through the stages IA to ID. Apart from scraps of copper, shell bangles, chert blade flakes and cores were found in great abundance, during the Period IC. Evidently there was a big craftsman establishment.

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About 160 km north-east of Amri, on the left bank of Indus and 25 km south of Khairpur lies Kot Diji. Its cultural sequence confirms the views that the original settlers of Kot Diji were the non-Harappan people who manufactured a thin and light type of pottery with short everted rim and broad bands in different shades at the neck on the pinkish slip. Some of the settlers at Kot Diji might have come from Amri in the South, and some from northern Baluchistan sites such as Periano Ghundai.

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The defensive mud-brick wall at Kot Diji was constructed on undressed limestone blocks used as foundation. As in Periano Ghundai, a very large variety of stone objects such as micro-blades, knife blades, arrowheads were found indicating well-developed technical know-how over centuries. Beads, shell bangles and mother-of-pearl shells have been reported. The metal objects include fine axe, arrowheads, chisels of copper and some bronze bangles.

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The Pre-Harappan Kot Dijian culture was brought to an end probably by the Harappan onslaught. The end of Period IV at Gumla in the north which was associated with the Kot Dijian culture and pottery-style appears to be violent as testified by a thick layer of ash, charcoal and bone. The walls of a building in the Phase ID of Amri had been burnt red as if the house had collapsed in flames. The IIIA Phase at Kot Diji, intervening between the lower Kot Dijian and the upper Harappan level is a burnt one.

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The number of Pre-Harappan sites on the Indus and west of the river extending up to Afghanistan is large indeed; we have referred only to the more outstanding ones. It is clear from the literature that the Harappan civilization was not built by any invader in vacuum. The cultural sequences in many Pre-Harappan sites continued through several millennia before and after the Harappan era of the late third and early second millennium before Christ.

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The most outstanding evidence is from Mehargarh which shows a copper bead in the early eighth millennium BC and copper metallurgy in the early fifth millennium BC. These dates are well before the earliest Iranian dates from Tepe Yahya and Tal-i-Iblis. These evidences have resulted in a complete ‘collapse of the earlier Irano-centric view’ stating that the chalcolithic culture diffused from Iran to the Indus Valley in India. (Asthana, 1985: 16-82) The diffusion of chalcolithic culture seems to be from the nuclear zone of Mehargarh towards Mundigak and further west and also towards the north, north-east and south of Mehargarh extending up to the Indus valley and ultimately resulting in the ‘Indus Valley’ or the Mature-Harappan civilization.

Nuclear Zones East of Indus

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Ganga-Vindhyan Complex of Chopani-Mando, Mahagara and Koldihwa was the second nuclear zone in Indian pre-history which showed the process of neolithic evolution as in Mehargarh starting from seventh-sixth millenium BC. Both the nuclear zones exhibited settled villages with huts, cultivation of plants and domestication of animals. Due to proximity to the West Asian Cultures, Mehargarh blossomed into Bronze Age Culture while the Ganga-Vindhyan Complex being in relative isolation could not move beyond the neolithic stage.

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The three sites of Chopani-Mando, Mahagara and Koldihwa are located on the river Belan some 77-85 km south-east of Allahabad. During the epipalaeolithic period (around 17000-23000 BC), only chert was used for tool-making while in the succeeding phases even chalcedony, agate, carnelian, jasper, quartz etc., available in the Kaimur ranges, were introduced in the lithic industry. During this advanced mesolithic period at Chopani-Mando, a number of tools such as anvil, hammer stone, ring stone, rubber stone, muller etc. were made and used.

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At Mahagara, the neolithic man added polished celts, querns, mullers and ring stones for settled agricultural use. Rice plantation was perfected. Basalt was basically used for making most of the neolithic tools, while granite and quartzite were used only for making celts. The excavations at Mahagara has unearthed 2052 stone objects. Chalcedony was commonly used. The use of chert and agate was also popular; carnelian and quartz were occassionally used. All these stones were locally available in the form of river pebbles. Querns and mullers of sandstone were basically food-processing equipments. Irregular and sharp bits of sand-stone were also used as sharpeners and tool fabricators. The function of stone balls is not clear.

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Neolithic Koldihwa ushered the use of hand-made pottery, ground stone implements, celts of rounded variety fashioned on basalt, neolithic blades and microlithic tools. Further added were a few new types, the celts, adzes and chisels. Koldihwa has also yielded the rice remains embedded in the potsherds of cord impressed wares. According to the analysis, the rice belongs to the cultivated (and not wild) variety. A large number of animal bones were reported. Three radio-carbon dates from Koldihwa are: 6570 ± 210, 5440 ± 240 and 4530 ± 185 BC.

Pre-Harappan Culture in Rajasthan

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V.N. Misra has initiated research on the palaeolithic culture of Rajasthan. (1961, 1963) Most of the sites are located on the eastern side of the Aravallis. The western sites are located on the Luni Valley and these sites must have been deserted on account of low rain-fall and the onset of the desert climate.

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Middle and Upper Palaeolithic working and living floors have been found at a number of sites throughout the dry zone and notably in the Pushkar locality, near Ajmer in Rajasthan. The nature of the buried soil shows that it must have carried a substantial vegetation cover throughout the year, and therefore have been formed under conditions of greater humidity and rainfall than the present. The vegetation, the games and fresh water lakes made the growth of palaeolithic and neolithic sites, till adverse rainfall condition pushed the inhabitants east of Aravalli. Around Budha Pushkar there had been a concentration of sites with microlith industries. Discovery of a copper fish-hook in this stratum suggests an overlap between the microlithic and certain semi-urban chalcolithic cultures. (Allchins 1983: 65-69)

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In the eastern Rajasthan, most of the sites are located on stony elevations where the raw material for microlithic tools were made out of chert, quartzite, quartz and chalcedony. Bagor, situated on the left bank of the Kothari river and 25 km west of the town of Bhilwara reveals an uninterrupted occupation of the site over a period of five millennia before Christ. During Phase I (5000-2800 BC), Bagor produced the most fabulous microlith industry in pre-historic India and several hundred thousand of worked pieces. There was mass production of micro-blades and their conversion into various microlithic forms mostly 15-20 mm and some 5-10 mm in size. These were very carefully fabricated and retouched. (Sankalia, 1974; 260-64) More than forty types could be distinguished: blades, trapezes, crescents, points etc. The superb microlithic industry was essentially geared to a hunting economy.

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Around 2800 BC, Bagor entered into the chalcolithic phase evidently based upon the indigenous copper ore. Apart from bits of copper/bronze, five well-defined objects were found among offerings with two burials of phase II: one spearhead, one thin rod and three arrowheads each provided with two parallel holes near the base. The holes were evidently intended to secure the arrowheads to the shaft with the help of a string, metal wire or rivets.

Ganeshwar-Jodhpura Culture

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The clearest evidence about the Pre-Harappan chalcolithic culture in Rajasthan has been obtained in the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura area of the northern Aravalli near Jaipur. (Agrawala, 1982, 1984) Situated on the right bank of river Sabi and 100 km from Jaipur, Jodhpura has yielded Ochre Coloured Pottery, the later phase of the deposit having been carbon-dated as 2500 BC. Thus, beginning of this ware may have been as early as 3000 BC. The ware is red-slipped painted pottery with profuse linear designs, executed with the help of a sharp, short, comb-like instrument.

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Associated with similar OCP pottery is the nearby chalcolithic site of Ganeshwar which was discovered on 30 November 1977. Situated 15 km from Neem-Ka-Thana, this site (lat. 37° 40' north and long. 75° 51.30' east) yielded huge quantities of copper objects (more than 1000 were obtained by 1979). Deeper digging has shown earlier stone-age culture, and thus it is proven that Ganeshwar moved from the neolithic to chalcolithic stage before the Harappan era.

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The copper objects included arrowheads, spearheads, fish-hooks, spiral headed pins, celts, thin blades, rings, bangles, chisels, balls etc. This is the first time in the history of Indian archaeology that such a rich find of prehistoric copper objects has been found at a single small site. The presence of a round terracotta cake reminds us of similar sacrificial items at Kalibangan. The thin blades, arrowheads and fish-hooks were used in the Pre-Harappan Sothi culture sites and later in the Harappan culture sites. Not a single specimen resembles the Copper Hoard material from the Ganga-Yamuna Doab.

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Arrowheads

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Cut out of thin sheets, 400 arrowheads 5-6.5 cm in length were of barbed variety and used for hunting. Some with curved points and some with curved tip, these arrowheads without any perforation as in Bagor samples, were mounted on wooden sticks and fastened with a white glue. Some of these were found in the Harappan level at Banawali. The discovery of microliths with copper arrowheads shows that the people of Ganeshwar were still at the hunting stage. The arrowheads assay: copper 96.5 per cent, arsenic 1, silver 0.3, zinc 0.25, iron 0.2, tin 0.2, nickel 0.04 and lead 0.03 per cent. It is apparent that some arsenic alloying was done, as in Mohenjo-Daro objects. Like the Harappan spearheads, the Geneshwar spearheads were also very thin.

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Fish-Hooks

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At Ganeshwar, about 50 fish-hooks were found. These did not have barbs. The area is not very far from Bairat, the ancient capital of the Matsya Deśa and dwelling place of the minas tribe. Similar fish-hooks were recovered from the early levels of Monhenjo-Daro and Harappa; absence of arrowhead and fish-hooks in the upper levels indicate the transition from rural to urban culture in these sites. Kalibangan II however continued the use of fish-hooks.

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Celts

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More than 60 copper celts were obtained from Ganeshwar. These measured 20-25 cm in length and weighed 1-1.5 kg. All these flat celts were prepared from molds by the *cire perdue* techniques. Metallographic examination reveals that axes were cast in mould and edges bevelled by hot and cold forging. Some were cast in unventillated molds, but others in well-ventillated ones. (Allchins, 1983: 253) The name of a small Kulhāḍe-kā-Johaḍ (pond of Axes) near Ganeshwar testify to the *kulhāḍā* (axe) making tradition in this area.

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The butt portion of the celts have round indentations, the numbers of which (4-16) are in different combinations of 1-6 dots. These numbers probably reflect the contemporary system of simple arithmetic. The indentations were made with pointed copper drills which have also been found in the site. Such indentation marks were found in the later day celts of Kayatha and Navdatoli. That lead alloying might have been done during the melting of the original ingot is suggested from the analysis of a typical copper celt: copper 97 per cent, lead 1 per cent, nickel 0.5, arsenic 0.3, silver 0.2, zinc 0.1 and tin 0.1 per cent. Zinc, silver and other elements might have come from the local ore constituents.

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Significance of the Ganeshwar Discovery

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Several other facts may be mentioned to establish that the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura region was indeed one of the earliest Pre-Harappan centres for copper technology. In this hilly region are located the ancient rivers or river-tracks (flowing northward) of Kantli, Dohan, Kasaunti, Sota, Sobi etc. (arranged in order — western to eastern location). Ganeshwar is at the source of Kantli whose ancient track used to flow past Jhunjhunu meeting Drishadvati near Bhadra and Kalibangan as testified by the landsat imagery. Thus there was no difficulty for the copper goods to be despatched to the Sarasvati-Drishadvati complex and also along Hakra towards the Indus sites.

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The Dohan river originates from the north of the Baleshwar copper mines. North of Ganeshwar is situated old copper workings of Behar, and on the right bank of Dohan have been found OCP potteries and copper sheet artefacts. Dohan river which is not very far from Khetri, and once reached the ancient site of Mitathal was probably named after the tradition (extraction of metal) in the valley.

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The river Kasaunti (Krishnavati) takes its origin from Dariba copper mines and on its right bank, microliths, OCP wares and copper slags have been found on the hills of Mothooka. In the area of Baleshwar-Dariba, hillock type mounds of copper slags have been found in association with OCP ware. Copper slag along with OCP has been found at Buchera, the source of river Sota which is not far from the mines of Ahirwala and Cheeplata. Cheeplata is full of OCP and microliths. We have already mentioned that the famous Jodhpura, after which the culture is named, is located on the right bank of river Sabi.

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Thus, the river valley system and the copper bearing hills around Ganeshwar ushered in an indigenous chalcolithic culture in the Pre- and Early-Harappan era.

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R.C. Agrawala (1980) believes that the copper hoard from Kurada, located 20 km from Parbatsar in the Nagaur district also originated from the Ganeshwar locality. Of the 103 copper objects acquired in 1935, there were 55 rings, 21 curved thin blade or choppers (similar to those found in the Pre-Harappan levels of Mitathal and Kalibangan) 11 chisels, 4 ordinary bowls, 7 celts and 5 channel-spouted bowls. The cults had round dentation marks as in the Ganeshwar samples. The channel-spouted copper bowls resemble the later day Navdatoli objects and the Western Asian ceramic bowls. Probably these objects used to be sent through the land trade routes to Kot Diji, Mohenjo-Daro etc. On the same route fine-grained yellow Jaisalmer stone was also sent for the Harappan towns. (Marshall 1931: 31)

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Agrawala (1982) also reported some more pre-historic copper items which might have been made, following the Ganeshwar tradition: two long copper celts from Sabania, and copper arrow fragments from Pugal in the Bikaner district, six heavy 28 cm bar celts from Nandlalpura, district Jaipur, one heavy bar celt from Ekalasimgha, district Ajmer etc. Similar objects from Padliya, Jhadol, Elana and other sites in south Rajasthan might have originated from Ganeshwar or the contemporary site of Bagor which developed chalcolithic tradition around 2800 BC. Later we would discuss the Ahar chalcolithic tradition (2200 BC onwards) which probably started with Bagor practice as the example.

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The most notable collection of the Ganeshwar copper ware was probably in the Drishadvati-Sarasvati valley Sothi culture sites — later developed as Harappan sites — such as Kalibangan, Banawali, Mitathal etc.

Sothi Culture on the Sarasvati Valley

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The Pre-Harappan tradition in the Rajasthan-Haryana area is usually known as the Sothi culture. (Ghosh, 1964) It is characterised by a typical ware of pale red colour with black paintings laid on a whitish band serving as the secondary base. This ware was found in the site of Sothi located in the Bikaner deserts on the Ghaggar or Sarasvati, flowing through Ganganagar district of Rajasthan.

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The Pre-Harappan Sothi ware has been found at Jalilpur, 78 km south-west of Harappa along with the Kot Dijian ware. The site showed chert blades, a rectangular bead of gold sheet with tabular perforation, shell bangles, female figurines, lapis lazuli beads and copper or bronze rods.

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The best varieties of the ware have been located in Kalibangan I dated 2900 BC. This site in Rajasthan situated on the left bank of the now dried up river Ghaggar or Sarasvati showed six varieties of Sothi ware and use of white (called ‘Sothi’) paint and lime plaster. Bangles of copper, terracotta and shell, and beads made of agate, carnelian, shell and copper have been found. An axe, a parasu and more than a hundred copper artefacts of Rajasthan origin have been found.

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Criss-cross furrow marks characterise the earliest ploughed field excavated anywhere in the world.

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So far, the excavators have published only three copper objects from the Pre-Harappan levels of Kalibangan, viz., a curved blade (chopper), a celt and bangle. (Lal, 1979: 70) On the basis of personal communication however, Agrawala (1984) reports that there were 56 copper objects which included antimony rods, rings, wire pieces, lumps, bangles, pins, arrowheads, beads, rods, celts etc. No other Pre-Harappan site has reported such an array of copper objects. The obvious source was the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura industrial complex. The list of copper objects at Kalibangan further expanded during the Harappan period (after 2500 BC): apart from the above-mentioned items also added were — hooks, chisels, spearheads, knives, awls, nails, blades, earrings, drills, daggers, needles, razors, mirrors, figures of bulls etc.

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Banawali lies 15 km north-west of Fatehabad, and on the middle-upper course of a tributary of the Ghaggar, now identified as the Rgvedic Sarasvati. Period I is Pre-Harappan and shows sun-dried and kiln-fired bricks as in Kalibangan. These were meticulously standardised conforming to the ratio 1 : 2 : 3. A house complex with several hearths, ovens and fire pits indicating excessive fire activity was plausibly the workshop of a metalsmith. The ceramic inventory records all six Kalibangan fabrics, some with black and white pigments. There were a microblade of chalcedony, beads of gold, semi-precious stones, steatite (including disc beads), faience, shell, bone and clay; bangles of shell, faience and copper. (Bisht, 1982) Siswal, situated on the left bank of the Chautang river in Haryana, 26 km west of Hissar, also had a Pre-Harappan phase as in Kalibangan I.

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M.R. Mughal (1982 a, b) conducted in Pakistan a major programme of archaeological investigations into 414 sites in the Cholistan Desert of the former Bahawalpur state through which ran the Rgvedic Sarasvati river known as Hakra in Pakistan. Of the 414 sites, 99 belonged to the fourth millennium BC. Hakra ware or Jalilpur I Phase, 40 were early third millennium BC Pre- or Early-Harappan-cum-Kot Dijian ware phase and 174 represented Mature-Harappan Phase. During the Early- or Pre-Harappan Phase the main focus of occupation shifted from Kalibangan (in India) to south-west towards Fort Abbas and Yazman (on the Pakistan side). The settlements became larger as in Gamanwala (27.3 hectares, half the size of Harappa) and multifunctional — separating residential and industrial activities. During the Mature-Harappan period this trend continued. There was a further shift towards the south-west — maximum number of sites centering around Derawar Fort. Ganweriwala site (81.5 hectares), was closer to and as big as Mohenjo-Daro. Many sites were demarcated exclusively for craft activities such as the firing of pottery, bricks, small terracotta objects, the glazing of faience objects and the melting and fabrication of copper objects. At the Siddhuwala Ther, located near Derawar, Sir Aurel Stein had found a number of kilns and a copper ingot. The source of the copper metal was presumably the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura area in Rajasthan.

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Hakra or Sarasvati was a perennial river till the middle of the third millennium BC, when the water supply between Fort Abbas (on the Pakistan side of the border) and Yazman was considerably diminished or cut off. This might have caused desertion of sites and some population movement back to north-east. This reversal of population movement vector might explain the replacement of the earlier Sothi culture by the Harappan culture in the eastern sites of Sarasvati such as Kalibangan, Banawali etc.

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The Cholistan archaeological discoveries by M. Rafique Mughal clearly show how the Harappan civilization was founded, and urbanisation progressed through the spread of the chalcolithic culture from the eastern provinces of Rajasthan, Haryana and Punjab. There were similar influx and contributions from the west of Indus also, but mostly from thr northern, middle and southern Baluchistan, i.e., from within the Indian sub-continent.

Conclusion

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Aichinson (1960) believed that copper metallurgy was discovered around 4300 BC in the region between the Elburz mountains and the Caspian sea. Tal-i-Iblis in Mashiz Valley (Kirman Range) in Iran has yielded crucibles for smelting ores dated 4000 BC. (Caldwell, 1967) On this basis, D.P. Agarwal (1968, 1971) conceded that copper metallurgy came to India 2000 years later than Iran: ‘The metallurgical know-how had already diffused from Iran (by third millennium BC)’ and ‘any independent origins (of copper metallurgy in India) are precluded’. (D.P. Agrawal, 1971: 232 and 239)

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The discoveries at Mehargarh made by Jarrige (1979-84) have made the earlier conclusions redundant. Mehargarh has yielded a copper bead in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic context and a copper ring and a bead in the Pottery Neolithic Phase. The copper beads in Mehargarh and Tal-i-Iblis both belonging to the seventh millennium BC could have been native copper.

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Fragments of several crucibles, with traces of metals still adhering to them, have been found in Mehargarh III, confirming copper ore smelting. Thus it can be safely asserted that copper metallurgy was developed indigenously in the Indian sub-continent and well before 4000 BC. (Tal-i-Iblis Iran). The works of Ghosh (1964), Mughal (1970), Jarrige (1979-84) and Asthana (1985) have finally pulled down the curtain on the Irano-centric view that culture diffused from the west. As regards the raw materials, Mughal (1970:194) has shown that there had been sizeable copper ore deposits in the Zhob district, Robat, Shah Bellaul, Ziarat (Quetta) etc. for Mehargarhians to smelt. The initial phase of copper metallurgy at Mehargarh gradually spread to the different parts of Baluchistan and also to Mundigak etc. in Afghanistan, the latter site developing copper metallurgy still further (low grade bronze, adze, socketed axe etc.) and disseminating new techniques further west as well as back to Mehargarh (vide fig. 2.1).

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Evidences at Nal, Amri etc. indicate that use of silver and lead started in south Baluchistan. The raw material might have come from Afghanistan or Rajasthan. (Asthana, 1982) During the fourth millennium BC, the two major Pre-Harappan cultures which further developed mineral exploration and metallurgical practices in the Indian sub-continent were: Kot Dijian along the Indus valley and Sothian in the Sarasvati valley and Rajasthan area. Eventually, the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura area in Rajasthan became the major supplier of copper metal in the Indus-Sarasvati valley cultures.

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Agricultural traditions during seventh-fourth millennium BC needed extensive technology of stone artefacts, and this was developed in the Ganga-Vindhya complex, Bagor area in Rajasthan and the Mehargarh area in Baluchistan. Each centre produced a large variety of stone tools. (Sankalia, 1970, 1982) Blades and burins of flint, quartzite basalt, dyke basalt, chalcedony, obsidian (very sharp edge possible), jasper, chert etc. were produced in large scale around Mehargarh, Kile Gul Mohammad, Damb Sadaat, Balakot etc. Deposits of fine chert of Rohri and Sukkur might have been used for final polishing of agricultural tools. Pliable agricultural fields in the Indus valley could be easily tilled by copper hoes (narrow long axes and broad chisels) and, even before the chalcolithic period, by chert blades mounted on sticks. (Agrawal, 1971: 237) The Indus plain provided the ideal scenario-availability of hard stones and copper ore, semi-arid fertile land for agriculture, cattle (bull) power, agricultural surplus further triggering artisan activities, scope of riverine and marine trade etc. — all the factors promoting a smooth transition from the neolithic rural to the bronze urban age.

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The hard stone tools and pointed copper/bronze artefacts facilitated the processing of soft stone materials. A special reference may be made of the alabaster (or gypsum) bowls at Damb Sadaat and Mundigak. Around 5000 BC there was a workshop for soapstone beads at Mehargarh. The steatite-chlorite vases found in the Kulli and Mehi cemeteries in south Baluchistan might have been imported from the Kirman region in Iran-Tepe Yahya and Shahdad — or locally made using the large mines in the Zhob area such as the one 50 km north of Fort Sandeman. (Pithawala, 1952: 202) Small cups and toilet vessels of soft stone like alabaster were hewn or carved out with a tabular drill. These drills could be either a metal tube, or a hollow piece of reed or bamboo and worked with fine sand as the abrasive. (Mackay 1938, I: 323; Sankalia, 1970: 34)

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Shell bangles, rings, beads and pendants have been found widely in the Pre-Harappan sites in India and the Middle East. Most of the objects were prepared from either the Indian variety of *śaṅkha* (Turbinella pyrum Linn.) or another related genus (Fasciolaria trapezium Linn.) Hornell (1918) and Mackey (in Marshall, 1931, II: 564-66) have described how the walls or the hollow tubular piece could be sawed for producing bangles and the inner columella for making beads and inlays. Chisel or burin, saw and drill were used to produce diverse objects. The 4500 BC beads found at Tal-i-Iblis in Kirman (Caldwell: 1967; 408) and the 3500 BC ‘pig’ and ‘snake’ pendants found at Tepe Yahya Period VB could have been exported from India. The use of sea-shell belt in Baluchistan is dramatically attested in the seventh millennium BC establishment at Mehargarh I. Shell has been used there in all the successive periods and in almost all other Pre-Harappan sites. The remarkable work of Dales (1977 and 1979) has shown shell beads in Balakot (located near the sea-coast) Period I and working floors in Period II — covered with large quantities of shell bangles in all stages of manufacture. The Pre-Harappan sites in the northern Baluchistan show the use of ivory (in seals) as in Rehman Dheri and faience specimens as in Sarai Khola. The appearance of faience suggests early discovery of surface deposits of saltpetre (NaNO₃) or *sajji maṭṭi* (Na₂SO₄/Na₂CO₃) whose contents of sodium salt might have been useful in its reactivity with sand or quartz in a furnace and production of glass-like objects. Red ochre was successfully used at Mehargarh and Mundigak as pigments and making red and black potteries.

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Lapis lazuli has been in great demand in Mesopotamia and used for personal adornment and for the decoration of temples. Beads of the mineral have been found in most Pre-Harappan sites in India as well. Lapis bead factories have been found in Mehargarh III, Mundigak II, Shahr-i-Sokhta II etc. Although Chakrabarti (1978) considered the possibility of some Indian sources of lapis lazuli, it seems (Hermann, 1968: 21-57; Asthana, 1982: 273) that a group of four mines in the Kerano Munjan District of Badakshan Province in the northern Afghanistan was the major source of lapis during the Pre-Harappan Period. The Harappans took over the control of the lapis trade from the Iranians during the middle of the third millennium BC, and established a trading post at Shortugai on the Oxus river in north Afghanistan (Asthana, 1982: 273) which overlooked Turkemenia or the south of Soviet Asia. The Mundigak-Shortugai axis in Afghanistan also supplied silver and lead and ensured supply of turquoise to the Pre-Harappan sites in the Indian sub-continent. Most of the lapis collected by the Harappans used to be exported to Mesopotamia through the Makran coast. Cuneiform texts from Mesopotamia (Leemans 1960) lists lapis as one of the commodities apart from copper, ivory etc. coming from Meluhha (India).

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The discovery of about 70 lapis beads of three types — cylindrical, discoid and irregular hexagonal (made by joining two pieces) — and the find of unpolished, unpierced and roughly modelled specimens at Nal (Hargreaves, 1925) indicates that the beads were locally manufactured. It is quite plausible that the traditions of importing raw lapis from Afghanistan, making finished goods such as beads, and exporting them westward on sea-route was initiated at the south Baluchistan centres like Nal during the Pre- and Early-Harappan era. This tradition was continued at Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa, Chanhu-Daro, Lothal etc. down to the historic eras and even the recent period by the Cambay workers in Gujarat. (Chakraborti, 1978)

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Turquoise was definitely an import item and that too in a limited number of Pre-Harappan sites like Mehargarh VI and Rahman Dheri. This gem mineral came mostly from the mountainous territory of the inner Kyzyl Kum in Soviet Asia as well as the Kirman range and Nishapur in Iran. Pliny refers to callaina (turquoise) from Carmania (Kirman). Mehargarh must have received finished beads of turquoise from the workshops of Shahr-i-Sokhta or Mundigak.

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Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c10: 2. Minerals and Metals in the Pre-Harappan India

Contents

2. Minerals and Metals in the Pre-Harappan India

Mehargarh

Mehargarh Phases

Lithic Objects

Gem Minerals

Metals

Mundigak

Lithic Artefacts

Gem Minerals

Nuclear Zones East of Indus

Pre-Harappan Culture in Rajasthan

Ganeshwar-Jodhpura Culture

Sothi Culture on the Sarasvati Valley

Conclusion

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