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Vanaspati: Plants and Plant-Life as in Indian Treatises and Traditions c5: Book I. Botany and Philosophic Speculations

Vanaspati: Plants and Plant-Life as in Indian Treatises and Traditions c5

Language
English

Contents

Book I. Botany and Philosophic Speculations

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the Lacedaemonians, who had been waiting for the signal, now attacked the city. The Plataeans, seeing the enemy already inside and their own men falling, and knowing nothing of the plot, were seized with panic and, thinking that the Thebans were far more numerous than they really were, surrendered at discretion. But when they discovered that the Thebans were few, they took heart and, resolving to attack them, closed the gates and fell upon them.

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The Thebans, finding themselves in a trap, began to defend themselves. Twice or thrice they repelled the attacks of the Plataeans, but when the women and slaves began to shout and throw tiles and stones from the houses, and a heavy rain began to fall, the Thebans, confused and blinded, broke and fled through the city. Most of them, not knowing the way in the darkness and rain, fell into the drains or were killed by the Plataeans, who knew the streets. The gate through which they had entered had been shut by a Plataean who had found a javelin-head and used it as a bolt, so that there was no way out. Pursued through the city, some climbed the wall and jumped down, most of them perishing; others reached the gate and, finding it shut, were cut down by the women and slaves. A small party, seeing a large building with an open door, rushed in, thinking it was a gate, and were captured.

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Meanwhile, the main body of the Thebans, who were to have arrived at daybreak to support the first party, had been delayed by the rain and the swollen river Asopus. When they heard of the disaster, they hurried to the city, intending to seize any Plataeans who might be outside the walls. The Plataeans, suspecting their intention, sent a herald to them, warning them not to harm the prisoners they had taken, and threatening to kill them if they did not withdraw from their territory. The Thebans, upon this, retired.

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The Plataeans, having thus cleared the city, collected their dead and the prisoners. The prisoners, numbering about one hundred and eighty, were executed the next day, despite a message from the Thebans claiming that they had surrendered on terms. The Plataeans denied this, asserting that they had promised to spare them only if they did not commit further acts of violence.

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Thus ended the attempt of the Thebans upon Plataea, an event which was the immediate cause of the war between Athens and the Peloponnesians. The Plataeans, having secured their city, sent a messenger to Athens with the news, and the Athenians, fearing for the safety of the Plataeans, sent a garrison to their aid and removed the women and children to Athens.

Section I. General Observations

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The daring philosophic speculations and fanciful popular notions are always in advance of science. The hymns of the Vedas, the texts of the Upanishads, the Epics and Purāṇas, the Buddhist and Jaina canonical works and commentaries, the medical treatises of Charaka and Suśruta, the lexicon of Amara and such other works yield us plenty of materials indicating how the knowledge of plants and plant-life came into clear recognition, and the Botanical science developed on various lines. The information culled from these sources can be considered under the following heads :

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I. Germination of seeds. II. Morphology—External, *i.e.*, general description of Plants. III. Morphology—Internal or Histology. IV. Physiology.
1. Nourishment.
2. Absorption, Transport, Transpiration and Assimilation of food.
3. Planting.
4. Manuring.

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5. Treatment of Plants.
6. Respiration (Breathing).
7. Movement—Irritability.
8. Growth.
9. Age and Death.
10. Consciousness in Plants.
11. Sexuality.
12. Reproduction.
13. Heredity. (Appendix A.)

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V. Ecology—Study of Plants in their natural surroundings (homes).

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VI. Taxonomy.
1. Nomenclature or the naming of Plants.
2. Classification or the grouping of Plants based on—
(a) Botanical principles.
(b) Medicinal properties.
(c) Dietic value.

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VII. Plants and Evolution.

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VIII. Miscellaneous application of the Study of the Science of Plant-life—
1. As a means of Economic predictions.
2. As a means of ascertaining the presence of water in a dreary region.

Section II. Germination

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The process of germination is technically called *ankuródbheda*, a term which means sprouting, *i.e.*, the awakening of life latent in the seed under certain given conditions. And the conditions are—supply of air, water and warmth. We read in the Suśruta¹:

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¹ Suśruta, Śārīrasthāna. ii, 33.

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ऋतु क्षेत्राम्बुबीजानां सामग्रादङ्कुरो यथा—

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"Just as the proper season (*ritu*), good soil (*kshetra*), water (*ambu*), and vigorous seeds (*vīja*), together with proper care, help the germination of strong and undiseased sprouts..."²

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² Vol. II, p. 129, English Translation by Kunjalal Visagratna, 1911.

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Again in Guṇaratna's Commentary on the Ṣaḍdarśana-samuchchaya:

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वटपिप्पलनिम्बादीनां प्रावृड्जलधरनिनादशिशिरायु-संस्पर्शादङ्कुरोद्भेदः ॥

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"The seeds of *Vata* (Ficus Indica), *Pippala* (Ficus Religiosa), *Nimva* (Melia azadirachta) and the rest, sprout during the rainy season under the influence of dew and air (when sown).”¹

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¹ Guṇaratna’s Commentary, Śloka 49, p 157. Ṣaḍdarśana-samuchaya, Bibliotheca Indica, new series 1151, 1907.

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The following aphorisms of Khanā also contain the following direction of aerating the soil for different plants :

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“For the successful cultivation of cotton one has to plough the land 16 times, for radish 8 times, for paddy 4 times and for betel nil.”²

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² ষোল চাষে তুলা, তার অর্দ্ধেক মুলা। তার অর্দ্ধেক ধান, বিনা চাষে পান॥

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The soundness of the directions becomes at once manifest when one takes into consideration that cotton plant has an elaborate root-system, radish is a herb, paddy is a surface feeder, and betel is a climber that produces numerous adventitious aerial roots.

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From the above we see that the factors of air, water and warmth (proper season) are regarded as necessary for successful germination of seeds.

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The seedling is called *ankura*, *avinavodvid*, which etymologically means that the plant becomes visible for the first time by it. Scientifically this term is more accurate than its English synonym “seedling”.

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Although the ancients laid down the conditions of germination arrived at by practical experience, they have not, so far as our knowledge goes, cared to state the stages of germination as is done in the modern treatises on the subject. Yet the Sanskrit word *uttānapāda* taken from the vegetable world is significant. During germination it is the Radicle (*mūla, pāda*), the primary root, that comes out first, even in whatever position the seed is placed. The words *uttānapāda*, *ūrdhvamūla* mean “the root foremost.” Thus it is not inconceivable that they did not fail to notice the first stage in germination.

Section III. The General Description of Plants

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The rudiments of morphology may be traced as early as in a hymn of the Atharva Veda¹ where we get a rough description of the external features of plants :

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¹ Atharva Veda VIII, 7. Whitney Ed.

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“The spreading, the bushy, the one-spathed, the extending herbs do I address, those rich in shoots, jointed, that have spreading branches ; I call for thee the plants that belong to all the gods, formidable, giving life to men.” (1.)

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“Rich in sweets the root, rich in sweets the tip of them, rich in sweets was the middle of the plants, rich in sweets the leaf, rich in sweets the flowers of them, etc.” (12.)

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“Rich in flowers, rich in shoots, rich in fruits, also those lacking fruits—like joint mothers, etc.” (27.)

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A more systematic statement in brief occurs in the Vrihat Āraṇyaka Upanishad² where we get an accurate description of the life history of a plant. Thus :

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² V. A. Upanishad, 4.6.1.

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“ * * * * the essence of water is embodied in plants such as grasses, creepers and the rest, flowers represent the essence of plants, and the

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essence of flowers are fruits, such as paddy, wheat and the rest.”

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We again read in the *Viṣṇupurāṇa*¹ a description of the parts of a complete plant. The type given is that of paddy. Thus:

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¹ 7th Chapter, Ślokas 37-39, Bangabāsī Edition, p. 121.

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“O the greatest of sages, just as there are embryo (*aṅkur*), root (*mūla*), stem (*nāla*), leaf (*patra*), flower (*pushpa*), milky sap (*kshīra*), husks (glumes—*tusha*), seed-vessel (*kosha*, *vīja kosha*), seed (*taṇḍula*, rice) and endosperm in seeds (*kaṇā*) in the paddy, and they become manifest only under suitable conditions such as soil, water, etc.”

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The quoted passages contain terms and expressions covering the whole of the external feature of plants which we now call External Morphology. The points that are to be noted, according to these passages, comprise root, stem, leaf, flower, fruit, seed, etc.

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All plants are divided broadly into two parts:—A subterranean called the Root (*Mūla*, *Pāda*), and a sub-aerial called the Shoot (*Vis-tāro*). Let us now consider what the Ancient Botanical Science has got to teach us on all these points taken one by one.

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1. Root.—The Sanskrit equivalent of this organ is significantly expressive at once of its function and location. It is called *mūla*, *i.e.*, by its means the plant is fixed to the soil. The plant is called *pādapa*, i.e., by its *pādas* (*mūlas*), the plant drinks (absorbs) water (*rasa*—watery solution) from the soil. Adventitious roots are called *śākhā śiphā* (fibrous roots springing from the branches). Fibrous roots are called—*śiphā*, *jaṭā*. Adventitious roots hanging from spreading branches (prop roots of Ficus indica, also of Tinospora cordifolia) are called *abaróha*, i.e., that which goes down, hangs. We also learn from *Arthaśāstra*,¹ Charaka, Upanishads, etc., that people used to take it as food and in this connection we find mention of ‘bulbous roots’ as distinguished from typical ones.

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¹ Arthaśāstra, Section 24, p. 138, Shama Shastri's Edition, 1932.

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2. Shoot.—The shoot is divided into stem and leaves. The main stem (trunk) is called *prakāṇḍa*, i.e., it is that part which is between the main root and the place from which branches originate. It is also called *skandha* as it bears the head or crown. The stem may be weak or strong and so are the plants having them. Strong stemmed plants are called *vanaspati*, *vānaspatya*, etc., they stand erect. The weak stemmed plants cannot support themselves, and according to their habit they are distinguished into—a creeper and a trailer. A creeper is called *vallī*, *vratatī*, or *latā*. The creeper includes both a twiner and a climber. *Latā* means that which embraces, twines. It also means a weak plant that goes from the root to the top of a tree (mulāchchhāgra gatān latā). By the term latā is meant the whole range of lianes. (वल्ली वेष्टयते वृक्षं--Śānti Parva).

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The other kind (trailer) is called protānino, spreading one,—that which spreads on the ground. This includes both the procumbent and the decumbent.

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3. Stem :—The stem may be plain or jointed (śata parva). Each joint or node is called a parva or granthi. Leaves spring from the joint (स्तम्बे गुल्मे तृणादीनां काण्डद्रुमगुच्छयोः). Plants may be with stems or stemless. Stemmed plants are called sakāṇḍa, and stemless plants are distinguished as aprakāṇḍa, stamba. Plants having short or stunted roots and branches are called kshupa (क्षुपः--ह्रस्वशाखा शिफः). The primary branches are called skandaśākhā, and secondary and tertiary ones are known as praśākhā (प्रशाखाः); pratiśākhā and anuśākhā (प्रतिशाखाः and अनुशाखाः) are also used.¹ The branches generally are known as śākhā, as the plant (śākhina) spreads by them. Branchless stems are called sthānu or śaṅku. Apex of the tree, i.e., the tree-top is called शिरस्, agra, śikhara, i.e., where one cannot climb, or which cannot be reached.

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¹ Viṣṇupurāṇa, 3rd part, 4th Chap, Śloka 25.

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Trees, shrubs and herbs used to be distinguished by the long or short, hard and strong or less strong and succulent stems. Plants growing on other plants (वृक्षोपरि वृक्षे) are known as pargāchhā (परगाछा इति ख्याते). These include both Parasites and Epiphytes. Parasites are called vrikshādanī (cascuta—वृक्षादनो वृक्षमति युः), that which (guest) eats (अदन—sucks food from) another tree (host). Epiphytes are called vriksha-rūhā (वृक्षरुहा—वृक्षे रोहति इति), i.e., that which simply lives on another tree without drawing nourishment from the latter. One of the examples given is Guḷuchi (Tinospora cordifolia)—it is called chhinnarūhā (छिन्नरुहा—छित्रापि रोहति जायते कः)—“it grows and lives even when torn.” Another example Vanda Roxburghii Br., i.e., Orchid (Rasna) is known (Colebrook), but its habitat is not described. (See infra, classification). Lower plants such as Mosses and green Algae are noticed but not described (such as जलनीली तु शैवालम्—Amara). Saprophytic plants, such as Mush-rooms (plants with no fruits and flowers), are correctly described with their habitats, but not separately classified. Mush-room is thus described:—it is called Chhatrā (छत्रा)¹ as its shape is exactly like that of an umbrella. “It is generally found to grow on stalks of straw (palāla), or is seen vegetating on the stems of bamboo (veṇu) or sugarcane, or as sprouting up from beneath the surface of the ground (udbhida), or growing on a heap of decomposed cowdung (karisha).”¹

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¹ Mushroom, Colebrook, p. 125 (Amarkosha).

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¹ Śuśruta, Sutrasthāna, Chap. XLVI., p. 522, English Trans. K. L. Vishagratna.

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Underground stems and such roots as Radish (hypocotyl modified) are called kanda. These are described as ‘like roots, but not roots, serve as a means of propagation’ (यन्मूलमेव बीजं स कन्दः). As examples are mentioned:

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Ol (Corm), 6 kinds of Potato (Tuber), Mūlaka (Radish), Gājar (Carrot), Plantain (Rhizome), Mānkachu (Arum-Rhizome), Palāṇdu (Onion-Bulb) and Mahā kanda (Garlic).

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4. Leaf :—The leaf is called patra, because it falls soon, it is also called parṇa because of its green colour. The stalk of the leaf when present is called brinta, and the petiolate leaf is called sa-brinta. New leaves are called pallava, kishalaya. Branches with undeveloped leaves (pallava) are called vistāro as the plant spreads by it. It is synonymous with modern ‘bud.’ Leaves may be simple when it is called eka-patra—one-leaved. Compound leaves are described by the number of leaflets they contain, e.g., dvi-patra (Bauhinia?), tri-patra (Ægle), sapta-parṇa (Echites scholaris). Leaves are also described by their shapes such as aśwa-parṇaka (Shorea robusta)—as the leaves resemble the ear of a horse; mushika-parṇī (salvinia)—as the leaves resemble the ear of a mice;

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kīśaparṇī (Achyranthes aspera) monkey-ear-shaped leaves, and so on.

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5. Flower :—The flower is called *sumanasa*—that which pleases mind, it is called *pushpa* because it opens; it is called *prasūna* because it is born (from plants). Unopened flower bud is called *kalikā*, *koraka*, i.e., that which produces (fruits, etc.). Opening flower bud is called *kutmala*, *mukula*. Full blown flowers are called *vikacha*, *sphuṭāḥ* (विकसितं सितं ).

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Bunch of flowers, *i.e.*, Inflorescence, is called *stabaka*, *guchchhaka*.

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A compound pedicel is called *vallarī*, *mañjarī*; Helicoid cyme is called *śrihastinī* (resembling the trunk of an elephant). The inflorescence of umbelliferous plants is called *chhatrā*. छत्राकार स्तवकः is umbel. Flower stalks (pedicels) are called *prasava-bandhana*, *i.e.*, that which binds flowers and fruits with the mother plant. Shape of the flowers in some cases is also noticed, *e.g.*, papilionaceous flowers are called *vakra pushpa* (Sesbania). Petals are called *pushpadala*, and sometimes number of petals are counted such as *śatadala*, *sahasradala*. Stamens are known as *keśara*; *kiñjalka* is the hairy part (सूत्रवत् अंश) within flowers; pollen grains are called *keśara-reṇu* (stamen dusts), they are also called *parāga* (पराग), as they go fast (परा) being very light and carried by air. They are also called सुमनोरजस्—dust in flowers. Ear or spike of a corn is called *kiṇasham*, *śasyamañjarī*.

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6. Fruit:—The fruit is known as *phala*, *i.e.*, the result of a previous process. Green fruits are called *śalātu*, dry fruits are called *vāna*, and fleshy fruits, such as gourd and the like, are called *kṣāraka*, *jālaka*. A legume or pod is called *śamī*, *śimba*, and the seeds in it *śamī dhānya*.¹

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¹ Amarakosha, Colebrook's Edition, p 226.

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Classification of fruits:—Was not based on any scientific principle. Their classification was rather governed by etymological consideration, *i.e.*, names used to be given in allusion to trees, their origin *etc.*, *e.g.*,

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*Amra* (आम्र) or mango, fruit of mango tree.

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*Jambu* (जम्बू) or black-berry, fruit of *Eugenia jambolana*.

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*Aingud* (ऐंगुद), fruit of *Ingudi* (*Balanites Roxburghii*).

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*Plāksha* (प्लक्ष), fruit of *Plaksha* (*Ficus infectoria*).

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*Vaiṇaba* (वैणव), fruit of *Veṇu* (Bamboo).

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*Vārhaṭa* (वार्हठ), fruit of *Vṛhatī* (*Solanum indicum*).

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*Naiyagrodha* (नैयाग्रोध), fruit of Banyan, and so on.

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7. Seed:—The seed is called *vījam* (बीजम्), that out of which something grows. Seeds are enclosed in a vessel called *vījakosha* or seed-vessel. Seed-vessels are sometimes identified with integuments (seed coats) and sometimes with pericarp (ovarian wall). The kernel is called *śasya* (endosperm) and the cotyledon is called *vījapatram* (बीजपत्रम्).

Section IV. Morphology—Internal or Histology

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The Ancients broadly differentiated the stem into two parts—an outer called the *tvach*, *valkala* (rind, skin); and an inner the wood or essence—the *sāra* (सार), *i.e.*, that which lasts till the end of time (कालान्तरमिति) enclosing the *majjā* (the pith). The outer part included the modern bast and the inner part the wood with pith as usual. Thus the stem is internally differentiated into—

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(a) an outer rind,
(b) the wood on which the softer parts are fixed, and
(c) the pith enclosed within the wood as marrow by the bone.

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A more elaborate attempt is seen in the Vrihat Āraṇyaka Upanishad,¹ where the inner structure of plants is described after the analogy of the human anatomy.

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¹ Chap. III, 9th Brāhmaṇa, Lotus Library Edition, pp. 1004-5.

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Thus:

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“The body of the plant is exactly like the body of man; the hairs of man corresponding to the leaves of plants and his skin (त्वक्)

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corresponding to the dry exterior bark of the plants" (231-28-1).

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"The flesh of the human body answers to the *śakara* (soft tissue next to skin) of plants: his nerves standing for the *kiṇāta* (fibrous tissues in *śakara* as in jute, etc.) of plants, both being equally strong. Just as the bones of man lie behind his flesh, so also wood, *dāru*, lies behind the *śakara* (and occupying the centre) of plants and the marrow (pith) is alike in both" (236-30-3).

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Thus the internal structure of plants is evidently divided into an outer skin (epidermis and dry bark) and the inner wood between which stands a softer tissue (bast) with strong fibres (bast fibres) corresponding to human flesh with nerves. The wood encloses a soft pith. This division is not altogether fanciful, as it contains an essential broad truth which has not been made obsolete by the elaborate scientific modern researches.

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A curious advance in the knowledge of plant life is displayed in Śankara Miśra's Upāskara where he notes (व्रश्चितभग्न संरोहणे च)—the growth of organs (or tissues) by natural recuperation after wound or laceration.¹ Also "the closing up of fracture (in plants) are manifest means of fruition."²

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¹ Upāskara on Vaiseshika Philosophy—4 2.5—the Sacred Book of the Hindus Series, Vol. VI, Panini Office, pp. 159-60.

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² Cf. also Gough's Trans., Benares, 1873, pp. 147-148.

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In Guṇaratna’s commentary¹ also we notice a reference of healing up of wounds in plants. Thus:

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¹ Bibliotheca Indica, New Series, 1151 (1907).

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“यथा मनुष्यशरीरस्यौषधप्रयोगाद्‌विहानिच्छतभुग्नसं-
रोहणानि, तथा वनस्पति शरीरस्यापि।”

Section V. Plant Physiology

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1. Nourishment—General.—Guṇaratna in his commentary on the Ṣaḍdarśana-samuchchaya¹ very aptly describes the influence of soil and food upon the vegetable system in producing health and disease:

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¹ Bibliotheca Indica, New Series, 1151 (1907).

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“तथा, यथा मनुष्यशरीरं स्तन्यौरव्यञ्जनोदनाद्याहारा-
भ्यहारादाहारकम् एवं वनस्पति शरीरमपि भूजलाद्या-
हाराभ्यवहारादाहारकम् । तथा, यथा मनुष्यशरीरमिष्टा-
निष्टाहारादि प्राप्ता वृद्धिव्यात्मकं, तथा वनस्पति-
शरीरमपि ।”

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“Just as the human body receives sustenance through the assimilation of the mother’s milk, dishes, etc., so also the vegetables assimilate food according to the nature of the earth (soil), water, etc.”

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“Just as the human system is at ease and is diseased according as it takes wholesome or unwholesome food so also plants grow or decay by assimilation of suitable and unsuitable food.”

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Thus connected with the nourishment of plants the most important factor is the soil—

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the principal source of sustenance. It is roughly divided into urvvarā (सर्व्वशस्याढ्या—fertile with every crop), and ūshara¹ (barren or sterile on which nothing can grow). The fertile soil being that which is capable of supplying the plants with their necessary food materials while the sterile soil is that which does not possess this capacity.

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¹ जषरे न प्ररोहन्ति बीजाङ्कुराः कथञ्चन । मत्स्यपु०, p. 701, Bangabasi Ed. 1316 B.S.

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2. Absorption, Transport, Transpiration and Assimilation of food.—Plants draw food materials from the soil through the help of the roots which constitute exactly what is mouth to man, another name for tree being पादपः, i.e., that which drinks through roots. It is common knowledge that the food materials from the soil enter plant organism in the shape of liquid and not solid, and the ancient etymology evidently anticipated the accuracy of modern scientists.

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The elaborate process by which plants absorb, transport and assimilate food is described in the following verse of the Mahābhārata.²

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² Śānti Parva, Chap. 184 p. 855 (Basumati Ed.)

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"Just as water may be drawn up through the lotus petiole applied to the mouth, so plants (with roots) drink (absorb the solution) with the help of air."

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The comparison is evidently significant. In drawing water through the lotus petiole a force—a sucking force—in the mouth which draws in, is pre-supposed, as also uninterrupted passages in the petiole through which the water is to go up. The one end of the petiole is dipped in water and the drawing force is applied to the other. The similie does not stand on all fours because water stands for the liquid food materials from the soil, the uninterrupted passages stand for similar passages in the stem, but the drawing force is wanting. We clearly see that food materials are drawn up in the case of the plant as water is drawn in the case of the man in whose mouth there is the sucking force. But we do not see which draws up the food materials in the case of plants? Rationality demands that in one case as in the other there must be a drawing force without which the action cannot take place.

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It is a hypothesis only that we have knowledge of the working force in the leaves of the plant—the existence of a sucking force in man—a knowledge which, in its present discovery, was an accomplishment of the ancients. The function of maintaining the sucking force was not explained. We now know that it is hence transpiration force.

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(suction force in leaves) is greatly accelerated by air.

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After the food materials in solution are brought into the leaves the process of assimilation (जीर्ण) commences, which is thus well-described:

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“Agni (energy) and air (CO₂?) help in the digestion (assimilation) of the water (watery food materials) which is absorbed through the roots of the trees (and conveyed to the leaves). And it is on account of the assimilation of this watery solution that the vegetable kingdom undergoes development and becc graceful.”

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'Thus a thorough' tion and assimilat' the depender upon the f in the a mean 'fire' which plays a v sustenance of life, bei processes; and 'air' w searchers have discovere of the carbon in the form cated as an essential fac and digestion of fo the Indian think lucky way understo essential knowledge.

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We have so long hypothetically assumed the existence of the leaf as the centre of sucking force, and practically the kitchen where the food of plants is prepared. What warrants us in the assumption? Besides the full-fledged development of the scientific knowledge of nutrition, we have in some of the provincial proverbs attributed to the mythical Khanā, the depository of the wisdom of ages, a distinct knowledge of the function of leaves in the maintenance of plant-life pre-supposed. A proverb¹ runs :

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¹ "কলা রুয়ে না কাটো পাত, তাতেই ভাত।"

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After you have planted the plantain trees,
[cut off the leaves, and this will bring
[fruit.]

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[When the leaf is fully made
[the fruit-bunch is seen to be
[formed.]

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Another proverb emphasising the same truth runs² :

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² "পান বরজে না কর দান।"

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[Do not plant in the world that paddy
[should grow under shade.]

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The implication is that during rainy weather, when available solar energy is limited, there will be the production of leaves in the paddy. But, for betel vines, we want the leaves and the shade, and we know that the shade-loving plants have larger leaves, and even when a sun-plant with narrow leaves is transferred to a shady place it tends to develop larger leaves. The cause of the pungency is also due to the absence of sun-light, and the reason is that the destructive metabolism cannot reach its final stage and consequently more acid and other astringent bye-products are formed. The other proverb is ¹ :

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¹ “দিনে রোদ রাতে জল, দিন দিন বাড়ে ধানের বল।”

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“The paddy develops day by day owing to sunshine by day and water by night.”

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The modern scientific explanation of the fact would be that during day time with the sunshine food is prepared, assimilated and stored and during night time the growth of the organism takes place, and for this a supply of water is needed. The Ancients broadly knew the utility of these two factors, although they by no means seem to be acquainted with the scientific details.

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That water besides going up to the leaves also circulates all over the trees, and this circulation is not due to sun's rays, etc., is also noticed by Kaṇāda in his Vaiśeshika Philosophy.² And Śankara Miśra in his Upaskara³ has tried more elaborately to answer how water circulates in trees. Thus :

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² Kaṇāda. 5-2-7. “ত্বচামিসর্পনমিয়দৃষ্টকারিতম্।”

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³ S. B. H. Vol, VI. p. 177 (Panini Office).

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“ The circulation (of water) in trees is caused by *adrishtam*¹ (destiny).”

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¹ Adrishta (lit. unseen) stands for “ unknown cause, ” or “ unexplained Nature.” Seal, page 133, (1915). ² Gough’s Translation, p. 166. ³ 3rd Skanda, Chap. X.

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Upāskara commenting on the above aphorism explains :—“ Water poured at the roots goes up in all directions through the interior of a tree. Neither impulse, nor impact, nor the sun’s rays prevail there. How then is it caused ? The action by which waters rise, and cause the growth of the tree results from conjunction of destiny with the souls of those in whose souls pleasure and pain is effected by the growth of the leaves, stem, fruit, flowers etc., as its non-coherent cause ; from destiny as its efficient cause, and in water as its co-inherent cause.”²

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That water rises up in trees is also mentioned in the *Bhāgabatapurāṇa*³ as one of the fundamental properties of plants.

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3. Planting.—The Science of planting is a very ancient science in India, and the origin of it is lost in obscurity, but a full-fledged development of it is mentioned in the *Arthaśāstra*⁴ where a particular officer is referred to as the Superintendent of Agriculture who must be "possessed of the knowledge of the science of agriculture dealing with the plantation of bushes and trees, or assisted by those who are trained in such sciences."

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²⁰ Srimat Sridhar Swami Krita Bhabarthadipika Tika Sametam, Calcutta, 1294 B.S. “उत्स्रोतसस्ततः प्राया अन्तस्पर्शा विशेषिणः । १३।१०।२०। (ऊर्ध्व स्रोत:—आहार सञ्चारो येषाम्) ⁴ See Sec. 24, p. 138 (Shama Sastri).

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A typically nice description is contained in the following verses from *Brihat-saṃhitā*¹:

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¹ Vrikshāyurvedādhyāya, Chap. 54. Vol. II, p. 743.

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"Let us first of all talk of the trees that should be planted in a garden or in the house itself: *Arishta* (Melia azadirachta) *Aśoka* (Saraca indica), *Punnāga* (Calophyllum inophyllum), *Śirīṣa* (Mimosa sirissa) with *Priyaṅgu* (Aglaia Roxburghiana) should be planted in the garden or in the house as pre-eminently conducive to the welfare (मङ्गल्याः) of the house."

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Kāśyapa adds in addition *Champaka* (Michalia champaca), *Udumbara* (Ficus glomerata) and *Pārijātaka* (Erythrina indica), and they should be planted in "देवालये तथोद्याने गृहेषूपवनेषु च".

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The following verses from *Agnipurāṇa*² give us similar instructions with fuller details:

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² Bibliotheca Indica, Vol. II, 1876, Chap. 281, pp. 42, 43.

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"It becomes conducive to the welfare of the house if *Plaksha* is planted towards the north of it, Banyan in the east, Mango in the south and *Aśwattha* in the west."

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"Thorny bushes (कण्टकद्रुमाः) towards the south near the house are also good."

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“*Arishtāśoka*, *Punnāga*, *Sirīṣa*, *Priyaṅgu*, *Aśoka*, *Kadalī* (Plantain), *Jambu* (Blackberry), *Vakula* (Mimusops) and *Dāḍima* (Pomegranate) are to be planted in the garden adjoining one’s house.”

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The following are the essential preliminaries of plantation:—

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In Brihat-saṃhitā¹:

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¹ See Chap. 54, Vol. II.

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“One should plant the tree after oneself being pure and after worshipping the tree with a bath and anointment, and the result will be that the tree will be graced with luxuriant growth of leaves.” 8

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“Uttarā, Rohiṇī, Anūrādhā, Chitrā, Mṛga-sirā, Revatī, Mūlā, Viśākhā, Tiṣya, Śravaṇā, Aświnī and the Hastā—these are the stars under the influence of which a tree when planted will flourish.” 31

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In Agnipurāṇa² there are verses of similar import. Thus:

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² See *Supra*, p. 37

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“One should take or plant the tree after worshipping the moon and Brahmin, and make sure to propitiate the five stars—Vāyavya, Hastā, Prājesha, Vaiṣṇava and Mūlā.” 3 & 4

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“One should perform the work (of plantation) after worshipping Varuṇa, Viṣṇu and Parjjanya,—the rain God.” 6

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Next comes the question—whether all parts, or different parts of a plant are to be planted in different seasons of a year? Varāhamihira in the Brihat-saṁhitā¹ directs:

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¹ See Supra, p. 37.

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"In the months of Māgh and Falgoon (शिशिरे) the trees whose branches and leaves are not developed (अजातशाखान्—अजात लताङ्कुरान् वृक्षान्); in the months of Agrahāyaṇ and Pouṣ (हेमन्ते) the plants with just-developed branches (जात-शाखान्); in the months of Śrāvaṇ and Bhādra (वर्षागमे) plants with well-developed branches (सुस्कन्धान् )." Kāśyapa is more clear on the above directions:

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"Plant in Śiśira those trees with undeveloped branches, in Hemanta those with developed branches according to prescribed rules (विधानतः) and those that are provided with well-developed branches (सुस्कन्धाः) during the rains."

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Methods of plantations by cuttings and graftings:

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In addition to the ordinary method of propagation by seeds the methods of propagation by cuttings and graftings were known from time immemorial, so much so, that the plants to which these methods can be applied are definitely named.

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The following verses from Brihat-saṁhitā¹ distinctly name the plants and these methods:

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¹ Brihat-saṁhitā, Chap. 54, Vol. II, p. 743. N.B.—All the Ślokas are from the same Chapter—54 of the Brihat-saṁhitā.

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“*Kanthāl* (Jack fruit tree), *Aśoka*, *Kadalī* (plantain), *Jambu*, *Lakoocha*, *Dāḍima*, *Drākshyā*, *Pālibata*, *Vījapura* (*Mātulanga*), *Atimuktaka*—these are the plants to be propagated by means of cuttings besmeared with cowdung (एते द्रुमाः काण्डरोप्य गोमयेन प्रलेपिताः).” 4 & 5

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“Better than this method is the method of propagation by graftings. This can be done in two ways—the cuttings of one plant is either inserted on the root of another plant, or on the stem of another plant (मूलोच्छेदेऽथवास्तम्भेरोपणीयाः परं ततः).” 6

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“Grafts should be smeared with cowdung. For transplanting (अन्यदेशे नीत्वा रोपयेदित्यर्थः) the plants should be smeared from root to the top (आमूलस्कम्भलिप्तानां) with ghee (clarified butter), sesame oil, the honey of the Khudra variety of the bee of the Ushira (Andropogon Laniger or Andropogon Citrarum), the *Viḍanga* (Embelica ribes) milk and cowdung.” 7

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What should be the soil for such plantation? The same author says:

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“The most suitable ground to plant in is soft soil that has been sown with Sesamum indicum and dug up and trodden with sesame in flower.” 2.

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Kāśyapa is more elaborate on the point:

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“दूर्वावीरणसंयुक्ताः सानूपा मृदुमत्तिकाः ।
तत्र वाप्यः शुभा वृक्षाः सुगन्धिफलशाखिनः ॥”

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The final direction of planting is:

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According to the same author—

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“It is best to plant trees at intervals of 20 cubits, next at 16, and 12 cubits’ interval is the minimum that can be prescribed.” 12.

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Agnipurāṇa¹ has the same thing:

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¹ Agnipurāṇa, Chapter 281, Slokas 8-9.

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“It is best to plant trees at intervals of 20 cubits, an interval of 16 cubits is next, and worst is the interval of 12 cubits. Closely planted trees become fruitless (barren).” 8 & 9.

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“The trees that are not at first planted after the Sāstric injunctions are destined to be fruitless.”

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And why this minimum limit? The answer is given in Sloka 13 of the same chapter of Brihat-samhitā. Thus:—“the roots thereby becoming mingled together will interfere with each other’s function and will become ill at work, and fruits will not be produced (मिश्रैर्मूलैश्च न फलं सम्यगच्छन्ति पीडिताः ).”

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After the trees are planted in the manner aforesaid “one should water them in the morning and evening in summer, at the end of the day in winter, and during the rainy season only when the earth is dried.”¹

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¹ { Brihat Saṁhitā, Śloka 9, Chap. 54. Agnipurāṇa, Śloka 7, Chap. 281.

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4. Manuring.—The ancients had a pretty sure knowledge of the fact that the plants derive their food materials from the soil, and they had an excellent knowledge of the science of manuring. This is more elaborately dealt with in the Book of Agriculture.

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The origin of manuring the soil can be traced as early as to a verse of the Atharva Veda.² The verse runs:

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² A. V. II. 8. 3.

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“With the straw of the brown, whitish, jointed barley for thee, with the sesame, stalk of sesame let the, etc., etc.”

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A more elaborate instruction in manuring is found in the Brihat Saṁhitā³ and Agnipurāṇa,⁴ in each of which a whole chapter is devoted to the purpose known as Vrikshāyurveda. Thus in Brihat Saṁhitā:

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³ Chap. LIV.

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⁴ Chap. 281.

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“To promote inflorescence and fructification, a mixture of one adhaka (64 palas) of sesame, two adhakas (128 palas) of excreta of goats or sheep, one prastha (16 palas) of barley powder, one tula (100 palas) of beef, thrown into one

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droṇa (256 palas) of water, and standing over for 7 nights, should be poured round the roots of the plant. The measures given are for one plant.”¹ This measure is for all kinds of plants (... वनस्पतेः। वल्लीगुल्मलतानां च फलपुष्पाय सर्वदा). 17 & 18.

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¹ Translation of these Slokas of the Brihat Saṃhitā are quoted from Dr. Seal's Positive Science of the Hindus.

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Agnipurāṇa has almost precisely the same thing:

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“To increase the production of flowers and fruits one should sprinkle ghee with cold milk, also a mixture of sesame, excreta of goats and sheep, barley powder and beef, thrown into water, and standing over for 7 nights should be poured round the roots of the plant.” (गोमांसमुदकञ्चैव सप्तरात्रं निधापयेत्, etc.) 11 & 12.

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Brihat Saṃhitā :

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“To ensure inflorescence, etc. (कुसुमयुक्तमेव) the seed before being sown should be treated as follows:—The seeds should be taken up in the palm greased with ghee and thrown into milk; on the day following the seeds should be taken out of the milk with greased fingers and the mass separated into single seeds. This process is to be repeated on 10 successive days. Then the seeds are to be carefully rubbed with cow-dung, and afterwards steamed in a vessel containing the flesh of hogs or deer. Then the seeds are to be sown with the flesh, with the fat of the hogs added in a soil previously prepared by being sown with sesame and dug up or trodden down"—and then to be sprinkled daily with water mixed with *kshīra* (क्षीर) 19 & 20.

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"To ensure the growth of *Ballaris* (i.e., sprouting and the growth of luxuriant stems and foliage)," Varāhamihira directs, "the seeds should be properly soaked in an infusion of powdered paddy, *Māsha* (Bean), Sesame and barley mixed with decomposing flesh, and then steamed with *Haridrā* (turmeric). This process will succeed even with the *Tinṭiḍi* (Tamarindus indica). For the *Kapiṭṭha* (Feronia elephantum) the seeds should be soaked for about 2 minutes (literally such length of time as it would take one to make a hundred rhythmic claps with the palms (तालशब्दः) in a decoction of eight roots: *Asphoṭa* (Jasmine), *Āmalakī* (Phyllanthus embellicus), *Dhaba* (Grislea tomentosa), *Vāsika* (Justica guaderussa), *Veṭula* (Calamus rotung), *Suryyavallī* (Gynandropsis pentaphyla), *Shyāma* (Echites frutescens) and *Atimukṭaka* (Aganosma caryophyllata) boiled in milk. The seeds then should be dried in the sun. This process should be repeated for 30 days. A circular hole should be dug in the ground, a cubit in diameter, and 2 cubits deep, and this should be filled with the milky decoction. When the hole dries up it should be burnt with fire and then pasted over with ashes mixed with ghee and honey. Three inches of soil should now be thrown in, then the powder of bean, sesame and barley, then again three inches of soil. Finally washings of fish should be sprinkled and the mud should be beaten and reduced to a thick consistency, then the seed previously prepared should be placed in the hole under three inches of the soil and fish washings (with fish) poured. This will lead to luxuriant ramification and foliage which will excite wonder." 21, 22, 23, 24, 25 & 26.

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The Agnipurāṇa¹ adds that the mango is specially benefited by cold fish washings (मत्स्यो-दकेन शीतन आम्राणां सेक इष्यते ). One can see this process is still resorted to in many mango gardens of Bengal.

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¹ Chap. 194, pp. 305 and 306 (Bengali Translation).

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Agnipurāṇa² also prescribes pouring of fish-washing as a general measure for luxuriant growth of trees (मत्स्याम्भसा तु सेकेन वृद्धिर्भवति शाखिनः).

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² Chap 281. 13.

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The same idea of pouring fish-washings as a means of helping development of fruits is conveyed in one of the aphorisms of Khanā³ which runs thus:

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³ মাছের জলে লাউ বাড়ে, etc.

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"Gourds flourish under the influence of fish washings."

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Chakradatta in his Chikitsā-saṃgraha,⁴ under section वातव्याधि-चिकित्सा (Treatment of Rheumatism), gives a long recipe for the preparation of an oil, where it is said that when a dry barren tree is sprinkled with this oil (at the root) it becomes full of flowers and fruits, graceful and strong (...सूतेऽमुनाभूरुहाः । सिक्ताः शोषमुपागताश्च फलिनः स्निग्धाभवन्ति स्थिराः).

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⁴ Sloka 86, pp 293, 294, edited by Pyarimohan Sengupta, 1294 B.S.

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In the next Sloka¹ he gives another recipe where he says that " if this oil be poured at the root of a dry tree it will sprout and bear flowers and fruits."

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¹ Sloka 87 . " अनेनैव च तैलेन शुष्यमाना महाद्रुमाः । सिक्ताः पुनः प्ररोहन्ति भवन्ति फलशालिनः ॥

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"Thus it will be seen that these elaborate recipes are empirical contrivances for supplying the plant with the requisite nitrogen compounds, phosphates, etc., these being potentially contained in the mixtures and infusions prescribed." (Seal).

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As to the rotation of crops—in the same field two crops were used to be grown—rice in summer and pulses in winter. Rotation of crops was thus known, and " to India Dr. Roxburgh believes the Western world to be indebted for this system."²

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² Mrs. Spier, Life in Ancient India, Chap. VII, p. 151, London 1856 Cf. also Fragment XI--Fragments of Indika of Megasthenes, Bonn, 1846.

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5. Treatment of plants.—The science of the treatment of plants (*Vrikshayurveda*) which does not yet technically exist in the West is represented by a regular section of the monumental work of Varāhamihir¹ as well as one in Agnipurāṇa.² The chapter entitled the “ *Vrikshāyurveda* ” or the science of treatment of plants in disease denotes elaborate care.

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¹ Brihat-saṃhita, Chap. 54.

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² Agnipurāṇa, Chap. 281.

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Guṇaratna in his commentary³ writes— “ Just as the human body is subject to jaundice, dropsy, shofa (?), emaciation and defects (dwarfness) of finger, nose, etc., etc., so also plants suffer from similar diseases such as inception of disease, displacement or dislocation of flower, fruit, leaves, bark.”

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³ Bibliotheca Indica, New Series, 1151 (1907).

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“ And just as by the application of the appropriate remedies unnatural growth, deterioration, wounds, fructures, etc., can be cured, so also in plants by application of proper drugs as prescribed in *Vrikshāyurveda*.”

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