Mediaeval Sinhalese Art c11.s1: Makara
Mediaeval Sinhalese Art c11.s1
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Makara
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MAKARA. The *makara* resembles a dolphin or crocodile; the snout ends in a trunk like an elephant’s, but shorter and often curled up so as to be inconspicuous; the body and tail are bird-like; but the Early Indian forms (Fig. 18) had a distinctly fishy tail; as also in Pl. XLVII., 8. Fig. 17 is from an old drawing by a pupil of Devaragampola Silvatenna. The *makara* is one of the signs of the zodiac; one of the 108 *mangul-lakunu*; it is also the banner of the Indian god of love. A special form of necklace, called *makara-malaya*, is shown in Pl. XLIX., 11. But its only common use in eighteenth century Sinhalese art is in the *makara toran* which abound in Sinhalese architecture above doorways and images, as in Pls. VII., 1; VIIA, above the image: Pl. XXXVIII., 9 shows a modern, debased rendering in ivory. The *makara torana* is an ornamental arch springing from two profile *makara* facing each other, and with a ‘*kibihi*’ face in the position of the keystone; the intermediate space on either side is variously treated. In Pl. VIIA. it is filled with flying *sanda kinduro*. The *makara* face is never used by itself; Mr. Bell’s ‘*makara* quadrifrons’ of the Mēdagoḍa Dēvāle stone pillar is really a ‘*kibihi* quadrifrons.’ He also mentions *makara* faces in error on p. 20. Almost all full-face detached heads are *kibihi*; all profile, *serapendiya*. Mr. Bell finds the prototype of the curious ornamental arches (*makara toran*) in the *chaitya* window of the early Buddhist cave temples of India (Kēgalla Report, p. 21).
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The *makara* is described as follows in v. 148 of the Rūpāvaliya: “The *makara* has the trunk of an elephant, the feet of a lion, the ears of a pig, the body of a fish living in water, the teeth turned outwards, eyes like Hanuman’s, and a splendid tail.”
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Fig. 17. Makara. From a colored drawing by Sērugōlayā Hitaranayide, a pupil of Devaragampola Silvatenna.
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Fig. 18. Makara. From Barāhat Stūpa, Early Indian, circa 200 B.C. [thus about 2000 years earlier than Fig. 17]. Cunningham, Pl. IX.
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Fig. 18A. Bheruṇḍa pakshaya, flag of the Three Kōrales. From Bell's Kēgalla Report.
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BHĒRUṆḌA PAKSHAYA. A ‘double-headed eagle,’ like the eagle in the arms of Russia and Austria. Fig. 18A, representing the flag of the Three Kōrales, shows very well its character. The form also appears in wood and ironwork, and *Bheruṇḍa* ornament very commonly in modern brass trays and plates. As a jewelled *pakshaya* pendant, it is not an unusual form (Pls. XXIII., 6 and XLVIII., 6).
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It may be noted here, that there can be little doubt of the eastern origin of heraldry. The heroes of the Mahābhārata had each his own device. We have seen in the description of the great *perahera*, how each district of the Kandyan kingdom had its own flag and device; also that the *makara* is the device on the banner of the Indian Eros. So there need be no occasion for surprise at recognizing in the arms of Austria and of Russia, the very ‘double-headed eagle,’ an Indian form which we find in Ceylon as the device of the Three Kōrales. The historic evidence for the migration of this particular symbol, by direct contact, is regarded as complete.*
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Heraldry was introduced into Europe by the Crusaders. When at a later period, the European penetrated further East, he brought back with him the old devices to their early home. An especially striking instance was the return of the lion of the Dutch, which has influenced in some cases, the representation of the Sinhalese lion itself, as in the corners of the ‘Sun and Moon’ Flag figured by Bell in his ‘Report on the Kēgalla District.’ I possess also a jaggery-mould upon which an evidently Dutch lion rampant with sword in paw is carved in sunk relief. The influence of the Dutch lion upon the Sinhalese was facilitated by its presence on the small Dutch copper coins which were soon in common use throughout Ceylon.
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HAMSA. The *hamsa* is the well-known ‘sacred goose’ of Hinduism, where it stands for discrimination, being able, as the bird of Svarga Loka, to drink the milk only, from a vessel of milk mixed with water. The name stands also for beautiful gait; it is regarded *Hamsa* *Hamsa*
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∗ *T. Wilson, “The Swastika,” Smithsonian Monograph (N.D.), p. 963, quoting Count Goblet d’Alviella, “La Migration des Symboles.” But I do not think the double-headed bird is a Garuda, as there suggested.*
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Fig. 19. Hamsa. From a modern drawing [D.S.M.].
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Fig. 20. Hamsa paṭṭuva. From an old paḍimakada poṭa (copy book).
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as beautiful and auspicious; in poetry, especially erotic, it stands for the breasts of women, or for women themselves; the resemblance between a swan and a beautiful girl is a common motif in Indo-Aryan folk-lore. In Sinhalese as in Hindu decorative art the *hamsa* is everywhere to be seen; figure 20, from a modern *padimakada pota*, shows the typical Sinhalese form, the use of which is illustrated on Plates XXIII., 2; XXVI., 2; XXXIX., 2, 8; etc. Very usual, too, is the arrangement, called *hamsa paṭṭuva*, of two, three, or more *hamsayō* with entwined necks, as in Fig. 20 and Pls. XXXII., 8; XL., 4, 12.
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Fig. 21. *Anna paḍci*. From a modern Tanjore drawing (Tamil).
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The following description of the *hamsa* is given in the Rūpāvaliya: “The *hamsa* has nails like those of a dog, and eyes like those of a fowl, a very red beak, a fish-like face, and an unexpanded tail.” In Fig. 21 is shown the South Indian (Dravidian) form of the *hamsa* (*anna paḍci*) for comparison. This illustrates very well the difference of feeling in Sinhalese (Buddhist) and Dravidian (Hindu) art; for other examples, compare Figs. 13, 15, and 24 with the Sinhalese treatment of the same forms. For an Indian *hamsa paṭṭuva*, see ‘Journal of Indian Art,’ Vol. V., Pl. 84.
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*Simha*
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SIMHA. The lion is the mythical ancestor, and totem animal of the Sinhalese, standing for majesty and power, as in the case of Buddha’s name of Śākya-simha, or the royal name Rāja-simha. A typical representation of the Sinhalese lion is given in Fig. 22, from a modern drawing; see also Pls. XXVI., 1; XXIX., 7; XXXVIII., 1 and 5; and XLV., 3. The full face detached, called *kibihi-mūna*, shown in Fig. 23, is most often seen in *makara-toran*, where it forms the central feature in the position of keystone of the arch; and it is used in design as the starting point of sprays and branches of foliaceous ornament. Some sixteen, or thirty-two kinds of *simha* are recognized by Sinhalese artists; there are three kinds beside the *kesara simha*, or lion proper; and the others are not really lions at all, but other beasts, the word ‘lion’ being used generically for ‘animal,’ as the word ‘deer’ is used in speaking of ‘mice, and such small deer,’ and regularly in the same way in older English. But the *nara simha* and *gaja simha*, described below, are not reckoned as ‘lions’ by the Rūpāvaliya which gives the following account of lions: “Kēsarī, Hariṇī, Kyāghu, Varātu, Śisū, Mariṇī, Matangi, Śikhī, Kinnarī, Gandharvajī, Bhallukā, Mañjarī, Tuṅga, Sakhā, Mṛiga, Viratīkā—these are the sixteen kinds of lions.”
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Fig. 22. *Simha*. From a modern drawing [D. S. M.].
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Fig. 23. ‘*Kibihi-mūna*.’ From a modern painted box [D. S. M.].
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“The expert painter should know a further sixteen kinds, beside those already mentioned, Design and the lion, the dog, and the fowl, the deer, the serpent, the elephant, the cat, the fox, the ornament goat, the goat-faced animal, the horse, the monkey, the ass, the *mṛigendra* (=a lion), the tiger, the shark.” Simha “Of the four lions (proper), Tṛiṇa, Kāla, Pāṇḍu and Kēsarī, the Kēsarī is the highest.” “The lion has eyes like those of a hare, a fierce look, soft hair, long hair on the chest and under the shoulders, back plump like a sheep’s, the body of a well blooded horse, a stately walk, and a long tail.”
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The last verse describes the kesara simha, or lion proper, as usually portrayed in Sinhalese art.
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The lion is naturally a very common motif in Sinhalese art. It must be confessed it is often badly drawn. The position of the lion rampant may perhaps be due to European influence; this is almost certain when he carries a sword in the right paw, as in the case of one carved on the jaggery-mould referred to on p. 85, and the *ira-haṇḍa maha koḍiya*, illustrated by Bell (Kẹgalla Report, p. 126); these show clear evidence of Dutch influence, the latter exerted probably at Jaffna, where the flag may have been made. The common circulation of Dutch coins with lion rampant would explain such borrowings.
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Fig. 23. ‘Simmam’ (lion). From old Tamil drawing: rough sketch only (Tanjore).
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I give an example of a drawing of a lion from an old Tamil craftsman’s note-book, obtained at Tanjore, for comparison with the Sinhalese drawing.
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It may be remarked that the title of king or lord is often given to representations of the *hamsa*, lion or cobra—it is the *hamsa rāja*, *simha rāja* or *nāga rāja* whose form is represented, rather than individual animals. This is but another way of saying that all Indian art is idealistic, representing types rather than individuals.
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The Rūpāvaliya accounts of the lion (above), *nara simha* (overleaf), and horse (p. 90) should be carefully noted. For comparison I quote the description of a lion from an old Chinese canon. “With a form like that of the tiger, and with a colour tawny or sometimes blue, the lion looks like the Muku-inu, a shaggy dog. It has a huge head hard as bronze, a long tail, a forehead firm as iron, hook-like fangs, eyes like bended bows, and raised ears. The eyes flash like lightning, and the roar is like thunder.”* It is only in the light of descriptions that the aim of Eastern art in representing animal forms can be rightly understood. A tendency to naturalism is but rarely found, and it is rather the expression of a mental conception than a realistic picture that is aimed at. It is this point of view which has preserved Oriental art from such paltry and emasculated realism as the lions of Trafalgar Square. The artist’s lion need be like no lion on earth or in any Zoological Garden; he is not illustrating a work on natural history; it is rather for him to express through it the whole theory of his national existence and the strength of his individual and national idiosyncracy. It is this possibility which explains the vitality and expressiveness *Design and ornament* of the heraldic lions of England, the Barāhat lion, the lion of the Sinhalese craftsmen, and the lions of Hokusai’s ‘Daily Exorcisms,’ as compared with the absence of imagination in the handiwork of the English painter of domestic pets.
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∗ Quoted by Sei-ichi Taki, ‘The Kokka,’ 1906, No. 198, p. 486.
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*Nara simha* NARA SIMHA. Lion with a man’s head, as in Fig. 24. The Rūpāvaliya account describes the *nara simha* as ‘reddish hue down the knees, with fair nails, hair falling on the back, dazzling with divine ornaments, beautiful eyes like the petals of a lotus, expert at emitting flames of fire, possessing hot and cold dispositions like the Sun and Moon, with curved teeth projecting outside the lips, with a tuft of hair on the crown, bestowing all good.’
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*Gaja simha* GAJA SIMHA. Lion with an elephant’s head, as in Fig. 25. This was the flag of Nuvarakalāviya.
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Fig. 24. Nara simha. From a modern drawing [D.S.M.]
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Fig. 25. Gaja simha. From a modern drawing [D.S.M.]
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*Naga* NĀGA. The *naga*, or cobra, in relation to Indian religion and art is sufficiently well known to need no long description. We do not find in the later Sinhalese art the semi-human forms seen at Barāhat, Ajanta, or Anurādhapura. The Nāga Rāja, Ananta, is often referred to in Sinhalese poetry; the Nāga Mucalinda who sheltered the Buddha is often depicted or wrought (see Pl. XVIII.). In decoration we find the *naga* as a simple cobra, e.g., on woven cloths, embroidered on betel bags; in architecture as a protective symbol, e.g., the *naga bandha* or ‘cobra knop’ marking the transition from the square to the octagonal part of a wooden pillar.* The *naga poruva* is a whorl of cobras interlocked in succession, often seen on modern brass trays; the simple *naga paṭṭuva*, or pair of cobras with heads only entwined I have only once seen and then not quite obvious; but the *naga dangaya* (*daraṇa* or *dangaraya*) an elaborate entwining of two cobras is not very rare (Pls. VII., 6, and LII., 3); it is probably the same as Mr. Bell’s *naga-puṭuva* (for *paṭṭuva*) and *naga vriksha*; if so, it may also be called *naga paṭṭuva*, though I have never heard it. The form is well known in widely separated parts of India (see Journal of Indian Art, Vol V., Pl. 84), it is of interest as corresponding to, and perhaps the origin of the classical caduceus. The cobra’s hood is one of the 108 *magul-lakuṇu*.
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*Fish* FISH. The mythical fish called *matsya*, an incarnation of Vishṇu, is one of the 108 *magul-lakuṇu*. Fish are not often used in pure decoration; but examples are to be found in the ornament of earthenware, as in Pl. XXV., 2. It may be remarked that fish and wavy lines are symbolical of water, as in Pl. I., where fishes are shown in the river, preventing any possible mistake as to what is intended, much as ships and fishes are often shown on the sea in old maps. The seven great rivers of India, in the *magul-lakuṇu* (Fig. 69), are represented by seven squares, each containing a wavy line and a fish.
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∗ The *geṭa-liya-pota* mentioned by Bell (*Kegalla Report, p. 132*) as the same, is really a distinct form used in a similar position, see below, under ‘liya paṭa.’
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BIRDS. Birds have always a great fascination for the craftsman, perhaps because the design and shapes of many common objects readily lend themselves to the suggestion of bird form. Brass or bronze hanging lamps have frequently the form of birds (Pl. XLIV., 4). A well-known example is the brass lamp at Laṅkātilaka, which has very often been copied for the Kandy Art Association. The various bird pendants, especially the Panabokka pendant (Pl. L., 8) are examples of the feeling for bird ornament; so also the bird-shaped handle of the plough (nimun-kurulla), and the bird-shaped block through which the taut rope of a loom is passed (Pl. XXIX., 1, centre of end of warp).
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The peacock (monara) is not often seen; it may be recognized by the long tail (Pl. XLV., 2), or, if in front view, from its fan form, quite distinct from a hamsa or other bird. A peacock is amongst the 108 magul lakunu. The makara’s tail is not ‘a peacock’s tail expanded,’ as indicated by Bell (Kēgalla Report, p. 133).
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Fig. 26. Parrot. From modern painted box [D. S. M.].
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The parrot (giravā), as in Dravidian art, is often met with; but the giravā paṭṭuva of Pl. XXXV., 2, is exceptional. The flag of Binṭenna is a parrot. The seḷa-lihiṇiya is as much spoken of in Sinhalese poetry, as the nightingale in some English verse; but it is not often used in decorative art; I cannot point to any example, unless it be amongst the birds on Pl. XV. or XIV., 7; but there is a reference to its use in a pottery poem which is quoted in a later chapter.
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Much the same is true of doves (kobeyiyō), pigeons (paravi), cocks (kukulō) and kovulu mentioned in verse 14 of the Gaṇa Devi Heḷḷa, which describes the decoration of the young god’s palace thus: “after the walls were daubed with clay, and smoothly plastered with lime, a painter was engaged, who painted pictures of makaras, hamsas, gavaras, leopards and lions, peacocks and parrots, ringdoves and cocks, pigeons and pretty kovulu.” Kandyan painters, indeed, show quite a Chaucerian love of birds, and constantly introduce them in their designs, in association with flowers and foliage (Pl. XIV., 7). The different kinds of birds seen in the ceiling painting reproduced on Pl. XV. are drawn with great spirit and observation.
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MRIGA. The deer is rarely found in decoration. One appears amongst the flowers in the ceiling painting just referred to. They are found sometimes on kalala mats. In jātakas and other romantic stories they are often introduced. The word mriga has also a general sense, referring to any animal, just as the very word deer itself did in old English; for this, see simha and verses from the Rūpāvaliya, quoted above, p. 87.
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HARE. A legend often depicted on vihāra walls is that of the Hare in the Moon. The Hare story is briefly as follows: The Bōdhisatta was born as a hare who one day observed that other animals provided themselves with stores of food, from which, if need were, they would have something to offer to a beggar; reflecting that he himself had nothing suitable, and could hardly offer grass, he determined to offer his own flesh if the occasion arose. Perceiving this splendid display of virtue, Śakra descended to the forest and appeared to the hare in the form of a Brahman, who addressed the hare thus: “Wise Sir, if I could get something to eat, after keeping the fast, I would perform all my priestly duties.” To which the hare replied, “Brahman, you have done well in coming to me for food. This day I will grant you a boon that I have never granted before, but you shall not break the moral law by taking animal life. Go, friend, and when you have piled together logs of wood and kindled a fire, come and let me know, and I will sacrifice myself by falling into the midst of the flames, and when my body is roasted, you shall eat my flesh and fulfil all your priestly duties.” Śakra did accordingly, though the fire was but a feigned one. The Bōdhisatta came, and offering his whole body as a free gift, he sprang up, and like a royal swan alighting on a cluster of lotuses, in an ecstacy of joy he fell on the heap of live coals. He was not burnt by the feigned fire; Śakra revealed himself as having come to put the hare's virtue to the test, and saying, “O wise hare, be thy virtue known throughout a whole æon,” he took up the hare and painted the figure of it on the moon, then replaced it on a bed of grass in the same forest and returned to his own place in heaven. This story is told in the Sasa jataka (ed., Cowell, Cambridge, Vol. III., p. 34). The hare is used decoratively in the forest scene shown on Pl. XVI.; (ceiling painting) the hares are arranged in pairs, face to face, or in heraldic language ‘affronted’. The hare does not appear to be used with conscious symbolism in Sinhalese art; in Hindu mythology it stands for mildness and speed. In simple representations of the moon, which like those of the sun, are a common vihāra decoration, the hare is usually represented on the moon’s disc. Other paintings show Śakra with a brush in one hand, and the hare under its left arm, painting its form on the moon’s disk.
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SQUIRREL. The use of the squirrel (daṇḍu-lēna) in decoration is shown in the forest scene, Pl. XVI.; there is also a squirrel amongst the birds in the ceiling painting of Pl. XV., and they are also found on a painted box in my possession. Their use is purely decorative.
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BULL. The bull (usamba) is not often seen in decoration. Fig. 66 shows a pair of bulls arranged face to face (Wappenstil), from a modern brass tray; illustrating well how entirely archaic even present-day ornament may be, when strictly traditional.
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The bull is represented amongst the 108 magul-lakuṇu; also in the aṭamagala diagram. A curious device is the usamba-kuñjara (Fig. 27). This name of ‘bull-elephant’ is given to a combination of the two animals used as a copy in teaching drawing, and also rarely in decoration, as on a carved wooden pillar at Embekke dēvāle. I have seen it also in an old Tamil Kammālan’s kaḍuttam pustakam at Tanjore; he called it by the same name (virasuba kuñcaram).
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Fig. 27. Usamba kuñjara. From a modern drawing [D. S. M.].
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ELEPHANT. Not often used in pure ornament, but more often in jataka and historical pictures; roughly painted on granary walls, Pl. VII., 9; on woven cloth, Pl. XXIX., 7; carved on stone at the entrance to the Daḷadā Māligāva. The elephant is sometimes seen on eaves tiles. Two elephants are also associated with the goddess Śrī (Lakshmī), pouring water on her seated figure, in the conventional representation (Pl. IX., 1). I have seen a bronze hanging lamp in the form of an elephant. There is a bronze elephant of unknown purpose in the Colombo Museum. As in early Indian art (e.g. Barāhat) the elephant is usually very well drawn though not so in Fig. 27. It is one of the 108 magul lakuṇu.
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HORSE. The horse (aśvaya) is but rarely met with in Kandyan decoration. The following description is given in the Rūpāvaliya: “The horse has hoofs like balls, and the lower parts like a mound, a neigh like the sound of a storm, and lotus eyes; he is swift as the wind, stately as a lion, has the gait of a dancer, a face like a cluster of munamal flowers, and the hinder part like a stack of corn.”
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DOG, CROW. These marks of degradation were occasionally inscribed on stones in the case of villages degraded for any offence against the king. For such instances and causes of offence see Lawrie’s Gazetteer, p. 17, 708, etc. They appear also on grants and charters as symbols of the degradation awaiting those who should contravene them; but these instances can only by a stretch be included in the discussion of decorative art.
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MAN. The romantic and conventional treatment is seen in Pl. XVI., of a forest scene, a ceiling painting. There is also a human figure between two elephants in Pl. VII., 9. One style of brass box (*heppuva*) of the Dutch shape has human figures with guns, riding Design and horses, etc., and seems to show European influence, as does another in my possession, ornament showing figures and horses amongst foliage in a Renaissance style. The *jātaka* decoration of Figs. 5, 11 and 28, is however, purely Sinhalese.
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The most remarkable decorative use of the human figure, however, is in the peculiar Man combinations of women arranged in the form of various animals and objects. A typical example, and the only one often seen, is the *pañca-nāri-geṭa* (5-women-knot) of which an example is seen in Fig. 28 (A). There is a fine example carved in stone at the entrance to the Daḷada Māligāva, Kandy, and another at Hanguranketa, in which, however, there is evident Dravidian feeling; there is a very fine example in ivory (Pl. XXXVIII., 1) over the dēvāle store-room door at Riḍī Vihāra. The remaining combinations of this character known to Sinhalese painters (and used as drawing ‘copies’) are the *catur-nāri-palakkiya* (4-women-palanquin), *ṣaṭ-nāri-toraṇa* (6-women-arch), *sapta-nāri-turaṅge* (7-women-horse), *aṣṭa-nāri-ratha* (8-women chariot), and *nava-nāri-kuñjara* (9-women-elephant); in some of these the figure of Anaṅga, the Indian god of love, is also introduced, and it appears possible that the whole series was once symbolical, associated perhaps with some Krishna cult*. The original series may have been more complete; I have seen in a *kaḍuttam-pustakam* from Tanjore several of these combinations, and many other different ones. Such curious combinations are also met with in other parts of India, even far north; I have,
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A B C D E F
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Fig. 28. Kandyan brass tobacco box (*heppuva*). A., *pañca nāri geṭa*; B., *nāri latā*; C., *div-nāri-ratha*; D., *nāga dangaya*; E., ? a form of swastika; lions rampant as ‘supporters’; F., *haṃsa paṭṭuva*.
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∗ See *Journal of Indian Art, Vol. X., ‘The Elephant in Industry and Art,’ p. 64, where a representation of a 9-women elephant is reproduced, and described as ‘Krishna riding on an elephant improvised by the milkmaids of Gokula.’*
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for example, an Indian drawing of a rider and horse, the latter composed of several different animals, including one man. All of the forms are very ingenious; that is all that can be said for most of them; but the 5-women-knot is sometimes beautiful. They are certainly not very suitable for use as drawing copies, and I regard this as a late and accidental development in Ceylon.
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The figures of deities are hardly ever used in mere ornament, but have some auspicious or protective idea associated. The conventional representation of the goddess Śrī (Lakshmī) bathing, seated upon a lotus, and with two elephants pouring water over her is occasionally met with (Pl. IX., 1); it is a thoroughly Hindu form.
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NĀRI-LATĀ-VELA: Of strictly mythical vegetable ornament, the nari-lata-vela is the most remarkable and most often used. It is a mythical climbing vine of which the flower
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Fig. 29. Nari-lata-vela decoration of painted box, Riḍi Vihāra.
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Fig. 30. Nari lata, Siamese form, drawn by P. C. Jinavaravaṃsa Unnānse, formerly Prince Prisdang.
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has the appearance of a woman, ‘in all wise of perfect beauty, glorious in grace’; like other mythical things, it grows in the Himālayas; and has been known to shake the resolution of hermits dwelling there. It is a very common element in Kandyan design (Figs. 29 and 31; Pl. XXXIX., 3; Pl. XL., 13, etc.); occasionally parts of the plant are made to bear single faces also, reminding one of some designs by Walter Crane.
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The nari lata must not be confused with representations of other female figures (Pl. XL., 1, etc.) or divinities, such as the goddess Śrī or Lakshmī, Pl. IX., 1, seated, and holding sprays of foliage; in the true nari-lata the lower part of the figure is replaced by conventional foliage (Pl. XXXIX., 3, and Pl. XL., 13, are typical), in the other cases limbs and garments are complete, and the figure is often seated on a throne.
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I give a Siamese form (Fig. 30) for comparison with the many Sinhalese examples illustrated.
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The following story is a translation of an extract from the Kathāvastu Prakaraṇa kindly forwarded by Mr. T. B. Paraṇātella. It is here given in order to further illustrate the nature of the mythical nari lata vela.
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“Long ago when a Rāja named Bambadat ruled according to the four good rules in Baranas Nuvara (Benāres) in Kasiraṭa on the plain of Dambadiva, enjoying regal luxuries, there dwelt a young Brahman in Pasalgama. At the death of his parents becoming master of all their property, as he was living in enjoyment of the comforts of a layman, many hermits during the rainy season came from the Himalaya forest to Benares to the abodes of men and dwelt in ease in places such as the royal gardens and went too and fro in the city streets. Thereupon when the townspeople saw the hermits they prepared eatables and drinkables and gave to them and made arrangements for them to remain there till the end of the wet season, the hermits yeasaying them, dwelt in the royal gardens and such places. The townspeople began to treat them with food consisting of delicious dishes of every kind. At that time the aforesaid Brahmana Kumāra one day entering the city observing the people very eagerly treating the hermits and himself also going near the hermits remained
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Fig. 31. Nari lata, from a painted earthen pot.
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a few days, thinking “I also follow the calling of a hermit and adopt the holy life, I too shall be similarly treated.” Accordingly resolving that it was well to don the hermit’s robes, returning home, he gave over to his relatives and friends all his moveables and immovables, and adopted the life of a hermit, eating jungle roots and fruits and the like food, he dwelt in a certain rock cave. Having attained dhyāna in a short time, and able to travel in the sky, one day when near his cave, he saw in a creeper called Nari Lata, a full blown flower having the appearance of a woman, in all wise of perfect beauty, glorious in grace. At that very moment he lost the power of dhyāna which he had so long successfully practised by great self control; his dhyāna disappeared at the thought of indulgence, his passions were let loose. Feeling very sorrowful thereat (he thought) ‘Now what shall I do? What is the use of taking all this trouble and living in the jungle’, and returning to the abodes of men, taking a wife and thinking to live in comfort, he went to his village, cast off his hermit’s robes and became a layman and begot children; following industrial and commercial pursuits he with difficulty supported his wife and children, and at the end of his life died in accordance with karma, having forfeited the privilege of birth in Brahma Loka. Thus even for those who have successfully attained dhyāna the power of levitation is destroyed by the strength of lust and they are subject to samsāra’s woe. To those that heed this fact, that desire is as a thorn in the flesh, like a thief stealing away the holy life, like a great fire to burn the holy forest (of hermits) and reduce to ashes; considering those most evil consequences, drive away evil lusts and adopt a holy life.” This story of the consequences of lust is taken from the Kathāvastu Prakaraṇa.
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A close parallel exists in the mediæval story of Alexander and the flower maidens (Mannhardt, II., p. 1) “presumably founded on a legend current in ancient Greece” and doubtless originally of Oriental origin (Philpot ‘The Sacred Tree’, p. 60). “The story goes that in a certain wood, when spring came, numbers of enormous flower buds appeared out of the ground, from each of which, as it opened, there leapt forth a beautiful maiden. Their robes were a part of their growth, and in colour they were just like their flowers, red and white (in the Indian story they are the flowers). . . . When . . . the flowers withered . . . the beautiful creatures died. . . . Alexander and his knights, coming upon this magical wood, mated with the flower maidens and for more than three months lived in perfect happiness, till . . . one by one the nymphs died, and the king and his companions had sorrowfully to resume their travels” (Philpot, loc. cit.).
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KADU-PUL; PARASATU. The kaḍu-pul (sword-fruit) belongs to the naga-world, and is occasionally represented on vihāra walls. The figure (33, i.) represents one drawn by D. S. Muhandiram, after one done by his father in the vihāra at Embekke dēvāle; I have seen at Keḷaniya a form more sword-like. The parasatu belongs to the god-world (divya-loka) and is the tree beneath which Śakra (Indra) is seated on his throne. It is mentioned in the Gaḍaladeṇiya rock inscription (Lawrie’s Gazetteer, p. 236). The representation of flowers which bloom on other planes, not on this earth, is of particular interest, as representing a metaphysical stage beyond even the idealization of forms here seen. The parasatu is described in verse 474 of Guttila kāvya, where it is said “The brightness of the tree shone for 200 gav around it, the scent of its flower was perceived 400 gav away.” It is also described as 400 gav in height and 1200 in circumference.
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The palol is the tree of the Asuras; it is 100 yodun in height and breadth and has branches 15 yoduns in circumference. The imbul tree of the Guruḷas is of the same dimensions, so also the trees of the four great divisions of the earth, the damba (of Dambadiva) the kolon (of Aparagoyāna) the kap-ruka (of Uturukurudivayina) and the mahari tree (of Purvavideha). Of these I have seen representations only of the kaḍu-pul and parasatu. Perhaps the tree shown in Pl. XIV., 4 is the great damba of Dambadiva, that is, India.
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KATURU MALA. The katuru or katiri mala is doubtless so called from its crossing petals resembling scissors or crossed sticks; it is less often seen than the last; it is well seen on the lid of a painted book-box at Riḍi vihara, and in this book on the betel-bag of Pl. XXXI.: see also Fig. 33, viii.
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PICCA MALA. The ‘jessamine’ (Jasminum sambac) is a form used with great charm in vihāra decoration, especially as a background to paintings or bas-relief images of gods Pl. XIV., 5). Figure 32 shows a very graceful use of picca mala in the decoration of a wooden book cover (pot-kambiya). The pattern is always drawn with great freedom, in a style like that of ‘brushwork’ as taught in the West. Observe that in Fig. 32 the flowers are in bud (keḱulu mala) but they are more often drawn in half open profile (pipicca mala) as shown on the right. The flower itself was much cultivated for floral offerings; it was the duty of certain tenants (mala-karayo) to keep the king supplied. The King, says Knox, had these flowers “brought to him every morning, wrapt in a white cloth, hanging upon a staff, and carried by people, whose peculiar office it is. . . . These Officers hold land of the King for this service: their Office is, also to plant these Flowers, which they usually do near the Rivers where they most delight to grow.”
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Fig. 32. Picca mal decoration of book cover. The flowers are in bud; opened flower in profile shown on right.
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Of other conventional flower and leaf ornament, some forms are obviously based on natural prototypes, and consciously used as representative of them; others have only fanciful names, and their natural prototypes, if any, can only be discovered by historical and comparative investigation. Such investigations are much to be desired, and when accomplished, will throw much light on the history of Indian art. There are many not known separately by name, of which examples will be found amongst the illustrations, in addition to those specially mentioned here.
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Fig. 33. Types of floral ornament: I. Kaḍu-pul. II. Sīna mala. IV. Veṭakeyiya. V. Sapu mala. VIII. Katiri mala: the others without technical names, and spoken of merely as flower, mala or leaf, kola; No. IX. is spoken of in this work as ‘pine-apple.’ Various sources, 18th—20th century Kandyan.
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SĪNA-MALA. This characteristic form is illustrated in Fig. 33, II., a detail from Riḍi Vihāra. In Fig. 6 it is seen in association with the vaka-deka, to which it is soon added to form a more elaborate drawing ‘copy.’ The sīna-mala is much used; either as a flower-spray proceeding from the mouth of some beast, or attached to the stem of some liya-veḷa; also in jewellery, as on Pl. XLII., 5, pendants to cup; Pl. XXIII., 7.
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NELUN-MALA. The lotus is to oriental art all that the rose was to mediæval English art. It underlies many forms not at first sight traceable to it. The most characteristic simple lotus forms in use are the ‘rosettes,’ used to fill space (Pl. XVIII.) or as independent ornament, as in the case of pottery stamps (Pl. XXV., 3), or in series, especially on the beams of painted ceilings, as in Pl. XV.; also typically at Keḷaniya). All circular objects, such as round boxes, lend themselves to simple lotus ornament. We never observe that tendency to naturalism sometimes noticeable at Anurādhapura, Ajanta, etc., but the simple rosette is capable of almost infinite variation; some of the forms are shown in Fig. 34, others on Pl. XX., 2; Pl. XXIII., 2; Pl. XXV., 3; Pl. XXXIX., 10, etc. It should be noted that the lotus-circle is always divided into 4, 8, 16 or more petals, never into multiples of 3 or 5 (Pl. XXXII., 4 is an exception). The Sinhalese artists had a good knowledge of practical geometry, enabling them to divide the circle as they wished, as is seen in the arrangement of three hamsayō within a circle. The carved bed of Pl. X., 6, is a remarkable example of lotus ornament; there is a great variety of circular lotus-flowers, of which in the centre has a kind of stem.
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part of the border consists of alternating half-lotus flowers in full view, and lotus flowers in profile, the only example of the latter position which I know of in mediæval Sinhalese art; it is a most archaic arrangement, as seen, for example at Barāhat (Cunningham, Pl. XXI., central figure at the top). The characteristic lotus throne, or *padmasana* of divinities and kings must not be overlooked (Pl. XVIII. and XIX.); also the lotus pendent bracket capitals or *pekaḍa* (Pl. X., 4 and 5). The same motif is repeated in the pendent bell-shaped earrings (Pl. LI., 17). It is interesting to compare with the different conventional forms, the more pictorial treatment of a lotus in a tank, on Pl. I., middle of the lower panel. Lotus flowers are often painted on rock cave ceilings, and may be very large. A cave temple at Heḷamaḍa (Four Korales) has on the ceiling large and small lotuses, surrounding one large eight-petalled lotus, four feet in diameter. Many lotus derivatives are also used without any consciousness of their origin. In Fig. 35, from a large door key, I give one example of such a form, belonging to the Egyptian strain in Sinhalese Art; and in Fig. 37, one from a painted book cover, more suggestive of Assyrian. Fig. 36 is of the ‘*gegenständige Lotus-blüth und Palmette*’ type.∗ Of ‘lotus-palmette’ or ‘honeysuckle’ origin, too, is the *vel-pota* of Fig. 67. The significance of these forms will be discussed in a later chapter.
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∗ Riegl, ‘*Stilfragen*,’ 1893, *p.* 181. [†]: See A. K. Coomaraswamy, *J.C.B.R.A.S.*, 1906, *pp.* 75, 76.
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Fig. 34. Lotus flowers, various sources, 18th—20th century Kandyan.
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Figs. 35, 36 and 37. Decorative forms of lotus origin: 35, from a key; 36, from an eaves-tile; 37, from a painted book cover, the elements are of the cobra-head type.
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In certain cases, e.g., Fig. 34, III. and V., the lotus petals are replaced by forms which are historically cobra heads, as can be proved by comparison with medallions at Barāhat.[†] PALĀ-PETI. *Pala-peti* is a form of ornament derived directly from the lotus; it is much employed in Sinhalese art, and in all Indian art; it is a border or moulding (Fig. 37), consisting of lotus petals, the petals fully seen, alternating with petals three-parts hidden by those on either side of them, precisely as in the ordinary representations of the whole flower. In the case of circular objects, such as metal dishes and vessels, sandal-wood grinding stones, etc., the form at once suggests the lotus flower, and the petal ornament follows; thence it has been adapted as a border applicable to straight work of every description, particularly architectural mouldings. Innumerable examples of its use are illustrated in the present book (Pl. XLII., 1 and 3, etc., etc.) It is sometimes greatly elaborated with *liya-pata* ornament (Fig. 39, M), but the simple forms are the most beautiful.
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It is interesting to follow some developments of the *pala-peti*; in extreme forms the Design and half-seen petal is omitted (Pl. XXXVII., 5, and Fig. 39, c), and finally we have only ornament a series of spathulate forms as in Fig. 39, B. There are, on the other hand, forms in which the half-seen petal is terminated by a little cross (Pls. XXXI; XXXII., 7), or even *Pala-peti* developed so as to be equally or more important than the fully-seen petal, resulting in a more conspicuous alternation (Pl. XXXII., 8; XL., 17); this might result in a ‘knop and flower’ type of ornament, but never seems quite to do so. Pl. XL., 17, shows the most extreme development, where the ‘dart’ has become a regular tree.
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Fig. 38. *Pala-peti*: I., common Kandyan form; II., actual lotus petals from ‘moonstone’ at Anurādhapura.
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The truncated or rounded tips of the lotus petals in most types may be remarked. The form in Fig. 38, II., from Anurādhapura will explain the origin of this truncation or flattening, the really pointed tip of the petal being represented first as curled inwards and so not affecting the outline, and then omitted altogether; it is retained in Fig. 39, c. But the half-seen alternating petal always retains the pointed tip. It is the ‘dart’ in all patterns of the ‘egg and dart’ type, of which the classical and Indian forms must have a common origin.
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MALA. Many small or eight-petalled forms stand simply for *Mala* mal, flowers in general, without reference to special kinds (Pls. XVII.; XLIV., 7); but probably such forms are arrived at by a reduction of lotus rosettes. In extreme cases they appear only as small equal armed crosses (Pl. XXXII., 7, second border; XLV., 9, border).
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SAPU-MALA, and VEṬAKEYIYĀ: these flowers, conventionalised *Sapu-mala*, forms of those of the *sapu-tree* (Fig. 33, v.), and common *Pandanus* *Veṭakeyiya* (Fig. 33, iv.), are used in vihāra decoration, like lotus rosettes, to fill space, as on Pl. XVIII.
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MAL-GAHA: the ‘flower-tree’ is the name given to the little *Mal-gaha* jewelled tree on a Kandyan king’s hat, now worn by chiefs indiscriminately; and also to tree patterns, which would be called by comparative patternists ‘trees of life,’ such as the forms shown in Fig. 40 and Pl. XXXII., 1 and 2). The *mal-gaha* usually springs from a low triangular mound, representing earth or rock, as in Fig. 40 and Pl. XIV., 4.
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A beautiful form of the tree of life is treated almost pictorially on the Keḷaṇiya vihāra ceiling (Pl. XIV., 4); the life symbolism is emphasized by the many forms of life—birds, animals and man—associated with the tree and living under it; but the special interest of this type is its identity with the tree forms characteristic of the South Indian printed palampores; it is perhaps found in Ceylon as the result of Tamil influence, or may belong to an older stratum common to both races, the likelihood of which must always be remembered when considering the origin of particular decorative forms.
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Fig. 39. Forms of *pala-peti* border showing development and changes.
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The tree motif is in constant use; in embroidery it is illustrated in Fig. 4, on Pl. XXVIII. and Pl. XXXIII., 4; with birds in Pl. XXXII., 1. It appears frequently between two animals, in the symmetrical arrangement called ‘affrontment.’
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Artificial trees of silver, with silver leaves, or of cheaper materials (Pl. VIIA., in front of left knee of seated image) are often placed before an image as auspicious symbols of the famous wish-conferring tree of plenty, the *kalpa druma* of Indra’s sphere. So also we read in the Mahāvamsa, of jewelled, ornamented trees. Parākrama Bāhu I., for instance “caused a theatre to be built, the Sarassati Maṇḍapa, hard by his palace, so that he might listen to the sweet and melodious singing of divers singers, and witness the delightful dance. It glittered with golden pillars all around, and pleased the mind with the paintings that described the events of his own life. And it was adorned with an imitation of the ‘wish-conferring tree of heaven’ (*kap-ruka*). The trunk and the branches thereof glittered with gold, and were ornamented with a multitude of divers kinds of birds of beautiful workmanship. It shone with divers kinds of ornaments, such as ear-rings and bracelets and garlands of pearls and the like, and with beautiful garments made of linen and China silk, and such like”(Mahāvamsa, Ch. LXXIII.) Jewelled representations of *bo*-trees were also made; for an early record of such, see p. 5 above.
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Fig. 40. Mal-gaha, ‘flower-tree,’ from a Dumbara mat (kalalaya).
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The *bo*-tree is of course constantly represented in Buddhist paintings (Pl. XIX., etc). To each Buddha belonged a tree, beneath the shade of which he sat at the critical period of his life, the coming of enlightenment. The *bo*-tree (*Ficus religiosa*) of Gotama Buddha has thus come to occupy, as a symbol, much the same position *amongst* Buddhists as the cross amongst Christians. A branch of the actual tree beneath which the Buddha sat, was brought to Anurādhapura in the third century, B.C.; and there it still grows—the oldest historical tree in the world. But a *bo*-tree of some sort, large or small, is to be found near every vihāra, and offerings of flowers are laid on a stone altar before it. Sometimes white cotton banners or garlands are attached to the branches. The leaves are separately used as decorative motifs as described below. Trees of various kinds are often represented in decorative paintings, severely but beautifully conventionalised as in Pl. XIV., 8 and Fig. 41. In these pictures, grace and symmetry are wonderfully combined.
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‘FLOWER-IN-POT.’ Closely allied to the flower-tree, is the tree or flower in a pot; filled pots and flowers in pots are auspicious objects used at weddings and festivals and are constantly seen in all Eastern art (Pl. VIIA., between the doors in the lower figure; and Pl. XXXIII., 2). The ‘flower in pot’ is a very ancient auspicious decorative symbol, and many examples in carved stone may be seen at Anurādhapura. The symbolism goes back to the beginnings of Asiatic art.
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Fig. 41. Decorative picture of mango tree: Danagirigala vihāra.
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LIYA-VELA. The ordinary meaning of *vela* is a climbing plant, a jungle rope; *liya* has the same meaning, as well as the secondary meaning of woman, gracefulness, etc., as in *liya kindura*. In Sinhalese ornament *vela* or *liya vela* has the technical meaning of vegetable ornament, consisting not of single flowers or leaves, but of a continuous stem with rhythmically disposed floral or foliar elements, such as German writers name *fortpflanzende Wellenranke*. The word ‘branch’
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I have selected as the best equivalent for these Sinhalese and German terms.* The words *Design* and ‘vine’ and ‘spray’ are also suitable equivalents, with the reservation, of course, that the ornament grape vine, is not met with in Sinhalese art, even as a foreign element. In using the word ‘branch,’ I have had in mind the Keltic stories† of Faery branches that stilled all sorrow by the sound of their shaking; for as they through the ears lightened the burden of sorrow, so has the burden of labour been lightened by the painted or carved branches of the craftsman.
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† “*Cormac* . . . was by himself in Teamhair one time, and he saw an armed man coming towards him, *quiet, with high looks, and having grey hair; a shirt ribbed with gold thread next his skin, broad shoes of white bronze between his feet and the ground, a shining branch, having nine apples of red gold on his shoulder. And it is delightful the sound of that branch, and no one on earth would keep in mind any want, or trouble, or tiredness, when that branch was shaken for him; and whatever trouble there might be on him, he would forget it at the sound.*” (Gods and Fighting Men, Lady Gregory, p. 115, ‘Manannan’s Call to Cormac,’ after Whitley Stokes, *Irische Texte*). *And if there is, perhaps, in this Faery branch that stills all sorrow, a non-moral element which is lacking in the craftsman’s branch, yet the idea of consolation in distress is in both.*
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Branches and vines are most various in form and treatment, and everywhere in continual use; they are especially characteristic of painted wood, carved door-jambs and embroidery. Of these forms Mr. Bell remarks: “The main ornament, repeated in endless variety . . . is the continuous scroll of foliage. . . . Single or double, large or small, plain or complex, its convolutions throwing off leaves . . . or . . . sometimes a repeated flower, or even enclosing partially or throughout, figures of dancers,—the one leading idea is kept steadily in view, and it would be difficult, if not impossible, to substitute other ornamentation more elegant, refined and better suited to its purpose.” *Liya-veḷa* frequently springs from the mouths of animals, as in Early Indian art (Pl. XI., 5 and 3). The feeling for growth is very strong and logical in all the forms, though none approach nature closely in detail; such a monstrosity as leaves growing in opposite directions from one stem, or stems without a logical beginning and end would be almost impossible to the Kandyan designer. A careful study of Pl. XV., and Fig. 52, will show how exceedingly logical and full of feeling for growth is the Sinhalese treatment of vines. The *liya-veḷa* may either be used to cover space as in Pl. XXXVI., 6, 7 and 9, and in Pl. XV.; or may form a border, in which case the floral or foliaceous elements alternate very regularly on opposite sides of the waved stem (Pls. XXXI., border; XXXII., 9; XXXVIII., 4; XXXIX., 9, etc). Fig. 12 on Pl. XXVI. shows an especially handsome form.
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Fig. 42. *Liya veḷa* and other ornament of earthenware, Keḷaniya.
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The alternating spirals characteristic of a certain type of metal work (Fig. 53, c) are strictly ornament of the same type, and historically, its basis, but they would hardly be called *liya-veḷa* by Sinhalese painters. A noteworthy form on Keḷaniya pottery is shown in Fig. 42 and will be discussed with correlated examples in the Chapter on the History of Sinhalese Art; it will here suffice to note the archaic aspect of these types, suggestive at first sight of Greek and other Mediterranean forms.
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∗ The term ‘branch’ is however, hardly a full equivalent of the German ‘Wellenranke,’ as the latter includes rhythmic forms of ornament (e.g., Fig. 53, c) whose origin is geometrical, and where the ‘vine’ idea is still undeveloped.
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LIYA PATA or POTA.* This exceedingly conventional foliar ornament deserves particular study. It is more characteristic of Sinhalese design than any other form; instruction in the use of it is almost the first thing taught to young craftsmen. The elements of it will be best understood from Fig. 44, wherein the manner of drawing is also displayed; it is not easy to draw the form well unless the parts are taken in the right order.†
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† *It is often badly drawn by illustrators, as in several places in Bell’s Kegalla Report.*
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Fig. 43. Liya veḷa, Ivory, South Kensington.
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Fig. 44. Liya pata ornament, showing manner of drawing.
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Work filled with it is called *liya-pata-veḍa*; a single element like the last in Fig. 44 would be called *geṭa-liya-pota*; such are often used much like Gothic crockets (Pl. XXXV., 5 and 6). The pattern lends itself on the other hand to the greatest possible elaboration, as seen in elaborate examples of *tiringi tale* (Pl. XVII., and Figs. 4 and 8), or perhaps best, in fine ivory carving (Pl. XXXV., 4, also a beautiful piece, No. 404/1897 in the Science and Art Museum, Indian Section, South Kensington); it occurs especially in knife handles (Pl. XXXVII., 2). It is very characteristic of metal and woodwork. It is often found on wooden pillars at the transition from square to octagonal section (Fig. 74, c). It is constantly used in the tails and crests of conventional birds (Fig. 19) and bird-like tails of mythical animals (Figs. 16, 17, etc.) in lions' manes and the handles of door-bolts and water-dippers (Pl. XI., 2, XIII. and XLI.), and, in fact, everywhere. It is sometimes used to elaborate a *pala-peti* border as in the ivory door jambs of the Daḷadā Māligāva.
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∗ *Pota. Pata=leaf: paṭa=stripe: pota=a book: but craftsmen use the word ‘pota’ in pattern names in various senses, as strand, knop, item, element, ‘affair,’ ‘thingumi-bob.’ So used it is apparently a corruption of ‘pata’ or ‘paṭa,’ according to circumstances; thus, de-paṭa-lanuva is evidently de-paṭa-lanuva, two-ply-plait; and liya pota is liya pata, ‘vine leaf,’ both forms being current in the last case.*
First 107 of 186 passages. Read on
Linked texts (6)
- Jātaka — Pāli
- Mahābhārata — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
- Mahāvaṃsa — Pāli
- Sārnāth
- Bharhut
- Anurādhapura