The Colas c36: Description of Figures in the Plates

The Cōḷas c36

Language: English

c36.s1 Plate XXXVII—Coins — 12 parts

Description of Figures in the Plates

Frontispiece.—(a) Panel of painting showing a group of celestial musicians—Gandharvas and Apsarases. The one on the right is playing on cymbals. The other three hold their hands in *vismaya* pose. They are in the posture of flying through the air which is suggested by their being hidden below their waist in the cloud-*motif*, which is called "Chinese". This panel is placed between the panel above showing Śiva in Kailās and the panel below showing Sundaramūrti Nāyanār on Airāvata and Cheramān Perumāl on horse proceeding to Kailās, to demarcate the two different regions. The *bhangas*, the head-dresses and ornaments and colour compositions are wonderful. That the artists of Tanjore were masters of line is easily borne out by the sure and suave *rekhās*.

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(b) Apsaras dancing. It occurs in the same scene mentioned above. Here the Apsaras is exhibiting a difficult pose of dancing. There is a suggestion that she is whirling. Being a celestial, she is not bound by gravity. The mastery of the artist is easily seen here especially in the powerful and flowing lines, the beautiful decorative details and the charming *bhangas*. The cloud-*motif* all around her suggests the celestial region.

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Fig. 1. Vijayālayacoḷēśvara temple, on Mēlamalai, Nārttāmalai, 'Puddukkottah State.' *Circa* 9th century a.d.

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It has a circular *garbhagṛha* in a square. Third floor of *vimāna* is also circular. Cupola with *kūḍu* designs on all four sides. Walls have simple mouldings and pilasters. Heavy cornice runs round the entire structure. Linked *kōṣṭhas* and *śālas* form the parapet above cornice. Two-handed *dvārapālakas* of slender and beautiful form in the niches on either side of entrance. The ruined *prākāra* had perhaps a *gōpura* over the entrance at north-eastern side. Six single-storeyed shrines (*ekatalaprāsāda*) and traces of another, are found inside the *prākāra*. Each of these has a square sanctum with bulbous *śikhara* and rectangular *maṇḍapa* in front. They were probably dedicated to Sūrya, Saptamātṛkas, Candra, Subrahmaṇya, Jyēṣṭhā, and Caṇḍikēśvara as in the case of the temple at Tirukkaṭṭaḷai where, however, an additional contemporary shrine and a later Amman shrine are also found.

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Fig. 2. Main temple of Vijayālayacoḷēśvara on Mēlamalai *Vide* fig. 1. above.

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Fig. 3. Agastyēśvara temple, from north-west. Pananguḍi, 'Puduk-kottah State.' It is one of the many simple and beautiful single-storeyed (*ekatalaprāsāda*) shrines occurring in the 'State.' Transverse platform in front of sanctum was perhaps a pillared *maṇḍapa*. Simple mouldings and pilasters, corbels with chamfered corners. Probably there was a *prākāra*. Elegant couchant *nandis* on the corners.

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Fig. 4. Śiva temple. Enādi, 'Pudukkottah State.' It is simpler, more beautiful and probably earlier than the above temple. Has cubical sanctum topped by a square *śikhara*. Pilasters simple with bevelled corbels above. Finely worked *kūḍus* with *kīrtimukha* apexes are found one on each face of *śikhara*. *Mukhamāṇḍapa* is borne by two heavy and squat pillars. One end of terrace rests on the cornice of sanctum. No niches on the sanctum walls but outlines of a niche on the walls below *śikhara*, which recalls the roof of the 'Draupadi Ratha' of Mahābalipuram.

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Fig. 5. Śiva temple, from north-east. Korkai Tirunelveli District Its sanctum is similar to that of fig. 4. Here, however, the basement is high; a short parapet with a frieze of animals in high relief all along the cornice is seen and the niche-motif is pronounced. Pillared portico has given place to a walled up *antarāḷa*. Other structures are of later date. The frieze of animals became a recurring motif in temples from now on.

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Fig. 6. Main shrine of Nāgeśvara temple, Kumbakonam, Tanjore District. It is a beautiful example of two-storeyed (*dvitalaprāsāda*) shrine. Heavy indentations on plan. Sharp light and shade effect on elevation due to projections at the corners and the centres of each side. *Karṇakōṣṭhas* on corners and *śālās* in the centre of parapet with the frieze of animals in bas-relief, which occurs again above. This motif has not yet been employed for the base also as in still later temples. Square *śikhara* with *kūḍus* on its sides. Figure sculptures in the niches and below *kūḍus*. Mouldings and pilasters are simple. The corbels are rounded, survival of an earlier feature.

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Fig. 7. Mūvarkovil, No. 1, south view. Koḍumbāḷūr, 'PudukkotTah State,' Tiruchirapalli District. It is one of the two shrines that now survive of the group of originally three shrines which stood within a *prākāra*. Has roll-moulding in the plinth, above it the *yāḷivari* occurring for the first time, projecting central niches on three sides of *garbhagṛha* with sculptures, heavy cornice with *yāḷivari* above, square *karṇakōṣṭhas* and central *śālā* of which the top is taken up to the second floor, *nandis* in corners, square *śikhara* with prominent *kūḍus* on its faces. Taller and simpler than the Nāgeśvara temple (fig. 6).

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Fig. 8. Agastyēśvara temple, Mēlappaḷuvūr, Tiruchirapalli District. Roll-moulding and *yāḷivari* in plinth and arrangement of the *kōṣṭhas* and *śālā* above cornice shows a combination of elements occurring in Mūvarkovil No. 1, and Nāgeśvara. Bulbous *śikhara* with a prominent *kūḍu* containing beautiful sculpture on each of the four sides is distinctive of this shrine but would recall the *śikhara* of Vijayālayacōḷēśvara.

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Fig. 9. Inscribed lion pillars in the above temple. These pillars are similar to the pillars in the Vaikuṇṭhaperumāl temple at Kāñcīpuram.

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But their later date is clear from the stylised form of the manes of the lions, panel-like flutings above their heads, petal decoration on the *kumuda* portion, unpronounced abacus (*palagai*) above cushion and the bevelled corbels above *palagai*. Introduction of *yāḷi* as base of pillar is also in support of the late dating.

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Fig. 10. Koranganātha temple, from south-west, Śrīnivāsanallūr, Tiruchirapalli District. Larger than the temples noticed above, but has a combination of elements found in them. Here is found a repetition of the ground floor in the first floor. Above this are the *kōṣṭhas*, *śālās* and also *pañjaras* which occur for the first time here. Square *śikhara* on the summit with arched niches on its sides. Beautiful sculptures adorn the niches in both the tiers. Tier repetition here is an anticipation of the same feature in the famous temples at Tanjore and Gaṅgaikoṇḍa-cōḻapuram. A *mahāmaṇḍapa* is attached in front. Like the Nāgēśvara temple, this also is found to rise from below ground level.

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Fig. 11. Bṛhadīśvara temple. Tanjore. A magnificent example of South Indian temple architecture, built by the great Rājarāja. Its elevation, sculptures and frescoes have evoked universal admiration. In the pavilion in the fore-ground is the big *nandi*, the second largest in India. Has a single *prākāra* with closed verandah lining the interior. Smaller shrines are located at intervals in the verandah. It has two entrances with stunted *gōpuras*, not seen in the figure.

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Fig. 12. Bṛhadīśvara temple. Gaṅgaikoṇḍa-cōḻapuram, Tiruchirapalli District. Another beautiful temple. Built by Rājēndra Cōḻa I. The two tiers are distinctly seen here. *Kōṣṭhas*, *pañjaras* and *śālās* are well marked. The niches contain beautiful sculptures. Unlike the elevation of the *vimāna* at Tanjore, the elevation here is concave in shape and the contour rather rugged.

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Fig. 13. North doorway in the above temple. The *śuruḷ* balustrade is simple unlike in later examples at Dārāśuram and elsewhere. Roll-moulding is fine. Pilasters are developed in their section. Dvārapālas, as usual in Cōḻa temples of this period, are fierce-looking and vigorous with their firm stances and the *tarjanī* and *vismaya mudrās* of their hands.

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Fig. 14. Entrance *gōpura*, Laddigam. It is a simple and beautiful *gōpura* and is one of the very early examples of its kind. It is single-storeyed (*ekatala*). *Kīrtimukha* designs one each over the ends of the vault is all the decoration that the *gōpura* has and it is clearly the prototype for the later day elaborately worked *yāḷi* heads of the *gōpuras*.

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Fig. 15. Airāvatēśvara temple, general view from south-east. Dārāśuram, Tanjore District. This is another example of the style in which the temples at Tanjore and Gaṅgaikoṇḍa-cōḻapuram are constructed, but later than those temples. Development of details evident in the pillars, mouldings, niches and balustrades. New addition is the open pillared *maṇḍapa* in front of the *mahāmaṇḍapa* with which the earlier temples stopped. More significant and interesting are the horses attached to the *maṇḍapa* to make it a chariot, a novel idea given concrete form. (Cf. examples of this kind at Cidambaram and Kumbakonam). Simple *śuruḷ* balustrades occur side by side with balustrades showing figures of elephants alone and figures of elephant being attacked by lions. It is in this temple that there is a series of carvings in bas-relief representing the lives of the famous Śaiva saints according to the *Periya-purāṇam* of Sēkkiḻār. Lives of a few of the saints have not been carved but the original sketches in red ochre of the scenes to be carved are still to be found. As usual the *gōpura* is stunted although it has become ornate. But the *vimāna* here shows signs of diminishing size.

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Fig. 16. North-east view of the above temple. Brick and mortar miniature *śālās* etc. on top all along the cornice, the large and heavy pillars with composite designs, the projecting cornice (*koḍungai*), the deep niches with sculptures and the lotus petals with pointed ends on the *upapīṭha* are innovations here.

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Fig. 17. South-west view of the *Alaṅkāra maṇḍapa*, in the above temple. The pillars show interesting developments of motifs. The corbels have foliage designs instead of simple earlier ones. The *palagai* is thin and very broad. *Yāḷis* and lions on the bases are in a variety of postures. *Pañjara* design is found applied to the basement. The wheel and horse suggest that the *maṇḍapa* is a chariot. The elephant design on the balustrade is exquisitely carved.

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Fig. 18. Devanāyakī Amman shrine, south-east view, in the above temple. It is one of the earliest examples of separate shrines dedicated to Amman as consort of the main deity. Prior to about a.d. 1100 it was not customary to build a separate shrine for Amman in the compound of a temple. New and interesting features met with here are the projecting *kūḍus* of the *adhiṣṭhāna*; the pilasters with rampant lion bases; cornice (*koḍungai*) with prominent *kūḍus* in pairs; three-storeyed *vimāna* with a prominent projection in front and the long covered *ardhamaṇḍapa*, all employed tastefully so as to render the shrine beautiful.

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Fig. 19. Kampaharēśvarasvāmi temple, north-west view, Tribhuvanam, Tanjore District. It is another of the last great temples of the Cōḷa period. Its plan and elevation are on the model of the temple at Tanjore. But here the repetition of the ground tier above it, is absent. The mouldings, the pillars, cornice and the arrangement and decoration of the miniature shrines above show further development.

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Fig. 20. (A) Basement frieze of the Ta-hsiung-pao tieu hall. Zayton (Chuan Chou) in China. The basement has the *padmapīṭha* as well as the *vyāḷavari* motif, both characteristic of South Indian temples of the Cōḷa times. Instead of the continuous *yāḷi* frieze of the South Indian temples, here a *yāḷi* or *siṁha* or a composite figure is enclosed in a separate panel.

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Fig. 20. (B) Elephant worshipping Śiva-linga, same place. Śiva-linga is shown under a tree and amidst creepers which suggest that the *liṅga* was hidden under creepers in a forest. The elephant accidentally came upon the *liṅga* and began to worship it. Here the elephant is placing a lotus flower on the top of the *liṅga*. Although the general features of the figures are in South Indian style, the details of the elephant and of the tree and creeper show unmistakable local influence.

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Fig. 20. (C) Cow worshipping a Śiva-liṅga, same place. The modelling of the cow and the workmanship of the tree suggest that the sculptor was of local origin but influenced greatly by traditions of the art of South India.

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Fig. 21. Devotee, in a niche in the temple at Śrīnivāsanallūr, Tiruchirapalli District. Stands in the *samabhaṅga* pose on the double lotus pedestal. Hands crossed across the chest and kept in the attitude of reverence and obedience. *Karaṇḍamakuṭa* and other ornaments are seen. Right leg of the figure is broken. The modelling is fine, proportions of limbs are excellent, the decoration is restrained and the general treatment is highly realistic and aesthetically of high order. These are characteristic of sculpture of the 9th-10th centuries in South India as exemplified at Kumbakonam, Koḍumbāḷūr, Śrīnivāsanallūr and other places. The figures are, as a rule, slender and beautiful and placed in niches on the walls of sanctum. Flanking the niche is a pair of beautiful pilasters.

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Fig. 22. Princess or Apsaras(?), in the same temple. It is a marvellous example of sculpture of a woman. Her left leg and arm and right hand are broken. The workmanship is similar to fig. 21. She stands on *padmāsana*. *Karaṇḍamakuṭa* and *hāras* and lower garment are beautiful. Full breasts, slender waist and broad hips are executed with consummate mastery and with an eye on canonical formulas relating to feminine beauty. Sharply bevelled corbels above pilasters are noteworthy.

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Fig. 23. Princess or Apsaras(?), in another niche. Similar to above. Here the left hand and right leg are broken. The sculptures from 21 to 23 are distinctive of the Śrīnivāsanallūr school, and are different from examples of sculpture from Kumbakonam and other places.

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Fig. 24. Woman, in a niche in the Nāgēśvara temple, Kumbakonam. Here the figure stands on simple pedestal, wears *dhammilla* head-dress decorated with flowers, pendant *hāras*, closefitting lower garment with beautiful folds, *valayas* and *nūpuras*. Prominent *vājibandha* below the arm and triple folds (*trivali*) on stomach. The elongated face, the slender form and decorative details and fine feeling expressed by facial features evident in this sculpture are characteristic of all the sculptures of this school.

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Fig. 25. Another woman, in another niche, in the same temple. Similar to above with minor differences in regard to ornamentation, hand poses and stance only. She also wears *dhammilla* head-dress with usual flowers, gem-set *kuṇḍalas*, jewelled necklaces and armlets and close-fitting lower garment with beautifully folded ends. They reveal the high degree of careful finish of details coupled with classical restraint. The *bhaṅga* and the more than three-quarter profile endow the figure with a rare charm.

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Fig. 26. Another woman in another niche, in the same temple. Similar to above. Noteworthy are *kuṇḍalas* and the beautiful lily in her left hand.

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Fig. 27. Another woman. Here the beauty and charm inherent in these sculptures are high-lighted. Details of decoration such as the Chandra and Surya *prabhās* on the head, hair falling in graceful curls over the shoulders and the *kuṇḍalas* and necklaces show the remarkable delicacy of treatment. Added to these is the splendid modelling as evidenced by the full bosom, slender arm and waist, and broad hip.

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Fig. 28. Man standing, in another niche, in the same temple. Workmanship similar to above figures. The hand poses, the slight *bhaṅga* and other features are beautiful and realistic. The modelling is fine. The figure probably represents a monk.

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Fig. 29. Man standing, in another niche in the same temple. Here probably a prince is depicted. He wears *keśabandha* with a jewelled fillet below. Holds a lotus flower in his right hand. The treatment of eyes and nose, the full lips, the rounded face, the disposition of the legs, the three-quarter profile and the general softness of finish distinguish this figure from others here, and suggest that this is by a sculptor trained in a different school, probably of that of Śrīnivāsanallūr.

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Fig. 30. Two devotees, in the Śiva temple. Tiruvāḍutuṟai, Tanjore District. The figure on the left is in *añjali* pose. A bag is hanging from his left arm. Wears a very simple loin cloth. The other devotee on the right holds his hands in *añjali* above his head. Wears a rosary of beads around his neck. His bag is kept on a stand behind him. These figures, in bas-relief, are beautifully done. They display, by the expression on their faces a calmness and devotion that distinguish men of this class. (See p. 725). The Tamil characters are of the early Cōḷa times.

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Fig. 31. Goddess or Queen?. Bronze. Locality unknown. She stands in *tribhaṅga* pose on *padmāsana*. Wears *karaṇḍamakuṭa*, a broad necklace, *nāgavalayas* on arms, *vājībandha*, *valayas*, *yajñōpavīta*, beautifully arranged lower garment and *nūpuras*. Right hand is in *kaṭaka* pose and the left is in *lōla*. The expression in the face is calm and meditative. The modelling and decoration suggest an earlier date than that of Sītā from Vaḍakkuppanaiyūr in the Madras Museum. But the unusually slender limbs, the drooping shoulders and the style of the lotus pedestal point to Ceylon.

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Fig. 32. Cōḷamādēvī. Bronze. Kāḷahasti, Chittoor District. The figure stands in the *tribhaṅga* pose on *padmāsana*. Wears elaborately worked ornaments and dress. *Dhammilla* head-dress, realistic lotus bud in her hand, the tasselled *kēyūra* and *vājībandha* are interesting. It is intended to be a portrait of a great Cōḷa queen of the 11th century A.D.

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Fig. 33. Kulōttunga III. Bronze. Kāḷahasti, Chittoor District. Stands erect on the two *pīṭhas*. Curly hair. Elaborate ornaments and dress. Holds a dagger in his right hand. Expression is smiling. The general treatment of the figure is excellent and of late Cōḷa times.

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This is a fine example to show that the art continued to maintain its high level for a long time.

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Fig. 34. Gōḷakamaharṣi. Bronze. Kōḍikkarai, Tanjore District. Being almost a nude study, it shows bare the excellent modelling and realistic delineation of features. *Jaṭābhāra* of a peculiar shape, the thick fillet of beads, and the stance are particularly interesting. This is one of the figures which provided the model for later ones.

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Fig. 35. Caṇḍikēśvara, in the Koraṅganātha temple. Śrīnivāsanallūr, Tiruchirapalli District. Similar in workmanship to other figures from this temple noticed above. The *jaṭāmakuṭa* and the *añjali* hands with flower in between show this as Caṇḍēśa, though it has been held by some to be the portrait of a prince. Lotus pedestal and the fine pilasters add beauty to this figure. It is another beautiful example of sculpture of the period.

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Fig. 36. Described usually as Narasiṅgamunaiyadarayar, but possibly Rāma. Bronze. Tirunāmanallūr, Tanjore District. It stands in the *tribhaṅga* pose. Hands in position of holding bow and arrow. Wears usual ornaments. The high *kirīṭa*, broad necklace and loin cloth are beautifully worked. The fine facial expression radiating supreme grace, the beautiful *bhaṅga* of the body and the wonderful plastic quality, the Cōḷa ideals of bronzes, are well exemplified here. Nevertheless elaboration of details etc., makes it definitely later than the Rāma of the Vaḍakkuppanaiyūr group in the Madras Museum as well as the Gōḷakamaharṣi fig. 34 above.

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Fig. 37. Śiva, in a niche on the south wall of central shrine. Tirukkaṭṭaḷai, ‘Pudukkottah State.’ It stands on simple pedestal. It is slender and perfectly proportionate. Wears *jaṭāmakuṭa*, broad necklace, *udarabandha* and beautiful waist-band. Holds a bow in his left hand and an arrow (?) in the right hand. The two other hands are not clearly seen. The face, looking down, has the expression of *vismaya*. Described as Vīṇādhara Dakṣiṇāmūrti in the *Pudukkottah Manual*. But the features noted above may warrant identification as Tripurāntakamūrti. (*Cf.* similar features in the Tripurāntakamūrti fig. 39 below).

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Fig. 38. Vīṇādhara Dakṣiṇāmūrti, in a niche in Mūvarkovil No. 1. Koḍumbāḷūr, ‘Pudukkottah State.’ A magnificent example of the icon. Characteristically, the face expressing complete absorption, is lifted up. Wears high *jaṭāmakuṭa*. Ornaments and waist-bands are pronounced. Holds the *vīṇa* in the two front hands. The back hands are not clear here. The *bhaṅga* and the general treatment of the figure enhance its grandeur.

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Fig. 39. Tripurāntakamūrti. From the same place. Now in the Government Museum, Madras. It stands gracefully in the *tribhaṅga* pose. The back hands are in *patākā hasta*. Beyond them are quivers. The front right arm is in *vyākhyāna* pose, while the left hand is holding the long bow. The *jaṭāmakuṭa*, *channavīra*, *hāra*, the upper garment tied in two loops and with beautiful bows, and the *yajñōpavīta* are executed in a splendid manner. Here too, as in the Tirukkaṭṭaḷai example, the facial expression is suggestive of *vismaya* caused by the Lord's destroying the Tripurāsuras. The swaying rhythm, the wonderful modelling and the supple as well as realistic delineation of the limbs make this figure a superb specimen of the art.

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Fig. 40. Tripurasundarī. From the same place. Now in the Government Museum, Madras. It forms a group with figure No. 39 above. The *samabhanga* (erect) pose here is unusual in figures of goddesses. Right hand holds a flower and the left is on the thigh. Decorated with elaborately worked *karaṇḍamakuṭa*, *kuṇḍalas* and necklace. *Yajñōpavīta* prominent. Lower garment is beautifully worked with tassels and folds. Unlike her consort, she looks in front with her face beaming with divine grace and splendour. Stylistically akin to the previous figure this is also the work of the same master hand.

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Fig. 41. Ardhanārīśvara, in a niche in Mūvarkōvil No. 2. Koḍumbāḷūr, 'PudukkotTah State.' Stands in the *tribhanga* pose. Only one hand on the right side, which is Lord's. Pārvati's side has one hand which holds a mirror. A grand conception is given a wonderful form. Prakṛti and Puruṣa here combined to form the substratum of the cosmos. This figure almost achieves the impossible, and combines high aesthetic qualities with strict rules of iconography. The workmanship bears a remote resemblance to the Ardhanārī figure at Mahābalipuram. The designs of the flanking pilasters lend charm to the figure.

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Fig. 42. Ardhanārīśvara, in a niche in the Nāgēśvara temple, Kumbakonam. Similar in conception to the Koḍumbāḷūr figure; but here the execution is marvellous and unsurpassed. Perhaps 9th-10th centuries A.D. in South India witnessed the arts reaching their zenith of development. This is the finest of all the figures in this temple. The great mastery of the Cōḷa sculptor is evident in each limb of the figure. Its style of workmanship is apparently of local origin and quite distinct from the styles that were in vogue at Koḍumbāḷūr and other places. Here the pilasters are not interesting.

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Fig. 43. Brahmā, in the same temple. The youthful figure with three faces, radiating divine wisdom stands on *padmapīṭha*, in the *samabhanga* pose. The upper hands hold rosary of beads and *kuṇḍikā*, his cognizances. Workmanship same as in the previous figure.

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Fig. 44. Śiva as Kankāḷamūrti, in a niche in the Koranganātha temple. Śrīnīvasanallūr, Tiruchirapalli District. Stands right side to front. Right leg broken but must have been placed on the head of the dwarf Apasmāra. *Jaṭāmakuṭa* and other ornaments are as usual worked very beautifully.

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Fig. 45. Dakṣiṇāmūrti, in a niche on the south, in the same temple. A magnificent figure but badly mutilated. The immense *jaṭābhāra*, delicate carving of the ornaments and splendid modelling of the figure make it a great master-piece. Branches of the tree above form an effective setting. The beauty of the figure is enhanced by the figures of animals, such as deer and lions as well as the Vidyādharas, Ṛṣis and Apasmāra. The workmanship of these is apparently the same as that of the main figure. Architectural features such as the roll-moulding, *yāḷivari*, the graceful pillars, the fine *tōraṇa* and the characteristic bevelled capital make the scene really attractive.

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Fig. 46. (Pl. xx) Śiva as Ardhanārīśvara, and Śiva as an Anugrahamūrti, on the *vimāna* of Vālīśvara temple. Tiruvālīśvaram, Tirunelveli District. This temple dates probably from the early years of the 10th century a.d. Architectural details, although developed, have affinities with those of the Pallava temples at Panamalai and Kāñcīpuram. Ardhanārīśvara stands in the *tribhaṅga* pose beside a marvellously carved bull and in front of the *karṇakōṣṭha*. The representation is vigorous and its features are somewhat rugged. (Cf. beautiful Ardhanārīśvara sculptures figs. 41, 42 above). The other figure of Śiva is shown in the attitude of pacifying some one of the attendant figures. Beautiful creeper designs are found on *kūḍus*. The *yāḷis* are in high relief as at Nārttāmalai, which is an early feature.

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Fig. 47. (Pl. xx) Śiva as Vṛṣabhāntikamūrti and Śiva as Gaṅgādhara, in the same temple. Vṛṣabhāntika stands with Pārvatī beside the finely executed bull. Both of them are shown in graceful *tribhaṅga* postures. The facial expression of both indicates supreme bliss. The fine modelling and the flowing beautiful flexions and the attractive stances enhance the merit of this composition.

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The Gaṅgādhara group is also beautifully done. Śiva is engaged simultaneously in receiving the Ganges on his locks of hair and in pacifying Pārvatī who took objection to that action of her Lord. This icon has been a favourite with Śaivites in all ages. A magnificent and unparalleled representation of this theme is found in the Mahendravarman’s cave temple at Tiruchirapalli.

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Fig. 48. (Pl. xix) Naṭarāja, on the *vimāna* of the same temple. It is one of the earliest dancing Śiva figures in South India. Its posture is *bhujaṅgatrāsita*; but better known as *ānanda tāṇḍava*, as it gave supreme joy to all the *dēvas* and *Ṛṣis*, men and beasts. Its other names are *sandhyā tāṇḍava* and *Gaurī tāṇḍava*. Dance of Śiva gave the artists of all periods a great opportunity to display their mastery. When it is coupled with unshakable faith and rare devotion to the Lord, the creation gives joy for all and becomes an object of wonder for ever. The Cōḷas were ardent Śaivites and *Āḍavallān* or Naṭarāja was their patron deity. Hence the Naṭarāja figures of this period are marvels of art. This figure has all the features commonly met with in such figures of later date, except the whirling locks of hair. Its movement is rhythmic and graceful and the general treatment vigorous and dynamic. Unfortunately the left hand is broken. The elephant, among the animals on the frieze below, is a splendid study.

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Fig. 49. (Pl. xxi) West side of *vimāna*, in the same temple. A beautiful Yōganarasimha, with four hands, seated on lotus pedestal is seen in the niche at top. Couchant *nandis* with garland of bells around their necks are placed over the corners. A frieze of animals is seen below.

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Seated lions here may have been intended as humourous studies imitating the posture of Narasimha above. (Cf. the cat's penance in the sculpture of Arjuna's penance at Mahābalipuram).

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In the lower storey the following sculptures are found from left to right. (1) Kankāḷamūrti accompanied by Pārvatī and a *gaṇa*. Pārvatī is done in a charming manner. (2) Dakṣiṇāmūrti seated on a hill. (3) Lingōdbhava on *padmāsana*. Quite unusually Viṣṇu, of the same size as of Śiva, stands on the left while similarly Brahmā stands on the right. Both of these are in *añjali* pose which indicates their defeat. Icons of this kind, of later date, show Viṣṇu in the form of a boar or a man with a boar's head burrowing down to see Śiva's feet and Brahmā either in the form of a swan or riding it going up to see Śiva's head. (4) Kālārīmūrti with many hands. His left foot is raised in the *ūrddhvajānu* pose and his front hands are in the posture of destroying Kāla (not distinct here). This type is simplified in the examples at Tanjore and Koḍumbāḷūr. The figure at Koḍumbāḷūr is superb. (5) Tripurāntakamūrti at the extreme right. This is a splendid representation. The pose recalls that of the Rāma figures and Tripurāntaka figures from Tanjore and Māyūram. As mentioned above this icon is a great favourite of the Cōḷas. Rājarāja the Great was particularly struck by this and therefore had not only filled a number of niches on the exterior of the walls of the sanctum of the Tanjore temple with Tripurāntaka figures but had dedicated the entire wall space of a room in the temple's ambulatory for a magnificent representation in painting of the complete scene depicting Śiva's great fight with the Tripurāsuras.

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The frieze of animals, in high relief, the stone construction and the simple *śālas* etc., are early features.

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Fig. 50. (Pl. xix) Gajāntakamūrti, in the same temple. Śiva has eight hands. His left leg is placed on the elephant's head. Its hide is spread by Śiva behind him. The representation is vigorous and awe-inspiring. The decoration is, as usual, fine. Pārvatī is shown on the right, running away from the gruesome scene.

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Fig. 51. (Pl. xxi) Śiva and a devotee and Siva as Caṇḍēśānugrahamūrti, in the same temple. The first sculpture shows Śiva seated in the *sukhāsana* pose, holding his emblems *paraśu* and *mṛga* in his upper hands. The lower right hand is in the pose of pointing to the devotee to his right. *Apasmāra* is not distinct. Devotee in the *atibhaṅga* pose holds a vessel in his hands. He wears *karaṇḍamakuṭa* and other ornaments.

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In the second sculpture Śiva is shown in the very easy posture commonly seen in the Dakṣiṇāmūrti sculptures. He is seen decorating Caṇḍeśa's head with a garland. Caṇḍeśa is shown kneeling and his hands are in *añjali* pose. Pārvatī with *karaṇḍamakuṭa* and wearing other ornaments including *channavīra* and beautiful garment, and holding a flower in her right hand is seated on the pedestal in the *utkuṭikāsana* pose. Her left foot is placed on the vigorous couchant bull shown below. The workmanship of the entire composition is such that it is unsurpassed for beauty by any other example of its kind. (*Cf.* less vigorous but more ornate and larger representation of this at Gaṅgaikoṇḍa-cōḻapuram fig. 57 below).

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Fig. 52. Dakṣiṇāmūrti, in the Aṅgāḷamman shrine, Kāveripākkam, North Arcot District. Śiva is seated in the *utkuṭikāsana* on a pedestal. A pair of deer and a serpent are carved on the pedestal. Points of interest in the sculpture are the big *jaṭābhāra* in curls or knots, the *vastrayajñōpavīta* and the leaves of the book of Cosmic Wisdom (Vedas) in the hand. The general treatment of the figure is characteristic of figures of earlier period. At Kāveripākkam there was a vast quantity of antiquities of Pallava and Cōḷa times.

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Fig. 53. (Pl. xix) Śiva as Bhikṣāṭana, in the Nāgēśvara temple, Kumbakonam. Śiva wears a high *jaṭāmakuṭa* and other ornaments. A serpent forms the waist-band. A *ḍamaru*, a *kapāla* and a staff are held in three hands, the fourth is reassuring the deer. A rare masterpiece, it possesses all the charming features of a perfectly handsome person, correctly answering the textual description of Bhikṣāṭana as he appeared before the wives of the *ṛṣis* of the Dārukāvana.

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Fig. 54. (Pl. xxiii) Sarasvatī?, in the niche on the north side of ambulatory around the sanctum in the Bṛhadīśvara temple, Tanjore. The goddess is seated in the *ardhaparyankāsana*. Right hand broken and the left holds the book of Universal Knowledge. Wears *jaṭāmakuṭa*, *kucabandha*, other ornaments. Beautiful umbrella and branches of a tree above. A *cāmaradhāriṇī* is seen on either side, and a gandharva hovering above. Facial expression suggests sublime spiritual feeling. All the classical qualities are marked here. Its wearing a *kucabandha*, occurring in a temple avowedly dedicated to glorify Śiva's sports, and its answering a verse in the *Lalitāsahasranāma* may suggest that it represents a form of Umā rather than Sarasvatī.

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Fig. 55. (Pl. xxii) Naṭarāja, in an exterior niche in the temple, Gaṅgaikoṇḍa-cōḷapuram. This sculpture is one of the most beautiful dancing Śiva figures in this pose, in which the Cōḷa sculptors revelled. (*Cf.* the earlier figure from the Vālīśvara temple at Tiruvālīśvaram, Tirunelveli District fig. 48). Here the figure is more evolved and fully standardised. The following subsidiary figures in bas-relief are not only beautiful but also interesting as they complete the entire scene. Behind Naṭarāja is Kālī in the *catura* dancing pose. Beyond the niche on the right side is Pārvatī standing and leaning against the fine bull. Beautiful Gaṇeśa and Subrahmaṇya figures are shown on the left. Below them is a magnificent representation of Viṣṇu playing on drum and upper hands in *vismaya* pose which suggests his great admiration of Śiva's cosmic dance. Apasmāra is large. Below him on the pedestal are shown a *gaṇa* (*Taṇḍu*?) playing on drum and Kāraikāl Ammaiyār, the woman-saint playing on cymbals. On either side of this is a panel with *gaṇas* in various dance postures.

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Fig. 56. (Ibid.) Harihara, in a niche in the same temple. The figure stands in the *samabhanga* pose. Śiva's *paraśu* and his *jaṭāmakuṭa* are seen on the right side of the figure. Viṣṇu's conch and *kirīṭamakuṭa* are on the left side. The treatment of this figure appears to be a little stiff, unusual in the sculptures of this period. On the contrary the indistinct bas-relief sculptures on the base are fine.

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Architectural details of this niche and of the niche of Naṭaraja (fig. 55 above) when compared show interesting differences occurring side by side in one and the same structure.

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Fig. 57. (Ibid.) Śiva as Caṇḍēśānugrahamūrti, in the same temple. Śiva seated in the *sukhāsana* posture is tying the garland on to the head of Caṇḍēśa shown kneeling and in *añjali* pose. Pārvatī is seated beside in the *utkuṭikāsana* with her hand in the *āhūyavarada* pose. The group is reputed for its beautiful modelling, fine plastic sense, and interesting decorative details. (Cf. more beautiful figure from Tiruvālīśvaram fig. 51 noticed above). The fine bas-relief group with beautiful rhythm and dynamic action on the left obviously depicts the scene of Caṇḍēśa attempting to cut off the legs of his father who prevented his son from worshipping Śiva, in his own way. This sculpture is interesting because it confirms the story of Caṇḍeśa. Its rendering is effective and forcible.

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Fig. 58. (Pl. xxiv) Śiva as Kāmāntaka, in the same temple. Iconographically rare sculpture. Śiva is seated on *padmapīṭha* in the *sukhāsana* pose. Wears *jaṭāmakuṭa*, *muktā-yajñōpavīta* etc. The emblems in the upper hands are not clear. The lower right hand is in *sūcīhasta*, pointing to a scene occurring below. The left hand is on the lap. The facial expression is terrifying. The modelling and treatment are fine. Around the niche are sculptures in bas-relief. On the left side Manmatha or Kāma with his consort Ratī is flying towards Śiva in the niche. On the corresponding left side is a sculpture showing them standing with hands in *añjali* pose, which indicates their defeat at Śiva's hands. The other figures one of them being Parvatī in penance also relate to the episode. All of them are rendered with vigour and liveliness and are beautiful examples of sculpture in bas-relief, a technique although discontinued long before, was still lingering on, and occasionally, as in these examples, employed very successfully.

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Fig. 59. (Pl. xxiii) Viṣṇu, in the same temple. The figure represented is Śrīnivasa and it stands erect on *padmāsana*. Śrīdēvī and Bhūdēvī stand on either side. The figures show signs of conventionalisation.

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Fig. 60. (Ibid.) Navagraha stone, in the *mahāmaṇḍapa* of the same temple. It is one of the unique representations of the Planets. The conception and execution here are grand. The disposition of the planets around the open lotus which represents not only the Sun but also the universe itself, is quite interesting. Usually the Sun would dominate the panel, but here he is one among others. But his grandeur is however evident in his chariot etc.

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Fig. 61. (Pl. xxiv) Kaṅkāḷamūrti, in the Airāvatēśvara temple. Dārāsuram, Tanjore District. Now removed to the Art Gallery at Tanjore. Śiva wearing sandals stands in the *tribhaṅga* pose. Front hands play on a kettle-drum, the lower right hand is engaged with the deer and the upper left hand holds the bundle of bones across the shoulders. Wears high *jaṭāmakuṭa* and other ornaments. These are elaborate and combined with the acquiline nose indicate the beginnings of stylisation. There is a *gaṇa* on Śiva's left side. The modelling is excellent and the execution delicate. These go to make this figure imposing and one of the very fine specimens of the art of sculpture of the 12th century a.d.

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Fig. 62. Gajāntakāmūrti, from the same place. Now removed to the Art Gallery at Tanjore. This is a wonderful representation of another great theme, and the treatment is powerful and energetic. Though it is in high relief, the execution of the limbs and the *atibhaṅga* posture is such as to make it appear in the round. The controlled dynamism of this figure recalls the Mahiṣamardinī sculpture at Mahābalipuram but with this difference that here the face expresses introspection while Mahiṣamardinī's face beams with divine grace and unruffled tranquillity. Pārvatī is shown in all her tenderness on the left of Śiva, but her face expresses mingled feelings of terror and *vismaya*. This representation differs from that at Tiruvālīśvaram (fig. 50) noticed above. The deviation shows the freedom of the sculptors to render a theme according to their genius but within canonical bounds. The elephant's head, the legs, and the *padmāsana* are highly realistic.

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Fig. 63. Naṭarāja. Bronze. In the Bṛhadīśvara temple at Tanjore. It is installed in the *sabhā* in the temple and offered worship to this day. It was called, as is known from the inscriptions in the temple, *Āḍavallān*. This is one of the most magnificent Naṭarāja figures so far known. Śiva's dancing on Apasmāra is exquisitely poised. The face radiates supreme bliss and spiritual splendour. The swings and pulls of the limbs are highly rhythmic, the balance being sought to be maintained by the whirling locks of hair arranged schematically and by the gracefully flowing ends of the *udarabandha*. The arch of glory, with beautifully worked *makara* heads on it, encompasses the figure and adds beauty to the figure. Rarely this kind of *makara* motif occurs in such figures.

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Fig. 64. Naṭarāja. Bronze. Velāṅgaṇṇi, Tanjore District. Now in the Government Museum, Madras. This is another complete and beautiful example. Has become widely known through the writing of the great French artist A. Rodin. It is very similar to the one from Tanjore noticed above. But here the details such as the *prabhā*, the *padmāsana*, Apasmāra Puruṣa and ornaments are simpler than in the Tanjore Naṭarāja. This fact may suggest that this figure is earlier than the Tanjore one, by a few decades or years.

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Fig. 65. Naṭarāja. Bronze. Tiruvālaṅgāḍu, Chittoor District. Now in the Government Museum, Madras. By far the best known *ānanda tāṇḍava* Naṭarāja image. No *prabhā*. It is acclaimed as a wonderful specimen of the ‘art of bronze.’ What a stone carver could not achieve, the image caster has achieved here. The movements of the limbs are rhythmic and the posture graceful. The little exaggeration of the limbs evidently adds poetic flavour to the sculpture and thus makes it a splendid piece. The rounded limbs, the details such as head-dress in high relief, and the long necklace may not indicate a late date but show the depth of knowledge in his art and capacity of the master sculptor to render the details clearly and effectively.

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Fig. 66. Naṭarāja. Bronze. From Nallūr, Tanjore District. It has eight hands and is in *catura* pose. This is another rare icon. The features of the figure, both on the front side and on the back may indicate that this is an early figure. The treatment of the *prabhā*, of Apasmāra and of the pedestal would support an early dating.

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Fig. 67. Naṭarāja. Bronze. From Tiruvaranguḷam, ‘Pudukkottah State,’ Tiruchirapalli District. Here Śiva dances the graceful *catura tāṇḍava*. It is a rare figure, not only because of its posture but also because of its classical qualities such as the smiling facial expression, restrained ornamentation including the characteristic *vājībandha* and the beautifully worked *jaṭāmakuṭa*. Added to these are the fine figure of Apasmāra and the nicely worked pedestal. It is one of the grand specimens of bronzes.

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Fig. 68. Vṛṣabhāntikamūrti with consort. Bronze. Tiruveṇkāḍu, Tanjore District. Now in the Art Gallery, Tanjore. These, along with Kalyāṇasundara (fig. 82) and two other figures were discovered recently while ploughing in a field at the village. All these figures are done by one and the same master *sthapati* and belong to the early Cōḷa period. As usual in this group, Śiva with only two hands, stands, leg crossed, as if leaning against the bull which is missing. His left hand is in *kaṭyavalambita* pose. The *jaṭābhāra* here is simple but beautiful the like of which is not found in any other bronze so far. The modelling is excellent and its beauty is enhanced by the fine finish and the delicate details. Pārvatī also is equally beautiful. She is rendered life-like and as the very embodiment of feminine tenderness, grace and beauty. The workmanship of *karaṇḍamakuṭa*, necklaces, *yajñōpavīta*, *kaṭaka* and *lōla-hastas*, *vājībandha*, broad hip and the beautiful lower garment enhance the charm of the figure.

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Fig. 69. Vṛṣabhāntika. Bronze. In the temple at Gaṅgaikoṇḍacōḷapuram. This figure has four hands and it stands leaning to the left. A *makarakuṇḍala* is present in the right ear. The necklaces and other ornaments are simpler than in the previous example. This figure is also executed in a beautiful way characteristic of the Cōḷa times. But comparing this with the previous one, the different styles of workmanship between them are apparent, due to the difference in the localities, they come from.

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Fig. 70. Śiva as Sukhāsanamūrti. Bronze. In the Pudukkottah Museum. Śiva is seated in the *sukhāsana* pose on the *padmapīṭha*.

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Upper hands hold *paraśu* and deer. The lower right hand is in *abhaya* and the lower left hand is in *āhūyavarada* poses. The general treatment of the entire figure is characteristic of late figures.

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Fig. 71. Kirātamūrti. Bronze. In the Pāśupateśvara temple. Tiruvēṭkalam (modern Annamalainagar), near Cidambaram, South Arcot District. Śiva stands in the *tribhaṅga* pose on *padmāsana* over a large *bhadrāsana*. He has two hands which are shown in position to hold an arrow and bow. A graceful ovoidal *prabhāvalī* encloses the figure. The beauty of the figure is apparent. The fine modelling, the delicate decorative details, the elegant stance and subtle way of suggesting that the figure, is the source of power and energy, are all qualities which are characteristic of figures dating from not later than a.d. 900.

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Fig. 72. Kirātārjunamūrti. Bronze. Rādhānarasimhapuram, Tanjore District. Two views of the figure are seen. It is another example of the same theme. But compared to the previous item, here the modelling is heavy and the ornaments and other features are pronounced which proclaim it to be of a later date than the previous figure. Nevertheless this image may belong to 11th-12th centuries a.d.

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Fig. 73. Śiva as Pradōṣamūrti. Bronze. Tiruvāḍutuṟai, Tanjore District. Śiva standing in the beautiful *tribhaṅga* pose, embraces Pārvatī on his left who is also shown in the same pose. Both of them stand on a common *padmāsana* over a *bhadrāsana* to which is attached a *prabhāvalī* of beautiful form. In spite of the late date suggested by the workmanship and elaboration of the *prabhā*, *jaṭāmakuṭa*, the flexion and of other ornaments and drapery, the sculptor’s attempt to emulate the ideals of earlier models has remarkably succeeded.

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Fig. 74. Bhikṣāṭanamūrti. Bronze. In the Śiva Temple at Tirunāmanallūr. Śiva wears, as usual, a pair of sandals and is naked. The arrangement of *jaṭas* with the locks standing on their ends and forming a halo behind his head is beautiful. A skull and a serpent are seen on the head. The upper right hand holds a *ḍamaru*; the lower one is in *siṃhakarṇa* pose; the upper left is in *kaṭaka* pose (the trident which should have been held here is missing) and the lower left holds a *kapāla*. A simple broad necklace (*kaṇṭhī*), prominent *yajñōpavīta*, *udarabandha* and a *nāga* waist-band are seen on the body. The nude study shows bare the fine quality of the modelling. The grandeur of the image is accentuated by the realistic features, the beautiful expression and the restrained but finely worked details. All these make the image a superb example in bronze.

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Fig. 75. Bhikṣāṭanamūrti. Bronze. Tiruccengoḍu, Salem District. Here the features are completely stylised. Additional figures of a deer and a *gaṇa* each standing on a *padmāsana*, are also seen. A late specimen.

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Fig. 76. Subrahmaṇya as Dēvasēnāpati. Bronze. Tiruviḍaikali, Tanjore District. He stands in the *tribhaṅga* pose on *padmāsana* over *bhadrāsana*. A beautiful *prabhāvalī* encircles him. The ends of *prabhā* show the beginning of the *makara* motif which develops into a significant decoration for the *prabhā* of the Naṭarāja image in the Tanjore temple (fig. 63) noticed above. Of the four hands the two front ones are in position to hold a bow and arrow which suggests his being Dēvasēnapati. His characteristic emblems *śakti* and *vajra* are held respectively in the upper right and left hands. His *karaṇḍamakuṭa*, *channavīra* and other ornaments are simple and beautiful. It is a fine example of the art at its best during the Cōḷa times. Its style has definite affinity with that of the Kirātamūrti image from Tiruvetkaḷam (fig. 71) noticed above, although the latter is earlier.

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Fig. 77. Viṣṇu. Bronze. Sermadevi; Tinnevelly District. Stands on *padmāsana* over *bhadrāsana* in the *samabhaṅga* pose. Holds discus and conch in the upper hands. The lower right hand is in *abhaya* and the left is in *kaṭyavalambita* pose. High *kirīṭa* on head. The elaborate lower garment with bows on either side reaches to the ankles. The treatment and decorative details show that this is a Cōḷa work.

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Fig. 78. Viṣṇu. Bronze. Same place. Similar to above but of a later date.

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Fig. 79. Śrīdevī. Bronze. Same place. She stands on the usual *āsanas*. Wears *karaṇḍamakuṭa*, *channavīra* etc. but no *kucabandha*. Holds a lotus in her left hand. Its style suggests relatively a late Cōḷa date.

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Fig. 80. Śrīdevī. Bronze. Same place. Similar to above, but with difference in workmanship, e.g. the less pronounced lotus pedestal.

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Fig. 81. Rāma, Sītā and Lakṣmaṇa with Hanumān. Bronze. In the Viṣṇu temple at Tirukkaḍaiyūr, Tanjore District. Rāma stands on *padmāsana* in the *tribhaṅga* pose. Wears a high *kirīṭamakuṭa*, *makarakuṇḍalas*, a number of necklaces etc. Holds a bow in his left hand and an arrow in his right hand. The execution of the figure is excellent and the details, although elaborate, are pleasing and effective. The flexion is especially fine. Lakṣmaṇa is similar to Rāma; but the head-dress here is *jaṭāmakuṭa*, and the figure is smaller. Sītā also stands in the beautiful *tribhaṅga* pose on *padmāsana*; *jaṭāmakuṭa*, *patrakuṇḍalas*, *channavīra* and the lower garment are all excellently done. Hanumān is very small, but shows all the details in a beautiful manner. The group may be dated to about the 12th century A.D.

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Fig. 82. Śiva as Kalyāṇasundara. Pārvatī is being given in marriage to Śiva by Viṣṇu and Lakṣmī. Tiruveṇkāḍu, Tanjore District. Now in the Art Gallery, Tanjore. This is a unique group and was discovered only recently along with images of figure 68 *ante*.

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Śiva, the dominating figure in the group, holds the right hand of Pārvatī, to his right. The form of marriage called Pāṇigrahaṇa, is the most commendable of all the forms of marriage. Pārvatī’s shyness and modesty are indicated skilfully by her looking down a little. That she is very young (*kanyā*) is suggested by the softness of treatment. The graceful *bhaṅga* in which she stands supports this.

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Viṣṇu stands in the *ābhaṅga* pose. Holds his front hands in the significant position of giving away Pārvatī to Śiva. The other hands hold discus and conch. He wears his usual *kirīṭa* and *makarakuṇḍalas*. Lakṣmī or Śrī, Viṣṇu's consort, is shown to his left and is in the attitude of encouraging shy Pārvatī to approach Śiva.

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The workmanship of all the figures is exquisite and unsurpassed. The group is a magnificent one and is the only one of its kind in metal so far met with.

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Fig. 83. Seal on Karandai copper-plate grant of Rājēndra Cōḷa I. The tiger, the Cōḷa emblem, with gaping mouth, is seated on its haunches, with its tail brought forward. It faces proper right. A pair of fish, the Pāṇḍyan emblem, is seen in front of the tiger. At the end on proper right are a lamp stand, a standard and a stand. At the opposite end, behind the tiger, are seen a lamp stand, a standard, a dagger in scabbard, and an *aṅkuśa*. All these are shown on a thick straight line. Below the tiger are seen a boar with head lowered and a *svastika* sign. In front of the boar is a low chair probably representing a *simhāsana* and beyond it is a drum. Except the boar, the other symbols indicate auspiciousness. The boar shown just below the tiger, when taken together with *aṅkuśa* above, suggests the subjection of the Cāḷukyas whose emblems they are. There is a five-petalled lotus shown lowest in the field. Above the tiger and fish is a pair of *cāmaras* flanking an umbrella, the emblem of royalty, worked like a lotus in blossom in its upper part. These figures are enclosed within a circle. Along the periphery of the seal is a legend in Grantha characters which reads:

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The Colas c36: Description of Figures in the Plates

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Description of Figures in the Plates

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