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History of Dharmashastra (Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Law in India) v2: Volume 2

History of Dharmaśāstra (Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Law in India) v2

Language
English

Contents

Volume 2

Front matter

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This book should be returned on or before the date last marked below.

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GOVERNMENT ORIENTAL SERIES

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Class B, No. 6

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Prepared under the Supervision of the Publication Department of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute Poona

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[Figure: INSTITUTE POONA FOUNDED 1917 ॥ तेजस्वि नावधीतमस्तु ॥]

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POONA Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona

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Government Oriental Series Class-B, No. 6

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BY PANDURANG VAMAN KANE, M. A., LL. M. ADVOCATE, HIGH COURT, BOMBAY; SENIOR ADVOCATE, FEDERAL COURT OF INDIA; FELLOW AND VICE- PRESIDENT OF THE BOMBAY ASIATIC SOCIETY; AUTHOR OF 'HISTORY OF SANSKRIT POETICS' &c.

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VOL. II PART I

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Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona Copies can be had direct from the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona (4), India Price Rs. 30 for both parts (Parts not sold separately)

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Printed at the Aryabhushan Press, 915/1 Shivajinagar, Poona 4 by Mr. Vithal Hari Barve, and Published by Dr. R. N. Dandekar, M. A., Ph. D., Secretary, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona 4.

Preface

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It is a little over ten years since the first volume of my History of Dharmaśāstra was published. In the preface to that volume I expressed the hope that time and health permitting I might issue in a few years the second volume dealing with the development of the various subjects comprised in Dharmaśāstra. For several years thereafter whatever leisure I could secure from professional work was devoted to the collection and orderly assortment of the vast Literature on Dharmaśāstra. After my return from a few months' visit to Europe in 1937 I commenced the work of writing the second volume. It soon became apparent to me that to compress within the limits of a single volume the development of the thousand and one topics that fall within the purview of Dharmaśāstra would present only a scrappy and faint outline of the whole field. To add to the difficulties of my task my old painful complaint (duodenal ulcer) recurred with far greater virulence than before, so much so that, partly on medical advice and partly out of despair, in October 1938 I gave up the work altogether. When relief did not come even after six months' total abstinence from literary labours I resumed, in spite of my extremely painful complaint, the work of writing, for fear that otherwise the extensive materials that I had been collecting for nearly two decades might be entirely lost to the world of Sanskrit scholars and that my labours might be altogether wasted. Being afraid that my strength and resolution may not last till the completion of the rather ambitious undertaking, I decided upon bringing out in two volumes the development of the various subjects comprised in Dharmaśāstra. The present volume contains the treatment of varṇa and āśrama, the saṁskāras, āhnika and ācāra, dāna, pratiṣṭhā and utsarga, and śrauta (vedic) sacrifices. The next volume (the last) will deal with the following topics: vyavahāra (Law and procedure), āśauca (impurity on birth and death), śrāddha, prāyaścitta, tīrtha, vrata, kāla, śānti, the influence of the Pūrva-mīmāṁsā and other śāstras on Dharmaśāstra, customs and usages modifying Dharmaśāstra, the philosophical background of Dharmaśāstra, and future developments in Dharmaśāstra. Looking to my past performance I am unwilling to make any promise about the time when the next volume may be expected to be published. I may state, however, that in view of the fact that at present I am in much better health than I have been for several years I shall try to publish it in three years more.

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Excellent works dealing with distinct topics of Dharmaśāstra have been given to the world by eminent scholars. But so far as I know no writer has yet attempted single-handed to survey the whole field of Dharmaśāstra. From that point of view this volume partakes of the nature of a pioneer undertaking. It is therefore to be expected that such an ambitious project will manifest the defects of all pioneer work. The circumstances (adverted to above) in which this work had to be written and the great hurry with which it had to be rushed through are other factors that are responsible for the awkward or obscure expressions and the errors that it may contain. I mention these matters for lessening the surprise that such blemishes might lead my friends to feel and not for blunting the edge of adverse criticism. The critic is certainly entitled to mercilessly criticize the work for its shortcomings and mistakes. Some readers may complain that the present work is prolix, while others may say that the space devoted to several topics is meagre. I have tried to pursue a middle course.

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There was great temptation throughout this work to compare ancient and medieval Indian customs, usages and beliefs as disclosed by dharmaśāstra works with those of other peoples and countries. But I have tried to omit, as far as possible, such comparisons. Whenever I indulge in them I do so for several reasons. It is the fashion among many writers, both European and Indian, to hold the caste system and the dharmaśāstra view of life responsible for most of the evils from which India suffers at present. To a very large extent I do not subscribe to that view. I have endeavoured to show that human nature being the same in essentials throughout the world, the same tendencies and evils manifest themselves in all countries, the same abuses prevail and the same perversions of originally beneficent institutions take place everywhere and anywhere, whether particular countries or societies are within the grip of the caste system or any other casteless system. Undoubtedly the caste system has in fact produced certain evils, but it is not singular in this respect. No system is perfect and immune from evil effects. Though I have been brought up in the midst of the Brahmanical system, I hope it will be conceded by scholars that I have shown both sides of the picture and that I have endeavoured to write with detachment.

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A few words must be said about the extensive quotations from Sanskrit works and the references to modern Indian Legislation and case-law. For those who cannot read English (most *paṇḍits* and *śāstrīs* do not) the quotations will be of great help in understanding at least the trend of the arguments. Besides Indian scholars are as a class poor and cannot afford to purchase numerous books. Nor are there many good libraries in India where all works of reference can be had. For all these reasons thousands of quotations have been cited in the footnotes. The quotations are mostly drawn from published works and references to mss. are few and far between. I hope that the numerous quotations will not intrude themselves on the attention of those who want to read only the English portion of the work. Legislative enactments and case-law have been referred to for showing that many regulations of dharmaśāstra are still very much alive, that they govern the every-day life of Hindus and permeate all classes of Hindu society in spite of the fact that a considerable part of dharmaśāstra has become obsolete. Similar remarks apply to the numerous references to inscriptions on stone and copper. These latter serve to prove that rules laid down in the dharmaśāstra were throughout two thousand years observed by the people and enforced by kings and that such rules were not mere precepts composed by dreamers or scholastic pedants.

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I acknowledge with great pleasure that I am under deep obligations to many predecessors and workers in the same and other fields and to many friends. Among the works to which I had to refer constantly and from which I derived the greatest benefit I must specially refer to the following: Bloomfield's Vedic Concordance, the Vedic Index of Professors Macdonell and Keith, the Sacred Books of the East edited by Max Müller (vol. II, VII, XII, XIV, XXV, XXVI, XXIX, XXX, XXXIII, XLI, XLIII, XLIV). As I was handicapped by the fact that I know little German and less French, I could not fully utilise all the work done by modern European scholars. I am highly obliged to Paramahaṁsa Kevalānanda Svāmī of Wai for constant help and guidance (particularly in the śrauta portion); to Chintāmanśāstrī Datar of Poona for assistance in the chapter on darśapūrṇamāsa and for carefully going through the other chapters on śrauta; to Mr. Keshav Lakshman Ogale for his work on a portion of the Index; to Tarkatīrtha Raghunāthaśāstrī Kokje for reading through the whole work and suggesting additions and emendations.

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Besides, assistance in various ways during the progress of the work for over three years was very kindly rendered by a host of friends, among whom I should like to make special mention of Prof. H. D. Velankar, Prof. Rangaswami Ayyangar, Prof. P. P. S. Śāstrī, Dr. Alsdorf, Mr. Bhabatosh Bhattacharya, Mr. N. G. Chapekar, Mr. G. H. Khare, Mr. N. C. Bapat, Pandit Rangacharya Raddi, Mr. L. S. Dravid (a Sāmavedī of Poona), Pandit S. D. Satavlekar, Mr. P. K. Gode. Thanks are due to all these and other friends for their help and interest in this volume. I must state, however, that I alone am responsible for the views and mistakes contained in this work.

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In a work containing thousands of quotations and references it is very likely that many slips have occurred. Besides it is very much to be regretted that several misprints have crept into the footnotes by the loss or displacement of dots and other loose parts of Sanskrit letters in the process of printing.

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15th June 1941

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P. V. KANE

Table of Contents of Vol. II

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| LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS | ... | vii-x |
| CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE | ... | xi-xii |
| SYNOPSIS | ... | xiii-xxxiii |
| LIST OF WORKS CONSULTED | ... | xxxiv-xlv |
| TABLE OF CASES CITED | ... | xlvi-xlvii |
| HISTORY OF DHARMAŚĀSTRA | ... | 1-1255 |
| APPENDIX OF LONGER EXTRACTS IN SANSKRIT | ... | 1257-1278 |
| GENERAL INDEX | ... | 1279-1358 |
| INDEX OF IMPORTANT WORDS | ... | 1359-1866 |
| ERRATA | ... | 1367-1368 |

List of Abbreviations

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A. I. R. = All India Reporter (edited by Mr. V. V. Chitaley of Nagpur). Ait. Br. = Aitareya Brāhmaṇa. All. = Indian Law Reports, Allahabad Series. Ānan. or Ānand. = Ānandāśrama Press edition, Poona. Āp. Dh. S. = Āpastamba-dharmasūtra. Āp. gṛ. = Āpastamba-gṛhya-sūtra. Āp. M. P. = Āpastamba-mantra-pāṭha. Āp. Śr. = Āpastamba-śrauta-sūtra. Āśv. gṛ. = Āśvalāyana-gṛhya-sūtra. Āśv. Śr. = Āśvalāyana-śrauta-sūtra. A. S. W. I. = Archaeological Survey of Western India Reports. Baud. Dh. S. = Baudhāyana-dharma-sūtra. Baud. gṛ. = Baudhāyana-gṛhya-sūtra. Baud. śr. = Baudhāyana-śrautasūtra. Bhār. gṛ. = Bhāradvāja-gṛhya-sūtra. B. I. = Bibliotheca Indica series, Calcutta. Bom. = Indian Law Reports, Bombay Series. Bom. H. C. R. = Bombay High Court Reports (vol. I-XII). Bom. L. R. = Bombay Law Reporter (edited by Ratanlal and Dhirajlal). B. O. R. I. = Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona. Bṛ. Up. = Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad. Cal. = Indian Law Reports, Calcutta Series. Chān. Up. or Ch. Up. = Chāndogya Upaniṣad. C. I. I. = (Volumes of) Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum. C. L. J. = Calcutta Law Journal. Com. = Commentator or Commentary (according to context). Cr. ed. = Critical Edition of the Mahābhārata, published by the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona. C. W. N. = Calcutta Weekly Notes (Law Reports). D. C. = Deccan College Collection of Sanskrit Mss. Dh. S. = Dharmasūtra. Die Frau = Die Frau im Brahmanismus by Dr. M. Winternitz (1920, Leipzig).

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E. C. = Epigraphia Carnatica. E. I. = Epigraphia Indica. E. R. E. = Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics (edited by James Hastings). F. n. = Footnote. Fick = The Social organization in North-east India in Buddha's time (translated from German by Dr. Shishirkumara Maitra, 1920). Gaut. = Dharmasūtra of Gautama. Gṛ. R. = Gṛhastharatnākara of Caṇḍeśvara. G. S. = Gupta *saṁvat*. H. A. S. L. = History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature by Prof. Max Müller (1859). Hir. gṛ. = Hiraṇyakeśi-gṛhya-sūtra. I. A. = Indian Antiquary. I. H. Q. = Indian Historical Quarterly. I. L. R. = India Law Reports series. Ins. = Inscription or inscriptions. J. B. B. R. A. S. = Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. J. B. O. R. S. = Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society. Jiv. = Pandit Jīvānanda's edition. J. R. A. S. = Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, London. Kāṭhaka S. = Kāṭhaka Saṁhitā. Kauṭ. = Kauṭilya's Arthaśāstra. L. R. I. A. = Law Reports, Indian Appeals (decided by the Privy Council), the number of the volume being inserted between L. R. and I. A. Mait. S. = Maitrāyaṇī-saṁhitā. Mānava gṛ. = Mānava-gṛhyasūtra. Mārk. or Mārkaṇḍeya = Mārkaṇḍeya-purāṇa. Mit. = The commentary Mitākṣarā on Yājñavalkya Smṛti. Moo. I. A. = Moore's Indian Appeals. n. = footnote. Pāṇ. = Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī. P and M = Pollock and Maitland's History of English Law. Pār. gṛ. = Pāraskara-gṛhya-sūtra. Par. M. = Parāśara-Mādhavīya. Pat. = Patañjali's Mahābhāṣya.

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Q. = Quoted.

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Rel. and Phil. = Prof. Keith's 'Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upaniṣads.'

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Rg. = Ṛgveda.

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Rit. Lit. = Hillebrandt's 'Ritual Litteratur Vedische Opfer und Zauber'.

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Sam. K. = Saṁskāra-kaustubha of Anantadeva.

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Sam. P. or Pr. = Saṁskāraprakāśa of Mitramiśra.

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.Sam. R. M. / or S. R. M. = Saṁskāra-ratna-mālā of Gopīnātha.

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Śāṅ. gṛ. = Śāṅkhyāyana-gṛhya-sūtra.

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Śat. Br. = Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa.

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S. B. E. = Sacred Books of the East (ed. by Prof. Max Müller).

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Sch. C. O. = Scheduled castes Order of 1936.

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Sm. C. = Smṛti-candrikā.

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Sm. M. or Smṛ. M. = Smṛtimuktāphala of Vaidyanātha.

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Śr. P. N. = Śrautapadārthanirvacana.

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S. V. = Sāmaveda.

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Tai. Ār. = Taittirīya Āraṇyaka.

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Tai. Br. = Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa.

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Tai. S. or Saṁ. = Taittirīya Saṁhitā.

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Tr. = Translation or translated (according to context).

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Up. = Upaniṣad.

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Vāj. S. = Vājasaneya Saṁhitā.

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Vaik. or Vaikhānasa = Vaikhānasa-smārta-sūtra.

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Vas. or Vas. Dh. S. = Vasiṣṭha-dharmasūtra.

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Viṣṇu. Dh. S. = Viṣṇu-dharma-sūtra.

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V. S. = Vedānta-sūtra.

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Yāj. = Yājñavalkyasmṛti.

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.Yati. Dh. S. or / Yati-dh. = Yatidharma-saṁgraha.

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Z. D. M. G. = Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesselschaft.

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| आप. गृ. सू. = आपस्तम्बगृह्यसूत्र | ऋ. = ऋग्वेदसंहिता |
| आप. ध. सू. or आप. ध. = आपस्तम्बधर्मसूत्र | ऐ. आ. = ऐतरेयारण्यक |
| आप. म. पाठ = आपस्तम्बीयमन्त्रपाठ | ऐ. ब्रा. = ऐतरेयब्राह्मण |
| आप. श्रौ. सू. = आपस्तम्बश्रौतसूत्र | कठोप. = कठोपनिषद् |
| आश्व. गृ. सू = आश्वलायनगृह्यसूत्र | कात्या. = कात्यायन |
| आश्व. श्रौ. = आश्वलायनश्रौतसूत्र | कात्या. श्रौ. = कात्यायनश्रौतसूत्र |

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कौषीतकि ब्रा. उ. = कौषीतकिब्राह्मणोपनिषद् गृ. र. or गृह. र. = गृहस्थरत्नाकर गौ. or गौ. ध. सू. = गौतमधर्मसूत्र छा. उ. = छान्दोग्योपनिषद् जै. = पूर्वमीमांसासूत्र जै. उ. ब्रा. = जैमिनीयोपनिषद्ब्राह्मण तै. आ. = तैत्तिरीयारण्यक तै. उ. = तैत्तिरीयोपनिषद् तै. ब्रा. = तैत्तिरीयब्राह्मण तै. सं. = तैत्तिरीयसंहिता परा. मा. = पराशरमाधवीय पा. = पाणिनीयाष्टाध्यायी पूर्वमी. = पूर्वमीमांसासूत्र बृह. = बृहस्पतिस्मृति (as quoted in digests) बृह. उ. = बृहदारण्यकोपनिषद् बौ. गृ. = बौधायनगृह्यसूत्र बौ. ध. or बौ. ध. सू. = बौधायनधर्मसूत्र ब्रा. = ब्राह्मण मनु = मनुस्मृति मिता. = मिताक्षरा (याज्ञवल्क्यस्मृतिटीका) मेधा. = मेधातिथि (मनुस्मृतिभाष्यकार) मै. सं. or मैत्रा. सं. = मैत्रायणीसंहिता मैत्री. उप. = मैत्र्युपनिषद् यति. ध. सं. = यतिधर्मसंग्रह या. or याज्ञ. = याज्ञवल्क्यस्मृति वाज. सं. = वाजसनेयसंहिता वि. चि = विवादचिन्तामणि विश्वरूप = याज्ञवल्क्यस्मृतिटीका of विश्वरूप वि. र. = विवादरत्नाकर वै. स्मा. or वैखा. स्मा. = वैखानसस्मार्तसूत्र व्य. म. or व्यव. म. = व्यवहारमयूख शतपथब्रा. = शतपथब्राह्मण शां. गृ. = शांख्यायनगृह्य शां. श्रौ. = शांख्यायनश्रौत शूद्रकम. = शूद्रकमलाकर सं. कौ. = संस्कारकौस्तुभ सं. प्र. = संस्कारप्रकाश सं. र. मा. = संस्काररत्नमाला स्मृतिच. = स्मृतिचन्द्रिका स्मृ. मु. or स्मृतिमू. = स्मृतिमुक्ताफल

Chronological Table

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( of important works and authors referred to in this volume )

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N. B.—Some dates, particularly of ancient works, are conjectural and only tentative.

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4000 B. C.-1000 B. C.—The period of the Vedic Saṁhitās, Brāhmaṇas and Upaniṣads. It is possible that some hymns may go back to a period even earlier than 4000 B. C. and that some Upaniṣads ( even out of those that are regarded as the principal and the earliest ones ) are later than 1000 B. C.

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800 B. C.—500 B. C.—The Nirukta.

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800 B. C.—400 B. C.—The principal śrauta sūtras (of Āpastamba, Āśvalāyana, Baudhāyana, Kātyāyana, Śāṅkhyāyana, Lāṭyāyana, Drāhyāyaṇa, Satyāṣāḍha ) and some of the gṛhya sūtras ( Āśvalāyana, Āpastamba &c. ).

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600 B. C.—300 B. C.—The dharmasūtras of Āpastamba, Gautama, Baudhāyana, Vasiṣṭha and the Gṛhyasūtras of Pāraskara, Baudhāyana and some others.

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600 B. C.—300 B. C.—Pāṇini.

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500 B. C.—200 B. C.—Jaimini's Pūrvamīmāṁsā-sūtra.

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300 B. C.—100 A. D.—Kauṭilya's Arthaśāstra

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150 B. C. —Mahābhāṣya of Patañjali.

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200 B. C.—200 A. D.—Manusmṛti.

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100 A. D.—300 A. D.—Yājñavalkya-smṛti.

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100 A. D.—300 A. D.—Viṣṇudharmasūtra.

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100 A. D.—400 A. D.—Nāradasmṛti.

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200 A. D.—500 A. D.—Vaikhānasa-smārtasūtra.

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200 A. D.—500 A. D.—Śabara, com. of Jaimini.

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300 A. D.—500 A. D.—Bṛhaspatismṛti ( not yet found ).

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300 A. D.—600 A. D.—Some of the extant purāṇas viz. Vāyu, Viṣṇu, Mārkaṇḍeya, Kūrma, Matsya.

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400 A. D.—600 A. D.—Kātyāyanasmṛti ( not yet found ).

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505 A. D.—587 A. D.—Varāha-mihira, author of Bṛhatsaṁhitā.

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650 A. D.—750 A. D.—Tantravārtika of Kumārila.

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788 A. D.—820 A. D.—Śaṁkarācārya, the great Advaita philosopher.

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600 A. D.—900 A. D.—Most of the other smṛtis and some of the purāṇas. 800 A. D.—850 A. D.—Viśvarūpa, com. of Yājñavalkya. 900 A. D. —Medhātithi, com. of Manu 1100 A. D. —Mitākṣarā of Vijñāneśvara. 1100 A. D.–1150 A. D.—Kalpataru of Lakṣmīdhara. 1100 A. D.–1150 A. D.—Jīmūtavāhana. 1125 A. D. —Aparārka. 1150 A. D.–1200 A. D.—Smṛtyarthasāra. 1200 A. D.–1225 A. D.—Smṛticandrikā. 1150 A. D.–1300 A. D.—Haradatta. 1150 A. D.–1300 A. D.—Kullūka. 1260 A. D.–1270 A. D.—Hemādri's Caturvargacintāmaṇi. 1310 A. D.–1360 A. D.—Caṇḍeśvara, author of the Gṛhastharatnākara and other Ratnākaras. 1300 A. D.–1380 A. D.—Mādhavācārya, author of Parāśara-Mādhavīya. 1360 A. D.–1390 A. D.—Madanapārijāta. 1425 A. D.–1450 A. D.—Madanaratna. 1520 A. D.–1570 A. D.—Raghunandana. 1610 A. D.–1640 A. D.—Kamalākarabhaṭṭa, author of Nirṇayasindhu and Śūdrakamalākara. 1615 A. D.–1645 A. D.—Nīlakaṇṭha, author of Saṁskāra-mayūkha and other Mayūkhas. 1610 A. D.–1640 A. D.—Mitra Miśra, author of Vīramitrodaya. 1650 A. D.–1680 A. D.—Anantadeva, author of Saṁskāra-kaustubha. About 1686 A. D.—Smṛtimuktāphala of Vaidyanātha. 1700 A. D.–1750 A. D.—Nāgojibhaṭṭa. 1750 A. D.–1820 A. D.—Bālambhaṭṭa, author of Bālambhaṭṭī. 1790 A. D. —Dharmasindhu (of Kāśīnātha).

Synopsis of Contents

v2.c15.1

CHAP. I. 1—18

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Topics of dharmaśāstra. Various divisions of *dharma*. Dharmas common to all (sādhāraṇa-dharma). Truth, love, charity, self-restraint. Standard of moral values. Four puruṣārthas (goals of human existence) and their gradation. Limits of Āryāvarta. Bharatavarṣa.

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CHAP. II. 19—104

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*Varṇa*. High eulogy and condemnation of caste system. Characteristic features of modern caste system. History of the word *varṇa*. Ārya and dāsa or dasyu. Viś in the Ṛgveda. Position of Śūdra in Vedic Literature. Position of the three higher varṇas *inter se*. Professions and crafts in Vedic Saṁhitās. Rathakāra and Niṣāda. Propositions deducible from Vedic Literature. List of various crafts and avocations culled from Vedic Literature. Ramifications of caste traced by dharmaśāstra writers to mixed unions. Two postulates as to castes in dharmaśāstra writers. *Anuloma* and *pratiloma* castes. *Jāti*. Status of children of mixed castes. *Varṇasaṁkara*. *Jātyutkarṣa* and *Jātyapakarṣa*. Professional castes and guilds. List of castes mentioned by works from 500 B. C. to 1000 A. D. Revolt against the caste system in the Mahābhārata. A few of the castes mentioned by medieval works.

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CHAP. III. 105–164

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Duties, disabilities and privileges of varṇas. Brāhmaṇa's special privileges and duties—study of veda, teaching the veda, officiating at and performing sacrifices, making and receiving gifts. Rules about receiving gifts. Special duty of śūdras to serve higher castes. Divisions of śūdras. Brāhmaṇa in distress may do the work specially meant for kṣatriyas and vaiśyas. Brāhmaṇa and money-lending, agriculture, sale and barter as means of livelihood in distress. Begging. High eulogy of brāhmaṇas. Enumeration and discussion of special privileges claimed by brāhmaṇas. Disabilities of śūdras, viz. not authorized to study the veda nor to perform vedic sacrifices with vedic mantras, liability to receive higher punishment for certain offences, not to hold high offices like that of judge.

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*Untouchability.* Hardly any Vedic passage supports it. *Antyajas* according to the smṛtis. Rules about shadow of untouchables. Public roads and untouchables. Matters in which immediate relief required.

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*Slavery.* Existence of slavery in Vedic times. Kinds of slaves in the smṛtis. Manumission of slaves.

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*Saṁskāras.* Purpose of saṁskāras. Divisions of saṁskāras. Divergence as to number of saṁskāras. List of saṁskāras named by all or most of the smṛti writers. Saṁskāras of śūdras. Easy expiation provided for non-performance of saṁskāras. Garbhādhāna known from the times of the Atharvaveda. Procedure of Garbhādhāna in the Bṛhadāraṇyaka upaniṣad and smṛtis. Whether it is a saṁskāra of the woman or of the child. Altar in gṛhya rites. *Homa.* Preliminary rites in all saṁskāras such as Gaṇapatipūjana, Puṇyāhavācana, Mātṛkāpūjana, Nāndīśrāddha. *Puṁsavana.* *Anavalobhana.* *Sīmantonnayana.* *Viṣṇubali.* *Soṣyantīkarma.* *Jātakarma* and several component parts of it such as *homa*, *Medhājanana*. *Nāmakaraṇa.* How names were given at various periods; several names for the same person. Rules about names. *Karṇavedha.* *Niṣkramaṇa.* *Annaprāśana.* *Varṣavardhana.* *Cūlā.* *Vidyārambha.*

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*Upanayana.* Meaning of the word. Origin and development of this sacrament. It implies gāyatryupadeśa. Ancient features of upanayana. Originally a simple ceremony. The proper age for upanayana for the three varṇas. The auspicious time for it. Rules about the skin, the garments, the girdle and the staff of the brahmacārin of different varṇas. The preliminary rites of Upanayana such as homa. The principal rites of upanayana. History of yajñopavīta from ancient times. Rules for manufacturing and wearing yajñopavīta. Whether women had upanayana performed and could wear yajñopavīta. Wearing of yajñopavīta given up by kṣatriyas in the first few centuries after Christ. Whether upanayana performed for the blind, the deaf and dumb, idiots &c. Upanayana of mixed castes and of the aśvattha tree. Imparting of sacred Gāyatrī to the student.

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Vyāhṛtis and 'om'. Eulogy of Gāyatrī. The dharmas (duties) of brahmacārins. Bhikṣā (begging) for food by brahmacārin. Performance of Saṁdhyā twice daily and rules about the principal elements of saṁdhyā, such as ācamana, prāṇāyāma, mārjana, aghamarṣaṇa, arghya to the sun, japa of Gāyatrī, upasthāna (worship). Nyāsas and Mudrās. Study of the veda, the first duty. Features of the ancient educational system, such as oral instruction, teaching without stipulating for a fee, student's stay with the teacher. Qualifications of a good teacher and the qualities of a good pupil. Students did work for the teacher. Rules about honouring the teacher and elders, bowing to them and about the return of greetings. Saluting women relatives and the wife of the teacher. Rules about showing courtesy and precedence on public roads. Grounds of showing respect. Duration of student-hood. Subjects of study at various periods. Corporal punishment of pupils. Education of kṣatriyas, vaiśyas, śūdras and of women. Merits and defects of the ancient system of education. The *Veda-vratas*. Perpetual (naiṣṭhika) students. *Patitasāvitrīka* (whose upanayana had not been performed). Whether kṣatriyas and vaiśyas exist in the Kali age. The Vrātyastoma for those whose upanayana had not been performed at all. Taking back those who had been forcibly converted or who belonged to other faiths. Tolerance in ancient India. Absorption of foreign elements. *Punarupanayana* (performing upanayana again). *Anadhyāya* (cessation of study) on various days and for various reasons. *Keśānta* or *Godāna*. *Snāna* or *Samāvartana* (the student's return from the teacher after finishing Vedic study). Rules of conduct for snātakas.

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CHAP. VIII. 416-426

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*Āśramas*. Origin and development of the idea of āśramas (stages of life). Number of āśramas four from the times of the most ancient dharmasūtras. Manu's theory. Brahmacarya and householder's stage well-known even to the Ṛgveda. Vaikhānasa and yati in Vedic Literature. Three āśramas expressly mentioned in the Chāndogya Upaniṣad. Idea of mokṣa (release from saṁsāra). Varṇa and āśrama complementary. Three different points of view about the four āśramas.

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CHAP. IX. 427-541

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*Marriage*. The most important saṁskāra of all. Texts do not point to a society where there was promiscuity and no marriage. Purposes of marriage. Qualifications of a desirable bridegroom. Rules for the selection of a bride. Lakṣaṇas (indicatory characteristics), *bāhya* (visible) and *ābhyantara* (invisible or inferrible). Four or five grounds for preferring a particular girl. Selecting a girl by asking her to take one out of several lumps of clay gathered from various places. In ancient times brotherless maidens not accepted as brides. No unmarried woman was deemed in medieval times to go to heaven. Restrictions as to caste, gotra, pravara and sapiṇḍa relationship. Breach of these rules rendered a so-called marriage null and void. Age of marriage for men not fixed. Age of marriage for girls varied at different periods. In the ancient sūtras girls were married about the time of puberty. Reasons for insistence on pre-puberty marriages in Yājñavalkyasmṛti and other works not clear. Examples of inter-caste marriages in Vedic Literature, in dharma and gṛhya sūtras and smṛtis and in inscriptions. Anuloma marriages allowed till about the 9th century A. D. Sapiṇḍa relationship explained in the Mit. Rules about prohibition of marriage on the ground of sapiṇḍa relationship. Conflict of texts as to these rules. Marriage with one's maternal uncle's daughter. Conflict on this point among medieval writers and among several castes. Narrowing of sapiṇḍa relationship permitted by writers of digests only on the ground of usage. Meaning of ‘*viruddhasambandha*.’ Sapiṇḍa relationship of the adopted son. Meaning of sapiṇḍa according to Dāyabhāga and Raghunandana. Marriage between sagotras and sapravaras forbidden. Meaning of ‘gotra’ and ‘pravara’ in Vedic works. Gotra and pravara of importance in several matters. Gotra in the sūtras and digests. Divisions and sub-divisions of gotras. Each gotra has one or more pravaras. Gotras of kṣatriyas and vaiśyas. Names of kṣatriya kings among gotras and pravaras. Marriage of sagotras and sapravaras void according to the writers of digests. Persons that have power to give a girl in marriage. Sale of girls in marriage in ancient times. Taking monetary consideration for one's daughter condemned. Father's power over his children. Conflict of views among writers as to ownership over one's wife and children. Infanticide, medieval and modern. Auspicious time for marriage. Medieval works introduced difficulties on astrological grounds. Forms of marriage. Meaning of rākṣasa and paiśāca marriages. *Svayaṁvara*. Only two forms of marriage in vogue in modern times. Procedure of marriage in the Ṛgveda and in the gṛhya sūtras. List of the several elements in the marriage rite and their description. When marriage becomes complete and irrevocable. Marriage brought about by force or fraud.

v2.c15.16

CHAP. X.

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*Madhuparka*. Procedure of it from the sūtras. *Arkavivāha* (marriage with the arka plant). *Parivedana* (marrying before an elder brother or sister).

v2.c15.18

CHAP. XI.

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Polygamy, polyandry, rights and duties on marriage. No evidence for polyandry in Sanskrit Literature except in the case of Draupadī. First duty of wife was to co-operate with the husband in all religious matters. Wife not authorised to perform religious rites independently or without husband's consent. Precedence among co-wives in religious matters. Theory of debts with which every man was supposed to be born, one being the debt to his ancestors and discharged by procreating sons. Duties of wife dwelt upon at great length in all smṛtis and digests. Foremost duty of wife is to obey her husband and honour him as god. Ideal of a *pativratā*. Wife's conduct when husband was away from home on a journey. Supernatural powers ascribed to *pativratā*. Wife's right of residence and maintenance. Husband's power of correction. Humane treatment even when wife guilty of adultery. No identity of husband and wife for secular or legal purposes. Position of women in ancient India. Estimate of the character of women in Sanskrit works. Passages condemning women's character. High eulogy of and reverence for the mother.

v2.c15.20

CHAP. XII.

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Duties of widows. Rules of conduct for widows for one year after the death of the husband. In widowhood woman to lead an ascetic life, avoid luxuries like perfumes, flowers, chewing betelnut. Widow (except one's mother) declared to be most inauspicious. Her rights in a joint family, and as heir to husband's separate property. Widow's position improved by recent legislation. The practice of tonsure of brāhmaṇa widows has no sanction in the vedas and smṛtis (excepting one or two). Examination of texts relied upon in support of this practice. Only Skandapurāṇa and medieval digests insist on tonsure. Practice gradually evolved from about 10th or 11th century. Sentiment that a woman should not be killed on any account.

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Position of women became assimilated to that of śūdras in religious matters. Certain advantages conceded to women. Practice of purda did not exist for women except for queens and ladies of high or noble rank.

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CHAP. XIII. 599-607

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*Niyoga.* Great divergence of views about the origin and purpose of this practice. Stringent conditions were laid down by smṛtikāras before niyoga could be resorted to. Breach of the conditions severely condemned and made punishable. Some even very ancient writers on dharma did not allow this practice. The Mahābhārata is full of examples of niyoga. Some writers held that texts permitting niyoga applied to śūdras or to girls who were only promised in marriage to a person but not actually married to him (as he died in the meantime). Three views upon the question ‘to whom the child born of niyoga belonged.’ Niyoga forbidden in the Kali age by Bṛhaspati and other smṛti writers.

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CHAP. XIV. 608-623

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Remarriage of widows. The word ‘punarbhū’ does not necessarily mean ‘remarried widow’. Nārada on the kinds of punarbhūs and svairiṇīs. Baudhāyana and Kaśyapa on 7 kinds of punarbhū. Smṛtis (except those of Vasiṣṭha, Nārada and one or two others) prohibit remarriage of widows. Rules for a wife whose husband is unheard of for many years. Hindu Widow’s Remarriage Act of 1856. Appalling number of child widows. Verses of Ṛgveda and Atharvaveda supposed to refer to remarriage of widows examined. Divorce unknown in Vedic or Dharmaśāstra Literature. Kauṭilya on divorce. Divorce law in England and Roman Catholic countries.

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CHAP. XV. 624-636

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*Satī.* Forbidden in India from 1829. Practice of widow burning obtained in many countries. Practice of Satī very limited in ancient times. *Sahagamana* and *anumaraṇa*. Brāhmaṇa widows were not allowed *anumaraṇa*. References to practice of Satī in classical Sanskrit Literature and epigraphic records. Rewards promised to *Satī*. Some commentators were opposed to this practice. Restrictions imposed against widow-burning by the smṛtis. Procedure of the rite of widow-burning. Widow-burning more prevalent in Bengal than anywhere else owing to the higher rights of succession granted to wives.

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CHAP. XVI. 637-639

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*Veśyā*. The institution existed from Vedic times. The rights of concubines to maintenance.

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CHAP. XVII. 640-695

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*Āhnika and ācāra*. Importance of the stage of householder. Gṛhasthas grouped into śālīna and yāyāvara. Duties of householders described in detail in many smṛtis and digests. Various ways of dividing the day. Smṛtis usually divide the day into eight parts. Actions to be done on getting up from bed, such as hymns of praise to God, repeating the names of famous personages like Nala and of persons that are supposed to be *cirajīvins*. Auspicious and inauspicious sights on getting up from bed. Rules about answering calls of nature. Cleanliness of body (*śauca*) in various ways. Ācamana (sipping water). *Dantadhāvana* (brushing the teeth) existed from the most ancient times. What twigs to be used for it. Times when there is to be no brushing of teeth. *Snāna* (bath). Kuśas necessary in most religious acts. Rules about collecting kuśas. Snāna twice a day or thrice according to some. No bath at night (except on rare occasions). Natural water preferred to water drawn from wells or hot water. Procedure of bathing. Rules about the clay to be employed for smearing and cleaning the body. Ten good results of a bath. Six varieties of bathing with water. How one who is ill is to be purified. *Tarpaṇa* as a constituent part of *snāna*. Clothes to be worn by a householder. Making marks on the forehead after bathing. *Ūrdhvapuṇḍra* and *Tripuṇḍra*. Śaiva and Vaiṣṇava sectarians condemning each other's marks. *Saṁdhyā* after bath. *Homa*. Two views about performing it before or after sunrise. Agnihotra twice daily. Three or five or six fires. When to begin maintaining gṛhya fire. Materials for *havis*. Homa to be offered by oneself or by one's son, pupil, brother, sister's son or a similar relative. Wife or unmarried daughter may offer homa in gṛhya fire if householder be ill. *Japa* of Vedic texts. What are maṅgala (auspicious) objects. The matters described so far occupy first eighth part of the day. In 2nd part revision of Vedic texts, collecting fuel sticks, flowers, kuśas &c. In 3rd part one was to find out means of maintenance and to earn wealth. In 4th part mid-day bath. Then *tarpaṇa* of gods, sages and *pitṛs*. A brief *tarpaṇa* is also prescribed.

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CHAP. XVIII. 696-704

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*Mahāyajñas* (five daily observances or sacrifices). These are mentioned in the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa and Taittirīya Āraṇyaka. Mahāyajñas distinguished from śrauta rites in two ways. Sentiments that prompted the five yajñas in very remote days. Later on purpose of Mahāyajñas stated to be atonement for injury to life caused by daily acts. The five yajñas in order of performance are brahmayajña, devayajña, bhūtayajña, pitṛyajña and manuṣya-yajña. *Brahmayajña.* Earliest description in Śatapatha Br. and Tai. Ār. Brahmayajña for Ṛgvedins described.

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CHAP. XIX. 705-740

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*Devayajña.* In sūtras homa is Devayajña. In medieval times homa receded into background and *devapūjā* took its place. Discussion whether images of gods were known in Vedic times. Meaning of *Siśnadeva.* Phallic emblems at Mohenjo-daro. *Liṅga* worship. Images known long before Pāṇini. Erection of temples and worship of images, whether borrowed or indigenous. Substances from which images were made. Principal gods of whom images were worshipped. Ritual of image worship. Who are entitled to perform devapūjā. Śālagrāma and other sacred stones. Pañcāyatanapūjā. Ten *avatāras* of Viṣṇu. Germs of the theory in Vedic Literature. When Buddha came to be looked upon as an *avatāra* of Viṣṇu. Why Buddhism disappeared from India. Evidence for religious persecution in India very meagre. Śiva worship. Worship of Gaṇeśa and Dattātreya. Earliest description of the worship of Viṣṇu and Śiva. The 16 modes of worship (*upacāras*). Flowers in the worship of different gods. *Tāmbūla.* Namaskāras to the sun. Worship of Durgā. Analysis of devapūjā in modern times.

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CHAP. XX. 741-748

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*Vaiśvadeva.* According to some it comprises three yajñas, viz. to gods, bhūtas and pitṛs. Deities of Vaiśvadeva. Usually performed only once in the noon. Procedure of Vaiśvadeva. Views about Vaiśvadeva in relation to śrāddha. *Baliharaṇa* or *bhūtayajña.* Daily pitṛ-yajña.

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CHAP. XXI. 741-756

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*Nṛyajña* or *Manuṣyayajña* (honouring guests). Guests honoured from Ṛgveda downwards. Who is an *atithi.* Modes of showing honour to guests. Motive of the injunction about guests was universal kindliness. Taking leave of a guest.

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CHAP. XXII. 757-806

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*Bhojana* (taking meals). Importance attached to purity of food. Rules about *bhojana* in Vedic Literature. Direction in which to take food. Times of taking food. Vessels to be used in *bhojana*. Preliminaries before bhojana (such as ācamana, prāṇāhutis &c.). Posture at time of eating. How much to eat. How *paṅktis* (rows of dinners) were distinguished. Who are *paṅktipāvana brāhmaṇas*. Etiquette at time of *bhojana*. Occasions (like eclipses) when abstaining from food was prescribed. What food should or should not be eaten. Various grounds on which food was forbidden. Flesh-eating in Vedic times. Sacredness of cow. *Pañcagavya*. Occasions when cow could be offered in sacrifices. Rules about the flesh of beasts, birds and fishes. Causes of the giving up of flesh-eating. Kṣatriyas have been meat-eaters from ancient times. Rules about taking milk and its products and about certain herbs and vegetables. Exhaustive list of persons whose food may not be taken. Great fluctuations about the rules as to whose food may not be taken by a brāhmaṇa. Laxity about food prepared with ghee, oil or milk. Food from five classes of śūdras could be taken by brāhmaṇas in the times of sūtras, but later on this was forbidden. Rules about persons who could cook and serve food for brāhmaṇas. Drinking liquor in ancient times. All intoxicants forbidden to brāhmaṇas from sūtra times, but some intoxicants allowed to kṣatriyas and others. *Madyas* of various kinds. *Tāmbūla* after bhojana. Acts to be done after bhojana. Rules about sleeping. Sexual intercourse between husband and wife. Rules about *Rajasvalā* (a woman in her monthly illness). Rules about the distribution of the king's duties—in the several parts of the day and night.

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CHAP. XXIII. 807-818

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*Upākarma* (starting of the session of vedic studies) and *utsarjana* (cessation from vedic studies). Divergence about time of upākarma. Explanation of the importance attached to the month of Śrāvaṇa and the Śravaṇa constellation. Procedure of upākarma in ancient times. Analysis of the constituents of upākarma in modern times. Holiday after upākarma. Divergence about times of utsarjana. Description of modern *utsarjana*.

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CHAP. XXIV. 819-836

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Minor gṛhya and other rites. Pārvaṇa sthālīpāka. Caitrī. Sītāyajña. Śrāvaṇī and Sarpabali. Serpent-worship from ancient times. Festival in honour of Indra. Āśvayujī. Āgrayaṇa *iṣṭi*. Āgrahāyaṇī. Śūlagava or Īśānabali. Vāstupratiṣṭhā, ancient and modern.

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CHAP. XXV. 837-888

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*Dāna* (gifts). Dāna is a special feature of householder's stage. Gifts highly extolled in the Ṛgveda. Gift of horses censured in some works. Gifts of land were not favoured in very early times. Difference between dāna, yāga and homa. Meaning of iṣṭāpūrta. All could make gifts (including women and śūdras). Persons fit and unfit to be donees. What things could be donated and what not. Three classes of things that could be given. Dānas of three kinds, viz. *nitya*, *naimittika* and *kāmya*. Making gifts in secret eulogised. Certain gifts should not be spurned. Gifts of certain things forbidden. Proper times for making gifts. Generally gifts not to be made at night. Gifts at times of eclipses, *saṁkrānti* and on *ayana* days specially recommended. Proper places for gifts. Presiding deities of various articles of gift. General procedure of making gifts. Kings were required to make various kinds of gifts to brāhmaṇas. Spending money for marriages of brāhmaṇas and settling them in houses highly eulogised. Gifts of land the most meritorious. Smṛti rules about land-grants followed in epigraphic records. Verses deprecating the resumption of gifts made by earlier kings. Prior gifts to temples and brāhmaṇas excepted in grants of villages. Taxes remitted in royal grants. The eight *bhogas* in relation to land grants. Discussion whether king is owner of all lands in the kingdom. Gifts called mahādānas described in purāṇas. Sixteen mahādānas. Procedure of Tulāpuruṣa and other mahādānas. Gift of cows highly extolled. Gifts of ten kinds called *dhenus* such as of ghee, jaggery &c. Ten kinds of gifts called *parvata* or *meru dānas* viz. of heaps of corn, salt, sesame &c. Establishing a pavilion for distributing water. Gift of books. Gifts for propitiating planets. Founding of hospitals. Expiations for accepting gifts which should not have been accepted. When gift becomes irrevocable. Kinds of invalid gifts. Gifts to dharma held void by modern courts.

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CHAP. XXVI. 889-916

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*Pratiṣṭhā* and *Utsarga* (founding of temples and dedication of wells &c.). Women and śūdras also could spend on *pūrta*- *dharma*, though not on iṣṭa (vedic sacrifices). Charitable works for the benefit of the public came to be regarded as more meritorious than sacrifices. Procedure of dedicating a tank or well to the public in the sūtras. Procedure prescribed in purāṇas gradually superseded the sūtra procedure. Meaning of dāna, pratiṣṭhā and utsarga. Trees highly valued in ancient India. Trees supposed to save a man from hell just as a son did. Worship of trees. Consecration of images in temples. Image worship in a public temple or privately. Procedure of consecration of images according to the Matsya-purāṇa. In later times other details added from Tantra works. Three kinds of Nyāsas viz, mātṛkānyāsa, tattvanyāsa and mantranyāsa. Consecration of the image of Viṣṇu from Vaikhānasa Smārtasūtra. Practice of attaching dancing girls to temples is comparatively ancient. When re-consecration (punaḥ-pratiṣṭhā) becomes necessary. Jīrṇoddhāra (repairing or re-constructing a dilapidated temple &c.), time and procedure of. Founding of maṭhas (monasteries or colleges for teachers and pupils). Distinction between a temple and a maṭha. Maṭhas said to have been established by the great teacher Śaṁkarācārya. The origin of maṭhas in general. How property of maṭha devolves. Appointment and powers of the head of a maṭha. How rulers and courts in ancient and medieval times controlled administration of temple and maṭha properties. Modern legislation dealing with religious and charitable endowments. Yogakṣema is impartible. Control of founder on work dedicated to the public. Powers of a shebait to remove an idol or to establish another.

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CHAP. XXVII. 917-929

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*Vānaprastha* (forest hermit). Vaikhānasa, ancient word for *vānaprastha*. An ancient work called Vaikhānasa sūtra or śāstra. Time for becoming a vānaprastha. Principal points connected with being a vānaprastha. If he suffers from an incurable disease, he may start on the great journey till the body falls to rise no more. Intricate classification of vānaprasthas in Baudhāyana-dharma-sūtra and others. Members of all varṇas except śūdras could become vānaprasthas. Members of princely houses as vānaprasthas. Ending one's life by starting on the great journey (mahāprasthāna) or by fire or water or falling from a precipice when and why allowed. Historical examples of this practice. This practice prohibited in the Kali age. Most of the duties prescribed for vānaprasthas are the same as those for saṁnyāsins. So vānaprastha stage forbidden in Kali age by the Nāradīya-purāṇa and other works.

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CHAP. XXVIII. 930–975

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*Saṁnyāsa* (order of ascetics). Life of giving up worldly ties, of begging and contemplation on the Absolute known to the earliest Upaniṣads. Jābālopaniṣad prescribes rules for ascetics. The most salient features of saṁnyāsa gathered from the dharmasūtras and smṛtis. Tridaṇḍi and ekadaṇḍi ascetics. Four kinds of ascetics, *kuṭīcaka*, *bahūdaka*, *haṁsa* and *paramahaṁsa* and their characteristics. Popular notion that the paramahaṁsa is beyond all rules and prohibitions combated by ancient texts. Vidvat-saṁnyāsa and vividiṣā-saṁnyāsa. The *turīyātīta* and *avadhūta* kinds of ascetics. Opinions as to whether saṁnyāsa was allowed only to brāhmaṇas or to all three varṇas. According to smṛtis and medieval works a śūdra could not become an ascetic. Women in rare cases adopted the ascetic mode of life. The word saṁnyāsa conveys two distinct ideas. Some held that saṁnyāsa was meant only for the blind and the cripple. Ascetics were to give up wife and home and were not to revert to householder's life. Ten orders of *advaita* saṁnyāsins following Śaṁkarācārya's doctrines and their *maṭhas*. Disputes among the heads of these maṭhas as to properties and ecclesiastical jurisdiction. How successors to the pontiffs of the maṭhas are appointed. How and why saṁnyāsins gave up doctrine of *ahiṁsā* in medieval times. A saṁnyāsin is severed from his family and loses rights of property in it. By custom certain saṁnyāsins called Gosāvīs were allowed to have wives and concubines. Procedure of saṁnyāsa according to the sūtras. Procedure of saṁnyāsa according to Dharmasindhu. Principal elements are; eight śrāddhas, *sāvitrīpraveśa*, *virajāhoma*, declaration of leaving home, all wealth and desires and taking vow of ahiṁsā, giving up of topknot and sacred thread, teaching by guru of *pañcīkaraṇa* and *mahāvākyas* (like tat tvam-asi), giving of a new name by the teacher, *yogapaṭṭa* (p. 962), paryaṅka-śauca. Saṁnyāsa *in extremis* (ātura-saṁnyāsa). Controversies about giving up śikhā and yajñopavīta. Daily duties of an ascetic. No impurity on his death for his relatives and *vice versa*. Ascetic heads of maṭhas claim in modern times jurisdiction in matters of caste, excommunication, expiations for lapses. In ancient times pariṣads (assemblies of learned men) exercised these functions and kings acted on their advice. The number of persons required to constitute a pariṣad for deciding a doubtful point about dharma. Śiṣṭas constitute a pariṣad. Meaning of śiṣṭa. The council of eight ministers established by Shivaji and the duties of the Panditrao, one of these eight. Panditrao took advice of the pariṣads of learned brāhmaṇas on questions of re-admission of converts, expiations &c. Many features of asceticism are common to all religions. It is a partial truth that Indians have the highest regard for the ascetic.

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CHAP. XXIX. 976-1008

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*Śrauta* (Vedic) sacrifices. Deep study of vedic sacrifices essential for the proper understanding of Vedic Literature, for appreciating the influence of that Literature on varṇas. Chronology uncertain. Works, ancient and modern, on Vedic sacrifices. Jaimini on interpretation of Vedic texts relating to sacrifices. Cult of yajña existed in Indo-Iranian period. Literary and epigraphic evidence for the performance of Vedic sacrifices by kings after the advent of Buddha. Grants made by kings for enabling brāhmaṇas to perform agnihotra &c. The references to sacrificial matters in the Ṛgveda. General rules applicable in all sūtras. Mantras of four kinds, *ṛk*, *yajus*, *sāman* and *nigada*. Different kinds of ladles. Sacrificial utensils. The several fires. The five bhūsaṁskāras. *Agnyādheya*. Choosing the devayajana (place of worship). Procedure of agnyādheya. *Punarādheya*. *Agnihotra* in the morning and evening. Rules about agnihotra when the householder goes away from home either alone or with his wife.

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CHAP. XXX. 1009-1090

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Darśapūrṇamāsa (New moon and Full moon sacrifices). Time for starting the performance of darśapūrṇamāsa. Anvārambhaṇīyā iṣṭi, śākhāharaṇa, barhirāharaṇa (bringing bundles of kuśa grass), idhmāharaṇa (bringing fuel-sticks), *Sāyaṃdoha*. *Upavasatha* day. *Sānnāyya*. *Brahmavaraṇa* (choosing the brahmā priest). *Praṇītā* waters. *Nirvāpa* (taking out sacrificial material). *Prokṣaṇa* (sprinkling) of sacrificial material, utensils &c. The *Haviṣkṛt* call. Beating the grains of rice. Baking cake (*puroḍāśa*) on potsherds. Construction of vedi (altar). *Patnīsaṁnahana* (girding up the sacrificer's wife). Barhirāstaraṇa (strewing the vedi with kuśas). Fifteen Sāmidhenī verses. Pravaramantra (invocation of fire). The two āghāras (pouring of ājya in a continuous stream). *Hotṛvaraṇa*. The *Prayājas* (five offerings). Vaṣaṭkāra. *Ājyabhāgas* (two). The principal sacrifice of portions of the cake. Offering to Agni sviṣṭakṛt. Cutting off a portion of the cake called prāśitra (for brahmā). *Iḍā* cut off from puroḍāśa. A thin long slice of puroḍāśa for yajamāna. Invocation of Iḍā by the hotṛ. Brahmā eats prāśitra, hotṛ eats avāntareḍā, all priests together with the yajamāna partake of iḍā. Division of puroḍāśa for Agni into four parts and eating of the portions by the four priests. *Mārjana* thereafter. Cooking a mess of boiled rice (called *anvāhārya*) as fee for the four priests. The three *anuyāja* offerings. Recitation of *sūktavāka*. Throwing of prastara bunch and śākhā into fire. *Śaṁyuvāka*. Throwing the *paridhis* on fire. *Patnīsaṁyājas*. *Phalīkaraṇahoma*. Saṁsthājapa by hotṛ. Saṁiṣṭayajus offerings. Adhvaryu and brahmā leave the sacrificial hall. Yajamāna takes Viṣṇu strides. Final prayer by yajamāna. *Piṇḍapitṛyajña*.

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CHAP. XXXI. 1091–1108

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*Cāturmāsyas* (seasonal sacrifices). Four Cāturmāsyas each called a *parvan*, viz. Vaiśvadeva, Varuṇapraghāsa, Sākamedha and Śunāsīrīya, respectively performed on Full moon days of Phālguna, Āṣāḍha, Kārtika and on the 5th full moon day from Sākamedha or two or three days before it. Observances on all *parvan* days such as shaving head and face, not using a cot, avoiding meat, honey, salt and sexual intercourse. Five offerings common to all Cāturmāsyas. Cāturmāsyas may be performed throughout life or for one year. Three special offerings in Vaiśvadeva-parva. Nine *prayājas* and nine *anuyājas* in Vaiśvadeva. Varuṇapraghāsa performed in rainy season outside the house. Two vedis prepared, to north and south, respectively in charge of adhvaryu and pratiprasthātṛ. Procedure is like that of Vaiśvadeva. Four special offerings in this in addition to five common to all. Procedure of Varuṇapraghāsas. The wife has to declare or indicate if she has any paramour. Concluding *avabhṛtha* (bath) in a river or the like. Sākamedha requires two days. Three iṣṭis and a *mahāhavis* of eight offerings to eight deities. Then pitṛyajña (called *mahāpitṛyajña*) on a separate vedi. Also Traiyambaka homa offered to Rudra. Śunāsīrīyaparvan has three special offerings to Śunāsīrau, Vāyu and Sūrya. Iṣṭi called Āgrayaṇa (offering of first fruits) in Śarad on Full moon day. Other iṣṭis performed for some specific objects e. g. putreṣṭi for son, Kārīrīṣṭi for rain &c.

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