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History of Dharmashastra (Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Law in India) v2.c23: Chapter VI. Saṁskāras

History of Dharmaśāstra (Ancient and Mediaeval Religious and Civil Law in India) v2.c23

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Chapter VI. Saṁskāras

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Gautama (II. 1) says that before upanayana, a boy may act, speak and eat as and what he likes (i. e. may follow his inclinations). Haradatta explains that this does not mean that he can kill a brāhmaṇa or drink liquor, but that there is no restriction, although he be a brāhmaṇa's son, to his selling what is forbidden to a brāhmaṇa to sell, or he may eat onions and garlic or stale food or may eat four or five times a day. Āp. Dh. S.⁴³⁸ (II. 1. 6. 15. 17–20) states several views on this point. 'Up to the time when they begin to take cooked food infants do not become impure (by the touch of a *rajasvalā* &c.); according to some (teachers) up till they are one year old; or till they are not able to distinguish the cardinal points; another view is that till upanayana (they do not become impure)'. Aparārka (p. 28) also explains that a boy may (before upanayana) eat the leavings of the food of his parents, but he cannot eat or drink what would cause loss of caste as in that case he may become unfit to have the saṃskāra of upanayana performed on him. The Smṛtyarthasāra gives the view of some that in case an infant touches a cāṇḍāla before it reaches the age of taking cooked food, only water need be sprinkled on it, before caula ācamana need be done by it and after caula (and before upanayana) a bath would be necessary. Vas. Dh. S. (II. 6) quotes a verse of Hārīta to the effect 'up till investiture with the girdle of muñja grass (i. e. till upanayana) there is no action that is obligatory on him, as long as he is not born again for Vedic study he may be in his conduct like a śūdra'⁴³⁹. This verse occurs also in Baud. Dh. S. I. 2. 6 and Manu II. 171 and 172. Dakṣa I. 3–4 says 'Till a boy is eight years old he is like one newly born and only indicates the caste in which he is born. As long as his upanayana is not performed the boy incurs no blame as to what is allowed or forbidden to be eaten, as to what should (or should not) be drunk, as to what he should or should not speak, as to telling a falsehood'.⁴⁴⁰ But this does not hold good as to *mahāpātakas*. As to prāyaścitta when a child is guilty of the commission of a mahāpātaka, see under prāyaścitta later on and the Mit. on Yāj. III. 253. The smṛtis look upon upanayana as the second birth of a boy (the first being his physical birth)⁴⁴¹. Gaut. (X. 1 and 51) says that the three higher classes are called *dvijātis* (having two births), while the śūdra is only *ekajāti*.⁴⁴² Āp. Dh. S. says (I. 1. 1. 16-18), 'the teacher causes him (the boy who is initiated into Vedic study) to be born from vidyā (i.e. by imparting Vedic knowledge), that birth is superior, the parents produce only the body'.⁴⁴³ Upanayana is like Baptism and St. John (3. 3) also says 'except a man be born again, he cannot see the Kingdom of God.' Manu II. 147-148 (= Viṣṇu Dh. S. 30. 45-46) convey the same idea. Manu (II. 169) speaks of three births in the case of a man, first birth from his mother, the second when the girdle is tied (i. e. on upanayana) and the third when he is initiated for a Vedic sacrifice. Upanayana is the foremost of the saṁskāras. Atri (141-142) says 'a person is known as a brāhmaṇa by birth, he is said to be a dvija (twice-born) on account of saṁskāras, he reaches the position of a vipra by learning (study of the Veda); he is called śrotriya on account of all these three'.⁴⁴⁴ Parāśara (VIII. 19) contains a fine image to illustrate this 'just as a work of painting gradually unfolds itself on account of the several colours (with which it is drawn), so brāhmaṇya (the status of a brāhmaṇa) is similarly brought out by saṁskāras performed according to prescribed rites.'

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⁴³⁸ आऽन्नप्राशनाद्गर्भा नाम्रयता भवन्ति । आ परिसंवत्सरादित्येके । यावता वा न दिशः प्रजानीयुः । ओपनयनादित्यपरम् । आप. ध. सू. II. 6. 15. 17–20.

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⁴³⁹ हारीतोप्युदाहरति । न ह्यस्मिन् विद्यते कर्म किंचिदामौञ्जिबन्धनात् । वृत्त्या शूद्रसमो ह्येष यावद्वेदे न जायते । इति । वसिष्ठ II. 6; बौध. ध. सू. reads नास्य कर्म नियच्छन्ति; compare विष्णुधर्मसूत्र 28. 40 प्राङ्‌मौञ्जीबन्धनाद् द्विजः शूद्रसमो भवति ।

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⁴⁴⁰ जातमात्रः शिशुस्तावद्यावदष्टौ समा वयः। स हि गर्भसमो ज्ञेयो जातिमात्रप्रदर्शकः॥ भक्ष्याभक्ष्ये तथापेये वाच्यावाच्ये तथानृते । अस्मिन्बाले न दोषः स्यात्स यावन्नोपनीयते ॥ दक्ष I. 3-4, quoted in अपरार्क (p. 28) and the second cited as from विष्णुपुराण in परा. मा. I part 2 p. 29.

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⁴⁴¹ तन्न द्वितीयं जन्म । तद्यस्मात्स आचार्यः । वेदानुवचनाच्च । गौ. I. 9-11.

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⁴⁴² द्विजातीनामध्ययनमिज्या दानम् । शूद्रश्चतुर्थो वर्ण एकजातिः। गौ. x. 1 and 51. Vide आप. ध. सू. I. 1. 1. 6.

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⁴⁴³ स हि विद्यातस्तं जनयति । तच्छ्रेष्ठं जन्म । शरीरमेव मातापितरौ जनयतः । आप. ध. सू. I. 1. 1. 16-18.

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⁴⁴⁴ जन्मना ब्राह्मणो ज्ञेयः संस्कारैर्द्विज उच्यते। विद्यया याति विप्रत्वं श्रोत्रियस्त्रिभिरेव च ॥ अत्रि 141-142; ब्रह्मपुराण reads जन्मना...। विद्यया वापि विप्रत्वं त्रिभिः श्रोत्रिय उच्यते ॥ quoted in सं. प्र. p. 404. चित्रकर्म यथानैकै रङ्गैरुन्मील्यते शनैः । ब्राह्मण्यमपि तद्वत्स्यात्संस्कारैर्विधिपूर्वकैः। पराशर VIII. 19; quoted as Devala's by Aparārka (p. 25) and as of Aṅgiras in Par. M. II. part I. p. 22, संस्कारतत्त्व p. 857 and सं. म. p. 136.

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Therefore it is now time to speak of saṁskāras.

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The word saṁskāra hardly ever occurs in the ancient Vedic literature, but the root '*kṛ*' with '*saṁ*' and the past passive participle '*saṁskṛta*' occur often enough. In Ṛg. V. 76. 2 the word saṁskṛta is applied to '*gharma*' (vessel) 'the two Aśvins do not harm the gharma that has been purified.' In Ṛg. VI. 28. 4 we have the word saṁskṛtatra' and Ṛg. VIII. 33. 9 has 'raṇāya saṁskṛtaḥ'. Śat.⁴⁴⁵ Br. I. 1. 4. 10 speaks of preparing (or purifying) offering (*havis*) for the gods. So in Śat. Br. III. 2. 1. 22 'therefore a woman approaches a man who stands in a well-trimmed (saṁskṛta) house.' Vide Vāj. S. IV. 34 for a similar use of saṁskṛta. In Chān. Up. IV. 16. 2, we⁴⁴⁶ read "of that sacrifice there are two ways, by mind, by speech; the Brahmā (priest) prepares (or polishes) one of them by his mind." The word saṁskāra is used several times in the sūtras of Jaimini (as in III. 1. 3, III. 2. 15 and 17, III. 8. 3, IX. 2. 9, 42, 44, IX. 3. 25, IX. 4. 33, IX. 4. 50 and 54, X. 1. 2 and 11 &c.). It generally means some purificatory act in a sacrifice e. g. in Jaimini III. 8. 3 the word is applied to the actions of shaving the head, washing the teeth and paring the nails on the part of the sacrificer in Jyotiṣṭoma; in IX. 3. 25 the word saṁskāra is applied to prokṣaṇa (sprinkling with water), in X. 2. 49 it is applied to the shaving of the head and face. In Jaimini⁴⁴⁷ VI. 1. 35 the word saṁskāra stands for upanayana. Śabara explains⁴⁴⁸ saṁskāra as that which being effected makes a certain thing or person fit for a certain purpose and the Tantravārtika says that saṁskāras are those actions and rites that impart fitness and it further says⁴⁴⁹ 'fitness is of two kinds; it arises by the removal of taints (sins) or by the generation of fresh qualities. Saṁskāras generate fresh qualities, while *tapas* brings about the removal of taints. He who performs such sacrifices as Jyotiṣṭoma and others has certain blemishes in him due to not doing in this life or a previous life duties laid down for him or doing what is forbidden. If they (blemishes) are not removed they obstruct the (acquisition of the) reward of the sacrifice even if it be entirely free from any defects whatever, as they (blemishes) produce (for the sacrificer) the experience of their own fruits that are opposed to the (fruit of the) sacrifice.' The Vīramitrodaya⁴⁵⁰ (on saṁskāra) defines '*saṁskāra*' as 'a peculiar excellence due to the performance of rites ordained (by the śāstra) which resides either in the soul or the body' and says that it is of two kinds, one kind making a person eligible for performing other actions (e. g. upanayana renders a person eligible for Vedic study), while another kind removes the evil taint that may have been generated (e. g. Jātakarma removes the taint due to seed and uterus). The word *saṁskāra* does not occur in most of the gṛhyasūtras (it occurs in Vaik.), but it occurs in the Dharmasūtras (vide Gaut. VIII. 8, Āp. Dh. I. 1. 1. 9, Vas. IV. 1).

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⁴⁴⁵ स इदं देवेभ्यो हविः संस्कुरु साधु संस्कृतं संस्कुर्वीत्येवैतदाह । शतपथ I. 1. 4. 10; तस्मादु स्त्री पुमांसं संस्कृते तिष्ठन्तमभ्येति । शतपथ III. 2. 1. 22.

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⁴⁴⁶ तस्मादेष एव यज्ञस्तस्य मनश्च वाक् च वर्तनी । तयोरन्यतरां मनसा संस्करोति ब्रह्मा वाचा होता । छान्दोग्य IV. 16. 1-2. The Brahmā priest remains silent and watches the whole sacrifice to see if there be any mistake, which he corrects by prāyaścitta.

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⁴⁴⁷ संस्कारस्य तदर्थत्वाद्विद्यायां पुरुषश्रुतिः । जै. VI. 1. 35.

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⁴⁴⁸ संस्कारो नाम स भवति यस्मिञ्जाते पदार्थो भवति योग्यः कस्यचिदर्थस्य । शबर on जै. III. 1. 3 (p. 660); योग्यतां चादधानाः क्रियाः संस्कारा इत्युच्यन्ते । तन्त्रवार्तिक p. 1078; संस्कारो हि नाम गुणाधानेन वा स्याद् दोषापनयनेन वा । शंकर on वेदान्तसूत्र I. 1. 4.

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⁴⁴⁹ योग्यता च सर्वत्र द्विमकारा दोषापनयनेन गुणान्तरोपजननेन च भवति। तन्त्रवार्तिक p. 1115 on जै. III. 8. 9.

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⁴⁵⁰ रुद्रस्कन्द on खादिरगृह्य II. 3. 33 'एते गर्भाधानाद्यः संस्काराः शरीरं संस्कुर्वन्तः सर्वेषु अनुष्ठार्थेषु कर्मसु योग्यतातिशयं कुर्वन्ति। फलातिशयो योग्यतातिशये च।'

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The principal matters that fall to be discussed under saṁskāras are: the purpose of saṁskāras, the classification of saṁskāras, the number of saṁskāras, the procedure of each of the saṁskāras and the persons authorized to perform them and the persons for whom they are to be performed.

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First as to the purpose of saṁskāras. Manu (II. 27–28) says 'In the case of dvijātis, the taints (or sins) due to seed and the uterus (i. e. derived from parents) are wiped off by the *homas* (burnt oblations) performed during pregnancy and by jātakarma (ceremonies on birth), caula (tonsure) and the tying of the girdle of muñja grass. This (human) body is rendered fit for the attainment of *brahma* by the study of the Veda, by (observance of) vratas, homas (oblations in fire), by the vrata called traividya, by worship (of gods, sages and manes), by generation of sons, by the performance of the five daily sacrifices and by (solemn Vedic) sacrifices.' The view of Yāj. (I. 13) is that 'thus (i. e. by the performance of saṁskāras) the taint arising from the seed and uterus (i. e. from the physical defects of parents) is removed.' These words of Manu and Yāj. are variously interpreted by the commentators. Medhātithi says 'seed and uterus are not the causes of sin and therefore all that is meant by *enas* (in Manu II. 27) is impurity.' Kullūka explains that blemishes of seed are those arising from intercourse in a prohibited manner and the 'gārbhika' blemish is what arises from having to stay in the womb of an impure mother. The Mit.⁴⁵¹ on Yāj. I. 13 makes it clear that saṁskāras are deemed to remove bodily defects transmitted from parents (such as defective limbs, diseases &c.) and are not intended to remove the taint of being born of sinful parents. Manu II. 66 also states that all the saṁskāras are performed on a woman also for the purification of the body. Hārīta⁴⁵² as quoted in the Saṁskāratattva says 'when a person has intercourse according to the procedure of *garbhādhāna* he establishes in the wife a foetus that becomes fit for the reception of the Veda, by the rite of *puṁsavana* he makes the garbha become a male, by the ceremony of Sīmantonnayana he removes from the foetus the taint derived from the parents and the accumulated taints (which are five) due to seed, blood and womb are removed by jātakarma, nāmakaraṇa, annaprāśana, cūḍākaraṇa and samāvartana. By these eight saṁskāras (from garbhādhāna) purity arises.' The exact significance of saṁskāras in the development of higher human personality was left rather vague in our authorities and their treatment of the purpose of saṁskāras is not very elaborate or exhaustive. The saṁskāras had been treated from very ancient times as necessary for unfolding the latent capacities of man for development and as being the outward symbols or signs of the inner change which would fit human beings for corporate life and they also tended to confer a certain status on those who underwent them. If we look at the list of saṁskāras we shall find that the purposes of saṁskāras were manifold. Some like Upanayana served spiritual and cultural purposes, they brought the unredeemed person into the company of the elect, they opened the door to Vedic study and thus conferred special privileges and exacted duties. They have also psychological values impressing on the mind of the person that he has assumed a new role and must strive to observe its rules. Other saṁskāras like nāmakaraṇa, annaprāśana, and niṣkramaṇa were more or less of a popular nature. They afforded opportunities for the expression of love and affection and for festivities. Other saṁskāras like garbhādhāna, puṁsavana, sīmantonnayana had also mystical and symbolical elements. Vivāha (marriage) was a sacrament which brought about a union of two personalities into one for the purpose of the continuance of society and for the uplift of the two by self-restraint, by self-sacrifice and mutual co-operation.

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⁴⁵¹ बीजगर्भसमुद्भवं शुक्रशोणितसंबद्धं गात्रव्याधिसंक्रान्तिनिमित्तं वा न तु पतितोत्पन्नत्वादि । मिता. on या. I. 13; एनोऽत्राप्रायत्यं मातुः पीताशनादेरुत्पन्नमित्यर्थः । अपरार्क.

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⁴⁵² तत्र हारीतः। गर्भाधानवदुपैतो ब्रह्मगर्भं संदधाति । पुंसवनात्पुंसीकरोति फलस्थापनान्मातापितृजं पाप्मानमपोहति रेतोरक्तगर्भोपघातः पञ्चगुणो जातकर्मणा प्रथममपोहति नामकरणेन द्वितीयं प्राशनेन तृतीयं चूडाकरणेन चतुर्थ स्नापनेन पञ्चममेतैरष्टाभिः संस्कारैर्गर्भोपघातात् पूतो भवतीति । संस्कारतत्त्व (p. 857).

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The saṁskāras were divided by Hārīta into two kinds, brāhma and daiva.⁴⁵³ The saṁskāras of garbhādhāna and others which are described only in the smṛtis are called brāhma and the man who is purified by performing them attains equality with sages, stays in the same world with them and is joined with them; pākayajñas (offerings of cooked food), yajñas with burnt offerings and sacrifices in which soma is offered are called *daiva* (saṁskāras). The last two varieties, viz. those in which there is burnt offering and those in which soma is offered, are dealt with in the śrauta sūtras, which have been left outside the purview of this work (except in the note at the end of this volume).

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⁴⁵³ तथा च हारीतः। द्विविधः संस्कारो भवति ब्राह्मो दैवश्च। गर्भाधानादिस्मात ब्राह्मः। पाकयज्ञहविर्यज्ञसौम्याश्चेति दैवः। ब्रह्मसंस्कारसंस्कृत ऋषीणां समानतां सलोकतां सायुज्यं गच्छति। दैवेनोत्तरेण संस्कृतो देवानां समानतां सलोकतां सायुज्यं गच्छति। इति। स्मृतिच. I. p. 13, परा. मा. I. part 2 p. 18, संस्कारप्रकाश p. 135. The editor of the परा. मा. says it is हारीतधर्मसूत्र XI. 1-5 (from the MS he had discovered).

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There is a great divergence of views among the writers on smṛtis as to the number of saṁskāras. Gaut. (VIII. 14–24) speaks of forty saṁskāras and eight virtues of the soul. The forty saṁskāras are: garbhādhāna, puṁsavana, sīmantonnayana, jātakarma, nāmakaraṇa, annaprāśana, caula, upanayana (8 in all); the four vratas of the Veda, snāna (or samāvartana), vivāha, five daily mahāyajñas (for deva, pitṛ, manuṣya, bhūta and brahma); seven pākayajñas⁴⁵⁴ (viz. aṣṭakā, pārvaṇasthālīpāka, śrāddha, śrāvaṇī, āgrahāyaṇī, caitrī, āśvayujī); seven haviryajñas (in which there is burnt offering but no soma) viz. Agnyādheya, Agnihotra, Darśapūrṇamāsa, Āgrayaṇa, Cāturmāsyas, Nirūḍhapaśubandha and Sautrāmaṇī); seven soma sacrifices (Agniṣṭoma, Atyagniṣṭoma, Ukthya, Ṣoḍaśin, Vājapeya, Atirātra, Āptoryāma). Gautama uses the word saṁskāra in the most extended sense. Śaṅkha as quoted by the Sm. C. (I. p. 13) and the Subodhinī on Mit. II. 4 follow Gautama. Vaik. speaks of eighteen śārīra saṁskāras (in which he includes utthāna, pravāsāgamana, piṇḍavardhana, which are seen nowhere else as saṁskāras) and twenty-two yajñas (i. e. five daily yajñas as one and seven pākayajñas, seven havir-yajñas, and seven soma yajñas). Most gṛhyasūtras, dharmasūtras and smṛtis do not enumerate so many. Aṅgiras (quoted in the Saṁskāramayūkha, Saṁskāra-prakāśa p. 135 and other digests) mentions twenty-five saṁskāras. They include all saṁskāras of Gautama from garbhādhāna to the five daily yajñas (which latter are reckoned as one saṁskāra by Aṅgiras) and after nāmakaraṇa niṣkramaṇa is added. Besides, Viṣṇubali, Āgrayaṇa, Aṣṭakā, Śrāvaṇī, Āśvayujī, Mārgaśīrṣī (same as Āgrahāyaṇī), Pārvaṇa, Utsarga and Upākarma are enumerated as the remaining saṁskāras by Aṅgiras. Veda-Vyāsa I. 14-15 enumerates sixteen saṁskāras. Manu, Yāj., Viṣṇu Dh. S. do not give the number of saṁskāras but simply say that they are those from niṣeka (garbhādhāna) to śmaśāna (i. e. antyeṣṭi). This last one is not treated of in Gautama and several gṛhyasūtras. In most of the digests the principal saṁskāras are said to be sixteen; but there is some difference of opinion even as to these sixteen.⁴⁵⁵ For example, Jātūkarṇya as quoted in Saṁ. Pr. (p. 135) enumerates the 16 as garbhādhāna, puṁsavana, sīmanta, jātakarman, nāmakaraṇa, annaprāśana, caula, mauñjī (upanayana), vratas (four), godāna, samāvartana, vivāha and antyeṣṭi. These slightly differ from the sixteen of Veda-Vyāsa.

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⁴⁵⁴ According to some the seven pākayajñas are: aupāsanahoma, vaiśvadeva, pārvaṇa (sthālīpāka), aṣṭakā, māsika-śrāddha (monthly), sarpabali and īśānabali. Vide Sm. C. I. p. 13. The Baud. gr. I. 1. gives the seven pākayajñas as huta, prahuta, āhuta, śūlagava, baliharaṇa, pratyavarohaṇa and aṣṭakā homa. Vide S. B. E. Vol. 30 p. 358 for several differing enumerations of pākayajñas.

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⁴⁵⁵ तत्र संस्काराः। गर्भाधान...विवाहाश्चेत्यावश्यकाः षोडश प्रधानाः संस्काराः। स्मृत्यर्थसार p. 3. The 16 usually enumerated in the digests are गर्भाधान, पुंसवन, सीमन्तोन्नयन, विष्णुबलि, जातकर्म, नामकरण, निष्क्रमण, अन्नप्राशन, चौल, उपनयन, वेदव्रतचतुष्टय, समावर्तन, विवाह.

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The gṛhyasūtras deal with saṁskāras in two different sequences. Many of them begin with vivāha (marriage) and then proceed up to samāvartana. Some like the Hiraṇyakeśigṛhya, Bhāradvājagṛhya and Mānavagṛhya begin with upanayana.⁴⁵⁶ Some saṁskāras like Karṇavedha and Vidyārambha are conspicuous by their absence in the gṛhyasūtras, but are added by later smṛtis and purāṇas. The following is the list of all the saṁskāras usually so called in most of the smṛti works together with a few remarks against each as to the work or works in which each is mentioned or described. The saṁskāras are arranged in the sequence of the times at which in a man's life they are performed beginning from garbhādhāna:

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⁴⁵⁶ For detailed treatment of some of the saṁskāras, vide Dr. (Mrs.) Kamalabai Deshpande's work 'the Child in ancient India' (with copious references to the gṛhya sūtras); Mrs. Stevenson's 'the Rites of the twice-born' (1920), which exhaustively reviews in the minutest details the rites of brāhmaṇas (particularly in Kathiawar and Gujarat) as observed at present. This work however gives hardly any references to original Sanskrit authorities, is permeated by the spirit of a Christian missionary and commits the mistake, usual with most Western writers, of comparing hoary Indian customs, usages and the position of women with those of the West only in the latter half of the 19th century, altogether ignoring what existed in Europe over a few hundred years ago, though it is generally written with sympathy and understanding. Colebrooke's Miscellaneous Essays, Vol. I. pp. 123–226 (London, 1837), Monier Williams' 'Religious thought and life in India' part I (1883), Vidyārṇava's 'on daily practices' in the 20th volume of 'the Sacred Books of the Hindus' may also be consulted.

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*Ṛtu-saṁgamana*—mentioned in Vaik.⁴⁵⁷ I. 1 as distinct from garbhādhāna; it calls it niṣeka also (VI. 2) and describes it in III. 9 and garbhādhāna in III. 10. The Vaik. commences the saṁskāras with niṣeka.

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⁴⁵⁷ ऋतौ संगमनं निषेकमित्याहुः । वैखानस VI. 2; अथ निषेकादिसंस्कारान् व्याख्यास्यामः । वैखानस I. 1.

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*Garbhādhāna: Niṣeka: Caturthīkarma or-homa:*—Manu (II. 16 and 26), Yāj. I. 10–11, Viṣṇu Dh. S. (2. 3 and 27. 1) employ the word niṣeka as equivalent to garbhādhāna. In the Śāṅkhāyana gṛhya (I. 18–19), Pār. gṛ. I. 11, and Āp. gṛ. (8. 10–11) the rite called caturthīkarma or caturthīhoma takes the place of the rite called garbhādhāna elsewhere and there is no separate description of garbhādhāna in these and some similar gṛhyasūtras. The Baud. gṛ. (IV. 6. 1), the Kāṭhakagṛhya (30. 8), Gaut. (VIII. 14), Yāj. I. 11 employ the word garbhādhāna. According to Vaik. (III. 10) the garbhādhāna rite follows niṣeka or ṛtu-saṁgamana (union of married pair after menstruation) and consists in ensuring conception.

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*Puṁsavana* :—occurs in almost all the gṛhyasūtras, in Gaut., in Yāj. (I. 11).

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*Garbharakṣaṇa* :—mentioned in the Śāṅkhāyana gṛ. (I. 21). It seems to be the same as the Anavalobhana which according to the Āśvalāyana gṛ. (I. 13. 1) occurs in the Upaniṣad and which is described in Āśv. gṛ. (I. 13. 5-7).

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*Sīmantonnayana* :—This occurs almost everywhere. Yāj. I. 11 uses the word sīmanta.

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*Viṣṇubali* :—mentioned in Baud. gṛ. (I. 10. 13-17 and I. 11. 2), Vaik. (III. 13), Aṅgiras. It is not mentioned by Gautama and several other ancient sūtrakāras.

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*Soṣyantī-karma* or-*homa* :—described in Khādira and Gobhila. It is called Soṣyantī-savana in Kāṭhaka-gṛhya and Kṣiprasuvana in Āp. gṛ., Bhāradvāja gṛ. and Kṣipraprasavana in Hir. gṛ. (S. B. E. vol. 30, p. 210). It occurs in Budhasmṛti (as quoted in Saṁskāra-prakāśa p. 139).

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*Jātakarma* :—This is described in all sūtras and smṛtis.

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*Utthāna* :—mentioned only in the Vaik. (III. 18) and in Śāṅ. gṛ. I. 25 (S. B. E. vol. 29, pp. 51-52).

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*Nāmakaraṇa* :—mentioned in all smṛtis.

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*Niṣkramaṇa* or *Upaniṣkramaṇa* or *Ādityadarśana* or *Nirṇayana* :—Yāj. I. 11 speaks of it as Niṣkramaṇa, Pār. gṛ. (I. 17) as Niṣkramaṇikā, Manu II. 34 speaks of it as Niṣkramaṇa. The Kauśikasūtra 58. 18 calls it Nirṇayana; while Baud. gṛ. (II. 2) employs the word upaniṣkramaṇa; Mānava gṛ. (I. 19. 1), Viṣṇu Dh. S. (27. 10), Śaṅkha (in verse, II. 5) employ appropriately the name Ādityadarśana. Gaut., Āp. gṛ. and several other sūtras omit it.

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*Karṇavedha* :—omitted in almost all ancient smṛtis; mentioned in Veda-Vyāsa smṛti (I. 19), Baud. gṛ. śeṣa-sūtra (I. 12. 1), Kātyāyana-sūtra (a supplement to Pār. gṛ.)

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*Annaprāśana* :—mentioned by almost every smṛti.

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*Varṣavardhana* or *Abdapūrti* :—mentioned in Gobhila, Śāṅ. Pār., Baud.

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*Caula* or *Cūḍākarma* or *Cūḍākaraṇa* :—mentioned by all smṛtis.

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*Vidyārambha* :—not mentioned in any smṛti but only in Mārkaṇḍeyapurāṇa quoted by Aparārka (p. 30) and Sm. C. (I. p. 26).

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*Upanayana* :—mentioned by all. It is called vratādeśa in Veda-Vyāsa I. 14.

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*Vratas* (four) :—mentioned by most of the gṛhyasūtras.

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*Keśānta* or *Godāna* :—Mentioned by almost all.

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*Samāvartana* or *Snāna* :—there is great divergence about these two. Manu (III. 4) seems to keep snāna (ceremonial bath after the period of studentship is over) as distinct from samāvartana. Gaut., Āp. gṛ. V. 12-13, Hir. gṛ. I. 9. 1, Yāj. I. 51, Pār. gṛ. (II. 6-7) employ the word snāna for both the ceremonial bath and the rites of return from the teacher's house on finishing one's studies, while Āśv. gṛ. (III. 8. 1), Baud. gṛ. (II. 6. 1), Śāṅ. gṛ. III. 1, Āp. Dh. S. (I. 2. 7. 15 and 31) employ the word Samāvartana.

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*Vivāha* :—Mentioned by all as a saṁskāra.

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*Mahāyajñas* :—five daily yajñas; mentioned by Gaut., Aṅgiras and others.

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*Utsarga* :—(seasonal giving up of Veda studies) is mentioned as a saṁskāra in Vaik (I. 1) and by Aṅgiras.

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*Upākarma* :—(yearly commencement of Veda study) mentioned as a saṁskāra by Vaik. (I. 1) and by Aṅgiras.

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*Antyeṣṭi* :—mentioned by Manu II. 16 and Yāj I. 10.

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It is laid down that the saṁskāras from jātakarma to cūḍākarma were to be performed in the case of the twice-born classes with Vedic mantras when the child was a male and that in the case of girls the ceremonies were to be performed but without Vedic mantras; vide Āśv. gṛ. (I. 15. 12, I. 16. 6, I. 17. 18), Manu II. 66, Yāj I. 13. But marriage in the case of the girls of the three higher classes was to be performed with Vedic mantras (Manu II. 67. Yāj. I. 13).

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The saṁskāras⁴⁵⁸ from garbhādhāna to upanayana alone were absolutely necessary in the case of all twice-born persons;

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⁴⁵⁸ अत्र गर्भाधानाद्युपनयनपर्यन्ता एव संस्काराः सर्वेषां नियताः न पुनः स्नानादयः । तथात्वे यमिच्छेत्कर्तुं तमावसेद्यदि वेतरथा ब्रह्मचर्यादेव प्रव्रजेदिति विरोधः स्यात् । स्मृतिच० I. pp. 13-14; स्मृतिमु. (वर्णाश्रमधर्म p. 73). The words 'यदि वेतरथा ...... ब्रजेत्' are जाबालोपनिषद् 4.

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the saṁskāras of snāna and vivāha were not obligatory, as a man was allowed to become a saṁnyāsin (ascetic) immediately after finishing the period of studenthood (according to the Jābālopaniṣad). The Saṁskāraprakāśa enters upon an elaborate discussion as to whether jātakarma could be performed for a child that is neither a male nor a female (pp. 195-197) and arrives at the conclusion that jātakarma and other saṁskāras cannot be performed for a *klība* (impotent) child.

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Another question was as to what saṁskāras could be performed for the śūdra. The view of Vedavyāsa that he could have ten saṁskāras performed (but without Vedic mantras) has been stated above (p. 159). The Baijavāpa⁴⁵⁹ gṛhya says that seven saṁskāras are allowed to the śūdra viz. from garbhādhāna (or *niṣeka*) to *caula*. The view of Aparārka⁴⁶⁰ appears to be that the eight saṁskāras from garbhādhāna to caula (in Yāj. I. 11-12) were meant for all varṇas (including the śūdra). According to the Madanaratna, Rūpanārāyaṇa and the bhāṣya of Harihara as quoted in the Nirṇayasindhu, the śūdras were entitled to perform six saṁskāras viz. jātakarma, nāmakaraṇa, niṣkramaṇa, annaprāśana, cūḍā and vivāha and the five daily mahāyajñas. The Śūdrakṛtya-tattva of Raghunandana (p. 634) quotes a verse from the Varāhapurāṇa⁴⁶¹ 'this very procedure (about śrāddha) has been declared in the case of śūdras but without mantras; for the śūdra who is not entitled to repeat a mantra, a brāhmaṇa repeats the mantra' and then remarks that for a śūdra a mantra from the purāṇas is to be repeated by the brāhmaṇa priest employed, that the śūdra is not to repeat even the purāṇa mantras but has only to say 'namaḥ'. The Nirṇayasindhu⁴⁶² mentions with approval the same view of Śūlapāṇi that in all religious ceremonies for śūdras the mantras are to be taken from the purāṇas and that they are to be repeated by the brāhmaṇa priest. The Brahmapurāṇa⁴⁶³ quoted in the Sm. C. (I. p. 24) and other digests states that no other saṁskāra than vivāha is allowed to the śūdra. On this the Nirṇayasindhu remarks that these conflicting views are to be reconciled by holding that the liberal ones apply to good (sat) śūdras and the stricter ones to low (asat) śūdras or that the rules are different in different countries.

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⁴⁵⁹ बैजवापगृह्येऽपि । शूद्रस्यापि निषेक-पुंसवन-सीमन्तोन्नयनजातकर्मनामकरणान्नप्राशनचौळान्यमन्त्रकाणि यथाकालमुपदिष्टानीति। वीरमित्रोदय (सं. प्र.) p. 133.

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⁴⁶⁰ एतच्च चातुर्वर्ण्याभिप्रायं न द्विजातिमात्रविषयम् । तथा सत्युपनयनं विधाय वाच्यं स्यात् । अपरार्क p. 25.

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⁴⁶¹ तत्र द्रव्यदेवताप्रकाशार्थं ब्राह्मणेन मन्त्राः पाठ्याः । ‘अयमेव विधिः प्रोक्तः शूद्राणां मन्त्रवर्जितः । अमन्त्रस्य तु शूद्रस्य मन्त्रो विप्रेण गृह्यते’ इति वराहपुराणात् । शूद्रकृत्यतत्त्व p. 634.

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⁴⁶² अमन्त्रस्य तु शूद्रस्य मन्त्रो विप्रेण गृह्यते इति मरीच्युक्तेश्च । इयं परिभाषा सर्वार्था तेन शूद्रधर्मेषु सर्वत्र विप्रेण मन्त्रः पठनीयः सोऽपि पौराण एवेति शूलपाणिः । निर्णयसिन्धु III. पूर्वार्ध

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⁴⁶³ ब्राह्मे तु ‘विवाहमात्रसंस्कारं शूद्रोऽपि लभतां सदा’ इत्युक्तम् । अत्र सदसच्छूद्रगोचरत्वेन देशभेदाद्व्यवस्था । निर्णयसिन्धु III. पूर्वार्ध.

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It is to be noted that in modern times most of the saṁskāras (except garbhādhāna, upanayana and vivāha) have fallen into oblivion and are hardly ever performed even by brāhmaṇas in the manner and at the times prescribed by the smṛtis. Owing to the rapid rise in the marriageable age of brāhmaṇa girls, even the saṁskāra of garbhādhāna is falling into abeyance. Nāmakaraṇa, annaprāśana are performed in a popular way but without Vedic mantras or without calling a priest to officiate. In most cases caula is performed on the day of the upanayana and samāvartana is also performed a few days after upanayana. Jātakarma and annaprāśana are performed on the same day in some parts (e. g. in Bengal). It appears that this state of things has continued for centuries. The Smṛtyarthasāra⁴⁶⁴ (p. 3) says 'if the saṁskāras (except upanayana) are not performed at the prescribed times, the Vyāhṛtihoma should be offered and then the saṁskāras should be performed (though late). For each saṁskāra that is not performed the penance called pādakṛcchra should be performed (if the non-performance is due to some difficulty or distress), and for non-performance of caula the penance is ardha-kṛcchra. If the saṁskāras were knowingly omitted or if there was no distress then the penance is double⁴⁶⁵ of this.' The Nirṇayasindhu quotes verses of Śaunaka⁴⁶⁶ to this effect and then remarks that there was a conflict of views, some holding that after the penance the saṁskāras passed over should be performed all at one time, while others held that they should not be performed at all after undergoing penance and a third view was that if caula was left unperformed it may be performed on the same day as upanayana. The Dharmasindhu (3rd pariccheda, purvārdha) states various substitutes (which are comparatively easy) for these penances. For example, one prājāpatya penance is equal to three Pādakṛcchras. In place of prājāpatya the person guilty of the lapse may make the gift of a cow or (in the absence of a cow) may give one niṣka (320 guñjās) of gold or one half or one-fourth of it; one who is very poor may give one-eighth of a silver niṣka or corn of that value. There being these easy substitutes (*pratyāmnāya* as they were called) people gradually left off performing the several saṁskāras and concentrated themselves only on upanayana and *vivāha*. The whole life of a person was so very minutely worked out and overlaid with so much ritual in the gṛhyasūtras and smṛtis that the tendency to neglect and change became insistent and inevitable. This tendency was helped by the accommodating spirit of the brāhmaṇa authors of later smṛtis and digests that were ready to prescribe easier and easier substitutes for non-observance of the elaborate sacraments, pre-natal and post-natal. Haradatta in commenting on Gaut. I. 6 (upanayanam brāhmaṇasya aṣṭame) remarks 'the teacher (Gautama) expounding upanayana first and passing over the saṁskāras like garbhādhāna that precede upanayana in time conveys that upanayana is the principal saṁskāra. Therefore even if the saṁskāras like garbhādhāna did not take place owing to adverseness of fate, upanayana can be performed, but it follows that if upanayana be not performed there is no *adhikāra* (eligibility) for marriage which follows only after upanayana.'⁴⁶⁷ In modern times in undergoing prāyaścitta for non-performance of the saṁskāras up to caula rupees two have to be paid to the priest (annas four for each of the saṁskāras not performed up to caula and annas eight for caula).⁴⁶⁸

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⁴⁶⁴ The Vyāhṛtihoma consists in offering clarified butter with the mystic syllables, bhūḥ, bhuvaḥ, svaḥ (or suvaḥ) uttered separately and then together. Vide Hir. gṛ. I. 3. 4 (S. B. E. Vol. 30 p. 144).

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⁴⁶⁵ एते कालातिक्रमे व्याहृतिहोमं कृत्वा कार्याः । एतेष्वेकैकलोपे पादकृच्छ्रः कार्यः । चौले त्वर्धकृच्छ्रः । मत्या लोपेऽनापदि च द्विगुणः । स्मृत्यर्थसार p. 3; for पादकृच्छ्र vide Yāj. III. 318 and मिता० thereon where अर्धकृच्छ्र also is explained.

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⁴⁶⁶ अथ संस्कारलोपे शौनकः । आरभ्याधानमाचौलात्कालेतीते तु कर्मणाम् । व्याहृत्याग्निं तु संस्कृत्य हुत्वा कर्म यथाक्रमम् ॥ एतेष्वेकैकलोपे तु पादकृच्छ्रं समाचरेत् । चूडायामर्धकृच्छ्रं स्याद्वापदि त्वेवमीरितम् । अनापदि तु सर्वत्र द्विगुणं द्विगुणं चरेत् । इति । निर्णयसिन्धु III पूर्वार्ध; स्मृतिमु. (वर्णाश्रमधर्म p. 99) quotes a similar verse from कात्यायन 'गर्भाधानादिचौलान्ते स्वकाले विधिनाऽकृते । प्रत्येकं पादकृच्छ्रं स्याद्द्विगुणं स्यादनापदि ॥'

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⁴⁶⁷ प्रथमभाविनो गर्भाधानादीन्संसकारानुलङ्घ्योपनयनं व्याचक्षाणस्तस्य प्राधान्यं दर्शयति। तेन दैवानुपपत्त्या गर्भाधानादिरकरणेपि उपनयनं भवति। तस्याकरणे तु विवाहादिष्वनधिकार इति सिद्धम्। हरदत्त on गौ. I. 6.

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⁴⁶⁸ Vide मदनपारिजात p. 752 for कृच्छ्रप्रत्याम्नाय and संस्कारकौस्तुभ pp. 141-142 for various प्रत्याम्नायs. The modern saṁkalpa at the time of upanayana for late performance or non-performance of saṁskāras is: अमुकशर्मणः मम पुत्रस्य गर्भाधानपुंसवनसीमन्तोन्नयन-जातकर्मनामकरणान्नप्राशनचौलान्तानां संस्काराणां कालातिपत्तिजनित-(or लोपजनित)प्रत्यवायपरिहारार्थं प्रतिसंस्कारं पादकृच्छ्रात्मकप्रायश्चित्तं चूडाया अर्धकृच्छ्रात्मकं प्रतिकृच्छ्रं गोमूल्यरजतनिष्कपादपादप्रत्याम्नायद्वाराहमाचरिष्ये।

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The saṁskāras will now be described in detail. The material contained in the sūtras, smṛtis and nibandhas is so vast that only very concise statements can be made here. The method followed will be as follows. Each saṁskāra will be described from a few representative gṛhya and dharma sūtras such as the Āśv. gṛ., Āp. gṛ., and references will be given to other important works. Only important parts of procedure can be noted, minute divergences among the several works being passed over. Greater details will be given in the case of the two chief saṁskāras viz. upanayana and marriage which are in vogue even now.⁴⁶⁹

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⁴⁶⁹ Besides the gṛhya sūtras, the dharmasūtras, Manu, Yājñavalkya and other smṛtis, the principal digests on saṁskāra relied upon here are the Saṁskāratattva of Raghunandana, the Saṁskāramayūkha of Nīlakaṇṭha, the Saṁskāra-prakāśa of Mitramiśra, the Saṁskārakaustubha of Anantadeva and the Saṁskāraratnamālā of Gopīnātha. Further, one should never lose sight of the fact that in a vast continent like India the various items in daily rites and ceremonies have always varied from age to age, from province to province and from caste to caste. Innumerable modifications were introduced and usages cropped up among the people, particularly owing to the influence of women, of which smṛtis and digests take no notice. This was the state of things even several centuries before Christ. The Āp. Dh. S. (II. 11. 29. 15) closes with the aphorism ‘some teachers hold that the rest of the dharmas (not described here) may be understood from (the usages of) women and of all varṇas’. The Āśv. gṛ. (I. 7. 1) states ‘various indeed are the usages of the different countries and of the different villages; one should observe them in marriage ceremonies.’ This work does not profess to give the bewildering differences of the several śākhās and the several provinces of Modern India, but will restrict itself principally to Western India and the Āśv. sūtra, though important variations have been pointed out in many places.

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*Garbhādhāna*:—The beginnings of this ceremony are found very early. Atharvaveda V. 25 appears to be a hymn intended for the garbhādhāna rite. Atharva V. 25. 3 and 5 are verses which occur in the Bṛ. Up. VI. 4. 21; the passage of the Bṛ. Up. VI. 4. 13, 19-22 may be rendered thus: ‘At the end of three days (after menstruation first appears) when she (wife) has bathed, the husband should make her pound rice (which is then boiled and eaten with various other things according as he desires a fair, brown or dark son or a learned son or a learned daughter)... and then towards morning, after having according to the rule of the Sthālīpāka performed the preparation of the clarified butter, he sacrifices from the Sthālīpāka little by little, saying 'This is for Agni, svāhā; this is for Anumati, svāhā; this is for divine Savitṛ the true creator, svāhā! Having sacrificed he takes out the rest of the rice, eats it and after having eaten he gives some of it to his wife. Then he washes his hands, fills a water jar and sprinkles her thrice with water saying 'Rise, oh Viśvāvasu, seek another blooming girl, a wife with her husband.' Then he embraces her and says 'I am Ama, thou art Sā. Thou art Sā, I am Ama. I am the Sāman, thou art the Ṛk. I am the sky, thou art the earth. Come, let us strive together that a male child may be begotten' (VI. 4. 21-22 cannot be literally translated for reasons of decency). Briefly the husband has intercourse with her and repeats certain mantras 'may Viṣṇu make ready your private parts, may Tvaṣṭā frame your beauty, may Prajāpati sprinkle and may Dhātā implant an embryo into you; Oh Sinīvālī! Oh Pṛthuṣṭukā! implant embryo (in her), may the two Aśvins who wear a garland of lotuses plant in thee an embryo......... As the earth has fire inside it, as heaven has Indra inside it, as the wind is inside (as the embryo of) the quarters, so I plant a *garbha* in thee, oh, so and so (the name of the woman being taken)'.⁴⁷⁰ In the Āśv. gṛ. (I. 13. 1) it is expressly stated that in the Upaniṣad the ceremonies of Garbhalambhana (conceiving a child), Puṁsavana (securing a male child) and Anavalobhana (guarding against dangers to the embryo) are mentioned. Evidently this is a reference to the Bṛ. Up. quoted above (where four mantras used in the garbhādhāna saṁskāra by Hir. and other gṛhya sūtras occur).

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⁴⁷⁰ Vide Appendix for text and S. B. E. vol 15, pp. 220-221 for the translation of the passage. Max Muller notes that the passage 'amohasmi' occurs in the Atharvaveda XIV. 71, that a similar passage (where instead of 'sā tvam' there is 'sa tvam') occurs in Ait. Br. VIII. 27 and that in the Chāndogya Up. I. 6. 1 sā is explained as earth and 'ama' as fire. The mantra 'may Viṣṇu...embryo into you' is Ṛg. X. 184. 1 = Atharvaveda V. 25. 5, and the mantra 'oh Sinīvālī...an embryo,' is Ṛg. X. 184. 2 = Atharva V. 25. 3 (where 'Sarasvati' is read for 'pṛthuṣṭuke'. The Nirukta (XI. 32. on Ṛg. II. 32. 6 where we have an invocation to Sinīvālī in the words 'give us progeny', प्रजां देवि दिदिद्धि नः) explains 'pṛthuṣṭuke' as 'pṛthujaghane' (having large buttocks or large mass of hair). The words 'garbham dadhātu' probably suggested the name 'garbhādhāna given to this rite. The Hir. gṛ. I. 7. 25. 1. has the above two mantras and also the mantra 'as the earth &c' (and another mantra also) which four occur in Bṛ. Up. VI. 4. 21-22; vide S. B. E. vol. 30 p. 199.

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The rite called *caturthīkarma* is described in the Śāṅkhāyana gṛ. (I. 18-19, S. B. E. vol. 29, pp. 44-46) as follows "Three nights after marriage having elapsed, on the fourth the husband makes into fire eight offerings of cooked food to Agni, Vāyu, Sūrya (the mantra being the same for all three except the name of the deity), Aryaman, Varuṇa, Pūṣan (mantras being the same for these three), Prajāpati (the mantra is Ṛg. X. 121. 10), to (Agni) Sviṣṭakṛt. Then he pounds the root of Adhyaṇḍā plant and sprinkles it into the wife's nostril with two verses (Ṛg. X. 85. 21-22) with svāhā at the end of each. He should then touch her, when about to cohabit, with the words 'the mouth of the Gandharva Viśvāvasu art thou'. Then he should murmur 'into the breath I put the sperm, Oh! so and so (the name of the wife) or he repeats the verse 'as the earth has fire inside &c. (quoted above from Bṛ. Up. VI. 4. 22) or several other verses in this strain 'may a male embryo enter thy womb as an arrow into the quiver; may a man be born here, a son, after ten months'.⁴⁷¹ The Pār. gṛ. (I. 11, S. B. E. vol. 29, pp. 288-290) also has a similar procedure. Āp. gṛ. (8. 10-11, S. B. E. vol. 30, pp. 267-268), Gobhila II. 5 (S. B. E. vol. 30, pp. 51-52) give briefly a similar procedure, but refer to mantras given in the Mantrapāṭha (e. g. Āp. M. P. I. 10. 1. to I. 11. 11). To modern minds it appears strange that intercourse should have been surrounded by so much of mysticism and religion in the ancient sūtras. But in ancient times every act was sought to be invested with a religious halo; so much so that according to Hira. gṛ. I. 7. 25.3. (S. B. E. vol. 30, p. 200) Ātreya held that mantras were to be repeated at each cohabitation throughout life, while Bādarāyaṇa prescribed that this was necessary only at the first cohabitation and after each monthly course.⁴⁷² The Hir. gṛ. (I. 7, 23. 11 to 7, 25, S. B. E. vol. 30 pp. 197-200) gives a very elaborate rite, but on the same lines as the above gṛhyasūtras. One of the mantras is interesting on account of its reference to the cakravāka birds (I. 7. 24. 6), 'The concord that belongs to the cakravāka birds, that is brought out of the rivers of which the divine Gandharva is possessed, thereby we are concordant' (S. B. E. vol. 30, p. 198). The Vaik. (III. 9) calls this ceremony ṛtusaṁgamana and is similar to Āp. gṛ. and Hir. gṛ. It will be seen that the caturthīkarma is treated by the gṛhya writers as part of the marriage rites and the rite was performed irrespective of the question whether it was the first appearance of menses or whether the wife had just before the marriage come out of her monthly illness. This indicates that it was taken for granted that the wife had generally attained the age of puberty at the time of marriage. As the marriageable age of girls came down it appears that the rite of caturthīkarma was discontinued and the rite was performed long after the ritual of marriage and appropriately named *garbhādhāna*.

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⁴⁷¹ The mantra 'आ ते योनिं गर्भ एतु पुमान् बाण इवेषुधिम्। आ वीरोऽत्र जायतां पुत्रस्ते दशमास्यः॥' is अथर्ववेद III. 23. 2. This occurs also in हिरण्यकेशिगृह्य I. 7. 25. 1.

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⁴⁷² भारद्वाजगृह्य I. 20 ascribes these views respectively to Āśmarathya and Ālekhana 'सर्वाण्युपायनानि मन्त्रवन्ति भवन्तीत्याश्मरथ्यो यच्चादौ यच्चर्तौवित्यालेखनः'॥

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The smṛtis and nibandhas add many details some of which will have to be noticed. Manu (III. 46) and Yāj. I. 79 say that the natural period (for conception) is sixteen nights from the appearance of menses. Āp. gṛ. 9. 1 says⁴⁷³ that each of the even nights from the 4th to 16th (after the beginning of the monthly illness) are more and more suited for excellence of (male) offspring. Hārīta also says the same. These two appear to allow garbhādhāna on the fourth night, but Manu (III. 47), Yāj. (I. 79) lay down that the first four nights must be omitted. Kātyāyana, Parāśara (VII. 17) and others say that a woman in her menses is purified by bathing on the 4th day. Laghu-Āśvalāyana (III. 1) says that the garbhādhāna ceremony should be performed on the first appearance of menses after the 4th day has elapsed. The Sm. C. suggests that the 4th may be allowed if there is entire cessation of the flow.⁴⁷⁴ Manu (IV. 128) and Yāj. I. 79 added further restrictions viz. that new moon and full moon days and the 8th and 14th tithis of the month were also to be omitted. Astrological details were added by Yāj. I. 80 (that the Mūla and Maghā constellations must be avoided and the moon must be auspiciously placed) and other later smṛtis, which it is unnecessary to dwell upon. In the later smṛtis like Laghu-Āśvalāyana III. 14-19 and in nibandhas like the Nirṇayasindhu and Dharmasindhu elaborate discussions are held about the months, tithis, weekdays, nakṣatras, colour of clothes, that were deemed to be inauspicious for the first appearance of menses and about the *śāntis* (propitiatory rites) for averting their evil effects. Āp. gṛ., Manu (III. 48), Yāj. (I. 79), Vaik. III. 9 hold that a man desirous of male issue should cohabit on the even days from the 4th day after the appearance of menses and if he cohabits on uneven days a female child is born. Hir. gṛ.⁴⁷⁵ I. 7. 24. 8 (S. B. E. vol. 30 p. 199) and Bhāradvāja gṛ. (I. 20) prescribe that a woman in her menses who takes a bath on the 4th day should attire herself in white (or pure) clothes, should ornament herself and talk with (worthy) brāhmaṇas (only). The Vaik. (III. 9) further adds that she should anoint herself with unguents, should not converse with a woman, or a śūdra, should see no one else except her husband, since the child born becomes like the male whom a woman taking a bath after the period looks at. Śaṅkha-Likhita convey a similar eugenic suggestion,⁴⁷⁶ viz. 'Women give birth to a child similar in qualities to him on whomsoever their heart is set in their periods.'

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⁴⁷³ चतुर्थिप्रभृत्याषोडशीमुत्तरामुत्तरां युग्मां प्रजानिश्रेयसमृतुगमन इत्युपदिशन्ति। आप. गृ. सू. 9. 1, S. B. E. vol 30 p. 268.

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⁴⁷⁴ यत्तु गर्भाधानमधिकृत्य हारीतेनोक्तं चतुर्थेऽह्नि स्नातायां युग्मासु चेति तच्चतुर्थोऽह्नि रजोनिबृत्तौ द्रष्टव्यम्। स्मृतिच० I. p. 15; एतदेवाभिप्रेत्य कात्यायनः। रजस्वला चतुर्थेऽह्नि स्नानाच्छुद्धिमवाप्नुयात्। इति, quoted in स्मृतिचन्द्रिका I. p. 15; स्नाता रजस्वला या तु चतुर्थेऽहनि शुध्यति। कुर्याद्रजोनिबृत्तौ तु दैवपित्र्यादिकर्म च ॥ पराशर VII. 17; गर्भाधानं द्विजः कुर्यादृतौ प्रथम एव हि । चतुर्थे दिवसादूर्ध्वं पुत्रार्थी दिवसे समे ॥ लघ्वाश्व. III. 1.

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⁴⁷⁵ चतुर्थ्यां स्नातां प्रयतवस्त्रां ब्राह्मणसंभाषां ...... भारद्वाजगृह्य I 20 ; स्नात्वा श्वेतवस्त्रानुलेपना स्त्रीशूद्राभ्यामनाभाष्यापरमदृष्ट्वा भर्तारं पश्येद्यस्मादृतुस्नाता यादृशं पुरुषं पश्येत्तादृशी प्रजा भवति । वैखानसस्मार्तसूत्र III. 9.

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⁴⁷⁶ यस्मिन् भावोऽर्पितः स्त्रीणामार्तवे तच्छीलं जनयन्ति यथा नीलवृषेण नीलवृषवत्सप्रभवः श्वेतेन श्वेत एव जायते । शङ्खलिखित quoted in स्मृतिच० (व्यव. p. 241) and वि. र. p. 441.

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A debatable question is whether garbhādhāna is a saṁskāra of the garbha (the child in the womb) or of the woman. Gaut. VIII. 24, Manu. I. 16, and Yāj. I. 10 indicate that it is a saṁskāra of the *garbha* and not of the woman. Viśvarūpa⁴⁷⁷ on Yāj. I. 11 expressly asserts that all saṁskāras except *Sīmantonnayana* have to be performed again and again (as they are the saṁskāras of the garbha), while Sīmantonnayana being a saṁskāra of the woman has to be performed only once and this opinion was in consonance with the usage in his days. Laghu-Āśvalāyana (IV. 17) also holds the same view. Medhātithi⁴⁷⁸ on Manu II. 16 says that the garbhādhāna rite with mantras was performed after marriage only once at the time of the first cohabitation according to some, while according to others it was to be performed after every menstruation till conception. Later works like the Mit. (on Yāj. I. 11), the Sm. C., the Saṁskāratattva (p. 909) hold that garbhādhāna, puṁsavana⁴⁷⁹ and sīmantonnayana are saṁskāras of the woman and are to be performed only once and quote Hārīta in support. Aparārka holds that sīmantonnayana is performed only once at the first conception, while puṁsavana is repeated at each conception. He relies on Pār. gṛ. I. 15; and the Saṁskāra-mayūkha and the Saṁskāraprakāśa (pp. 170-171) hold the same opinion. Sm. C. (I. p. 17) quotes a verse of Viṣṇu that according to some even sīmantonnayana is repeated at each conception. About the rules for women who are *rajasvalā* (in their monthly course) vide later on.

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⁴⁷⁷ प्रतिगर्भ चापसीमन्तोन्नयनाः प्रवर्तन्ते । तस्य स्त्रीसंस्कारत्वात् । ...गर्भाधानं त्वर्थादेवावर्तते । लिङ्गाच्च पुंसवनम् । ...एवं च समाचारादुग्रहः । विश्वरूप on या. I. 11.

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⁴⁷⁸ गर्भाधानं च विवाहादनन्तरं प्रथमोपगमे विष्णुर्योनिं कल्पयत्विति मन्त्रवत्केषांचिद्विहितम् । परेषामागर्भग्रहणमातृतु । मेधा. on मनु II. 16.

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⁴⁷⁹ देवलः। सकृच्च संस्कृता नारी सर्वगर्भेषु संस्कृता। तेन गर्भाधानपुंसवनसीमन्तोन्नयनानि सकृदेव कर्तव्यानि। संस्कारतत्त्व of रघुनन्दन (p. 909); हारीतः। सकृत्संस्कृतसंस्काराः सीमन्तेन द्विजस्त्रियः। यं यं गर्भं प्रसूयन्ते स सर्वः संस्कृतो भवेत्॥ अपरार्क p. 25 and स्मृतिच० I. p. 17; vide मिता. on या. I. 11 where a full verse of देवल is quoted, which combines the latter half of हारीत with the half verse of देवल quoted above.

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According to Kullūka (on Manu II. 27), the Sm. C. (I. p. 14) and other works garbhādhāna is not of the nature of *homa*. The Dharmasindhu says that when garbhādhāna takes place on the first appearance of menses, homa for garbhādhāna is to be performed in the gṛhya fire, but there is no homa when the cohabitation takes place on the second or later appearance of menses; that those in whose sūtra no homa is prescribed should perform the garbhādhāna rite on the proper day after the first appearance of menses by reciting the mantras but without homa. The Saṁskārakaustubha (p. 59) relying on Gṛhyapariśiṣṭa prescribes homa in which cooked food is to be offered to Prajāpati and seven offerings of ājya are to be offered in fire, three with the verses 'Viṣṇur-yonim' (Ṛg. X. 184. 1-3), three with 'nejameṣa' (Āp. M. S. I. 12. 7-9) and one with Ṛg. X. 121. 10 (prajāpate na).

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All saṁskāras other than garbhādhāna can be performed by any agnate in the absence of the husband (vide Saṁskāraprakāśa⁴⁸⁰ p. 165).

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⁴⁸⁰ 'ब्रह्मपुराणम्। गर्भाधानादिसंस्कर्ता पिता श्रेष्ठतमः स्मृतः। अभावे स्वकुलीनः स्याद् बान्धवो वान्यगोत्रजः॥ ... ... आर्यावर्तसमुद्भूतः स्वशाखी (स्वशाखी?) श्रेष्ठ उच्यते।' संस्कारप्रकाश p. 165; तत्र वृद्धगर्गः। पिता पितामहो भ्राता ज्ञातयो गोत्रजाग्रजाः। उपायनेऽधिकारी स्यात्पूर्वाभावे परः परः॥ पितैवोपनयेत्पुत्रं तदभावे पितुः पिता। तदभावे पितुर्भाता तदभावे तु सोदरः। इति पितामहस्मरणात्। संस्कारप्रकाश p. 407. In the निर्णयसिन्धु (III पूर्वार्ध) the verse पिता पितामहो is ascribed to वृद्धमनु.

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As homa is necessary in numerous ceremonies and rites, the gṛhyasūtras give a description of a model homa. Therefore here also it would be well to set out the description from the Āśvalāyana ⁴⁸¹ Gṛhyasūtra (I. 3, S. B. E. vol 29 pp. 162-163), a few important points of difference being added from other gṛhyasūtras and other works.

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⁴⁸¹ Vide Appendix for the text of आश्व. गृ. I. 3.

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" Now wherever (a person) intends ⁴⁸² to offer a sacrifice he should besmear (with cowdung) a *sthaṇḍila* (a slightly raised square surface of sand or loose earth) of the dimension at least of an arrow on all (four) sides; let him then draw six lines (in all) on it, one to the west (of that part of the sthaṇḍila on which the fire is to be placed) but turned northwards, two lines turned towards the east but separately at the two ends (of the line first drawn); (then he should draw) three lines in the middle (of the two); let him then sprinkle (the sacred sthaṇḍila) with water, establish the (sacred) fire (on the sthaṇḍila), put (two or three samidhs) on the fire; then he should perform *parisamūhana* (i. e. wiping or sweeping the ground round the fire), then paristaraṇa (i. e. strewing darbha grass round) to the east, to the south, to the west, to the north (in order); in this way (all acts like parisamūhana, paristaraṇa &c.) should end in the north. Then silently he should sprinkle (water) round (the fire). (2) With two (kuśa blades used as) strainers (pavitra) the purifying of the ājya is done. (3) Having⁴⁸³ taken two kuśa blades with unbroken ends, which do not bear a young shoot in them, of the measure of a span, at their ends with his thumb and fourth finger, with hands turned the inside being upwards, he purifies the ājya (from the west) towards the east with (the words) 'by the urging of Savitṛ I purify thee with this uninjured *pavitra*, with the rays of the Vasu (i. e. rich or good) sun', once with this mantra, twice silently. (4) The strewing of kuśa grass (*paristaraṇa*) round the fire may or may not be done in the ājya homas (i. e. sacrifices in which clarified butter alone is to be offered into the fire). (5) So also the two ājya portions (may optionally be offered) in the Pākayajñas. (6) And (the employment in all Pākayajñas) of the brahmā priest is optional except in the Dhanvantari sacrifice and Śūlagava sacrifice. (7) He should offer the sacrifice with the words 'to such and such a deity, svāhā'. (8) If there is no specific direction (as to the deities to whom the offerings are to be made), the deities are Agni, Indra, Prajāpati, Viśve Devas (all gods), Brahmā.⁴⁸⁴ At the end there is an offering to Agni Sviṣṭakṛt (vide Appendix under note 481 for the mantra).

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